CONTENTS: Thoughtful terms: 1. Acculturation 2. Agoraphobia 3. Anthropology 4. Block level studies 5. Building Use 6. Central Business District 7.City Beautiful 8. City Center 9. Density 10. Development Plan 11. Diagram 12. Economic Base 13. Edges 14. Entourage 15. Figure-ground Studies 16. Fringe 17. FSI / FAR (Floor Space Index / Floor Area Ratio) 18. Garden City 19. Gentrification 20. Heritage 21. Hypothesis 22. Land Use 23. Landmarks 24. Landscape Grain 25. Morphology 26. Neighbourhood 27. Nodes 28. Palimpsest 29. Pedestrianisation 30. Perspective Plan 31. Public Place 32. Public Realm 33. Public Space 34. Revitalization 35. Schema 36. Spatiality 37. Structure Plan 38. TDR (Transfer of Development Rights) 39. Theory 40. Tissue 41. Traditional and Vernacular 42. Travel-time Grid 43. Typology and Type 44. Urban 45. Urban Block 46. Urban Conservation 47. Urban Design 48. Urban Ecology 49. Urban Form 50. Urban Grain 51. Urban Insert 52. Urban Renewal 53. Urban Transformation 54. Urbanism 55. Urbanist 56. Urbanity 57. Urbanization 58. Zoning 59. New Urbanism 60. Post modern urbanism 61.Urban village 62. Necropolis 1. ACCULTURATION 1. The modification of the culture of a group or individual as a result of contact with a different culture. 2. The process by which the culture of a particular society is instilled in a human from infancy onward. The Oxford English Dictionary states that acculturation means to assimilate or cause to assimilate a different culture, typically the dominant one. It could also be defined as the process of assimilating new ideas into an existing cognitive structure. The old and the new additional definitions have a boundary that blurs in modern multicultural societies, where a child of an immigrant family might be encouraged to acculturate both the dominant also well as the ancestral culture, either of which may be considered "foreign", but in fact, they are both integral parts of the child's development. The process is asymmetrical and the result is the (usually partial) absorption of one culture into the other. The usage of the term dates from the late 19th century. Culture changes result from contact among various societies over time. Contact may have distinct results, such as the borrowing of certain traits by one culture from another, or the relative fusion of separate cultures. Interactions with other peoples have, in fact, always been a significant feature of social life. Early studies of contact called attention to resulting social and individual psychological disturbances. Studies today often call attention to the development of one complex world system, in which some societies dominate others economically, politically, and socially. Many cultural theorists also observe the ways in which cultural groups resist domination, often working against acculturation in the process. All culture is learned. No one is born with a particular culture imprinted on his or her soul. Acculturation is the process by which an individual or group changes their cultural patterns by adapting to or borrowing from another culture. Four basic styles of acculturation can be spoken of: Assimilation: Characterized by a high degree of participation in the new culture and a rejection of the original cultural identity Integration: Characterized by a high degree of participation in the new culture while maintaining the original cultural identity Separation: Characterized by a low degree of participation in the new culture and maintenance of the original cultural identity. Marginalization: Characterized by a low degree of participation in the new culture and rejection of the original cultural identity. Readings: - Hobson, Archie; Oxford English Dictionary of Difficult Words; Oxford University Press; New York; 2002. - Internet Sources: http://www.wikipedia.com (Wikipedia), http://www.encyclopedia.com (Encyclopedia.com), http://www.m-w.com (Merriam-webster online), http://dictionary.com (Dictionary.com) 2. AGORAPHOBIA Agoraphobia has long been understood to be the fear of “open spaces”. However, recent studies attest the incompleteness and the misconception associated with the same definition. Agoraphobics are not necessarily afraid of „open spaces‟. They are primarily driven by internal anxieties, which may begin, to surface in the form of panic behaviour at places that may not essentially be „open‟ but are nonetheless „public‟. The behaviour is largely „avoidant‟ and with increased „attacks‟, the sufferers begin to remain at home and not necessarily communicate or engage in meetings with others in places, which are „crowded‟ or are atleast „open to public‟. In Europe, the medical practitioners associate the same with the fear of entering shops, crowds, and public places, or of travelling alone in trains, buses, or planes. Although the severity of the anxiety and the extent of avoidance behaviour are variable, this is the most incapacitating of the phobic disorders and some sufferers become completely housebound; while many are terrified by the thought of collapsing and being left helpless in public. 3. ANTHROPOLOGY Anthropology is composed of the Latin words „anthropos‟ which means man and „logos‟ which means science. Anthropology is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as the study of humankind in particular. Simply stated, anthropology is the study of man and his cultures; or of man in his totality. This is a modern and relatively new discipline. It also shares its objectives with other physical and social sciences. Anthropology could be broadly classified as: Physical anthropology: where man is viewed as a biological organism. Cultural anthropology: where man is viewed as an animal of culture. In this regard, studies of archaeology, linguistics and ethnology comprise cultural anthropology. Ethnology: where the racial and cultural distributions of man are studies. Applied Anthropology: where applications of the findings of the study are applied. Also, a classification of anthropology known as Urban Anthropology exists. Studies in this field began shortly before World War 2. According to this division of academics, cities are important research locales. Anthropology is able to make important methodological and theoretical contributions to the study of urban places. Urban anthropology is of three varieties: Anthropology of urbanism: This has a holistic approach and a crosscultural perspective. Robert Redfield (1941): as folk communities evolved into urban societies, they changed from small, self-contained, isolated, highly personalized, religious and traditional social locales into large, heterogeneous, impersonal, scalar and innovative social milieus. Urban anthropologists investigate the cultural roles played by cities on their societies, and they crossculturally analyze cities with distinctive physical forms and internal social organization. Anthropology of urban poverty: This line of urban research maintains greater continuity with traditional anthropological methods than does the anthropology of urbanism. Study of ghetto populations, urban ethnic sub cultures, and poverty-induced urban social adaptations allows the traditional intensive and small-scale methods of tribal or peasant anthropology to be redefined in a city context. This anthropology sees the city reflected through the ghetto and views urban man mirrored in the customs of the poor. However, this urban anthropology studies the city via the ghetto and often never moves beyond the poverty or ethnic enclave. Anthropology of urbanization: This form of urban anthropology comes from the contemporary large scale physical movement of rural peoples to cities and the adaptations of these immigrant populations to the new urban environment. Here, the city represents a distinct arena of social arrangements and lifestyles to which the immigrant must accommodate at least so long as he interacts within the urban sphere, this anthropology of urbanization emphasizes the altered social structure, interpersonal ties, associational life, and ethnic or tribal identity that develop as tribesman or peasant becomes urbanite. These studies also most often continue the nature of anthropology‟s traditional methods and units of study. A complete urban anthropology requires a combination of the urbanism, urban poverty and urbanization approaches into a general framework for the analysis of cities. Readings: - Haviland, William A.; Anthropology; Holt, Rinehart & Wilson; New York; 1979. Majumdar, D.N.; Introduction to Social Anthropology; National Publishing House; New Delhi; 1990 - Fox, Richard G.; Urban Anthropology: Cities in Their Cultural Settings; Prentice Hall International Ltd.; 1977. - Evans, Pritchard; Social Anthropology; Cohen & West Co.; London; 1962. Bock, Philip K.; Modern Cultural Anthropology: An Introduction; Alfred A. Knopf Inc.; New York; 1969. - Vidyarthi, L.P.; Aspects of Social Anthropology In India; Classical Publishing House; New Delhi; 1980. - Levi-Strauss, Claude; Structural Anthropology; Penguin Books Ltd.; London; 1986. - Narayanan, Shriram; Indian Anthropology; Gian Publishing House; Delhi; 1988. Adam Southall; Urban Anthropology: Cross-Cultural Studies of Urbanization; Oxford University Press; New York; 1974. - Donald Hardesty; Ecological Anthropology; John Wiley & Sons; New York; 1977. - Stein & Rowe; Physical Anthropology; McGraw Hill Publishers; New York; 1974. Hobson, Archie; Oxford English Dictionary of Difficult Words; Oxford University Press; New York; 2002. While plans and sections are useful at tissue level. Although applicable to any city. Toronto. 5. while city centre is located near the geogOlphic heart of the city. This gives a more detailed and better understanding of urban activities pertaining to individual buildings.) The CBD or downtown is the central district of a city. This system of landuse is more superficial. etc. The term city centre (or center city) is similar to CBD or downtown in that both serve the same purpose for the city. South Africa and New Zealand.: residential. Downtown is the usual term in North America. Examples of a city centre can be found in Philadelphia. the term is often just shortened to the single word "city" in general conversation among residents of a city. and both are seen by a higher-thanusual urban density as well as the often having the tallest buildings in a city. Uptown is a district nearly adjacent to downtown. residential – institutional. industrial and mixed types such as residential – commercial. and Hennepin Ave. BLOCK LEVEL STUDIES The study of urban form in terms of relationship between building blocks and streets is defined as Block level studies. Sydney. CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT and CITY CENTRE Central business district (CBD) and downtown are terms referring to the commercial heart of a city. London. but the term city centre is much more common in colloquial usage. isometric and bird‟s eye perspective are useful for block level studies. In the United Kingdom. BUILDING USE The categorization of building as per its activities i.4. Australia. and denotes activity areas at a larger scale such as that of the entire city. It does not also take into consideration the stacking of various floors in a building. Pittsburgh. in which a single carpet coloring denotes the activities. usually typified by a concentration of retail and commercial buildings.e. axonometric. institutional. and other cities. wherein multiple activities can be accommodated. both terms usually refer to larger cities. Some cities have a mixed-use district known as uptown near the downtown area (in Minneapolis. City centre differs from downtown in that downtown can be geographically located anywhere in a city. Baltimore. Houston. Therefore at an urban design level it is more critical to use the term „building use‟ rather than „landuse‟. giving rise to the phrase "going to the city". In the United Kingdom. South Africa and New Zealand the term "central business district" is used by geographers and sometimes by others. for example. Boston. commercial – industrial. Unlike the system of landuse. 6 and 8. commercial. Australia. Hence the building plans can be coded likewise. This differs from the tissue level studies as it involves relationship between building and street. based on zoning. London . centered around the Uptown Theater on the intersection of Lagoon St. and the medieval City of Westminster. Urban design guidelines for proposed CBD at SUSMhalunge. no details of publisher available.40954 K. articulated plan with generous open spaces.C. Marketing of Bandra-Kurla complex as an alternative CBD for Metropolis (School of Planning. especially in the United States) . It contains the greatest proportion of the settlement's offices · It has the highest land values of the region · It attracts people from outside its sphere of influence to work and spend money inside · It is advancing into new areas (assimilation) and/or losing old commercial functions (discard) References INTERNET SOURCES: http://www. library. .effectively has two city centers rolled into one. The first widespread exposition towards the objectives was seen in the Chicago World Fair and its “White City” in the year 1893. http://www. A CBD is likely to have many of the following characteristics: . 13259) Unpublished Thesis Negi Vidya B.m-w. trees. com). It features vertical zoning .encyclopedia. .com (Wikipedia).com (Encyclopedia. It contains the major retail outlets (though this is becoming less often the case. …Far nobler than the nobler towns of our many farming regions.com (Merriam-webster online). namely the Roman City of London. It is the geographical center of the settlement . CEPT) Deshpande Dnyanesh H. http://www. Similar activities within it are concentrated in certain areas (functional zoning) . UD 711. THE CITY BEAUTIFUL (1890 to the Great Depression) A certain wave towards an improvement in the „civic planning‟ and for the „beautification‟ of the city had swept America in the late 19 th century. regular cornice lines. It has a distinct land use pattern that can be delimited from the rest of the settlement.com(Dictionary. http://dictionary. CEPT) 7. primarily concerned with the creation of „handsome works of civic art‟ underlined with deeper and more rooted social concerns.R. It has the greatest concentration and number of pedestrians and traffic in general .com) 1300"5 Concept plan: Sub CBD Shahdara (CEPT.wikipedia. It is a focal point for transport . The driving force being “…a new hope and a fresh image for our cities. Pune (School of Urban design. …Influential enough to displace the ugliness of our large industrial towns” The movement was thus. The visitors witnessed „orderly. It contains the settlement's main public buildings . left its most expansive mark in the town of Washington D. 1974. Mc GrawHill Book Company. and other bodies of water”: all in all.Spreiregen. Paul. It is expressed as square meter or square feet. DENSITY In the case of residential development.canals. New York. Housing area denseness or number of persons per unit of built up area or room.C where the centralized government supported the „urban visions‟ of the Macmillan Commission. London. Floor Space Rate:The ratio of floor space to the number of inhabitants in a dwelling units or group of dwelling units. parkways. Thames and Hudson.. The City Shaped: Urban Patterns and Meanings through History. In other words. external corridor. Urban Design: Architecture of Towns and Cities. divided by the area in acres. civic centers and „civic ornaments‟ like approach bridges and entrances. It is expressed as person per acre. 1991. It is expressed as person per habitable room or floor space in square meter of feet. A more emphatic move in this direction was however. Encyclopaedia of Urban Planning. 1965. a representation which was indicative of the manner in which a „city could be re-planned‟. landings. boulevards. Augustus St. Mc GrawHill Inc. focal points. . .Kostof. It mayor may not be equipped with individual facilities for bathing or toilet. A group (Macmillan Commission) was formed to prepare a plan for the improvement of Central Washington. The total number of person to be accommodates in the housing area. it was strictly in the „public domain that the movement could exert any influence‟. . 'Of floor space per person. Gaudens and Frederick Law Olmstead. a measurement of either the number of habitat rooms per hectare or number of dwelling per hector constitutes density. Inspiration was largely the more „orderly‟ European towns dotted with classical design imprints complete with „directional axes. Etc.Whattick. and reflective pools‟. and the same was constituted by country‟s foremost artists including Daniel Burnham. It. malls. however. Readings: .. 9. veranda.C. waterfronts. made in 1901 when the American Institute of Architects (AIA) held a national conference on „city beautification‟ in Washington D. Unfortunately the „City Beautiful Movement‟ failed to markedly change the civic structure of great many American towns primarily because it failed to gain substantial political patronage. Elsewhere the movement intervened in the open „fragments‟ of the city…public parks. ottas. Spiro. Floor Space:The total floor area of dwelling unites measured inside the external and party wall. internal stairs. Arcnold Ed. Dwelling Unit: A House or part of house occupied as the living quarters of one family or household. New York. excluding common stairs. Housing Area Ratio:The total space with in the housing area divided by the housing in square mt. Development Plan: I) As soon as may be after the constitution of an area development authority for any development are a under section-5. etc. activity patterns. traffic flow.. Stan Allen Diagrammatic approach: design method based on diagrams. Diagrammatic practice multiplies signifying processes of design. (Density And Its Living Condition). Readings: Gujarat town planning and urban development Act. allowing integrating different information and multiple orders into process of developing new ideas. B. information prepared for diagrammatic approach to urban design. 976. 10. (Development plan) wikipedia dictionary. site conditions. an offer appointed by the state Government in this behalf may prepare and submit to State Government in the prescribed manner a draft development plan and recover the cost there of from such area development authority out of its funds. Google search. 11. Readings: - RA-TH-0019. a formal abstraction of given complex reality. Manner of preparation of draft development plan: The draft development plan shall be on a scale not lower then eight meters to a centimeter and shall show in distinguish prescribed colors the area or site and the use to which they are proposed for.) Google search (Density) wikipedia dictionary. extend. form time to time. after the declaration of such area as a development area or within such time as the State Government may. elusive abstract form that generates and structures the design. Lootsma Diagrams: set of operative information with relevant information describing context forces. a draft development plan for the whole or any part of development area in accordance with the provisions of this act. by any area development authority with in the period specified in sub-sec. conceptual input-output device. or with in the period extended under that sub-section. Thinking with diagrams in Urban design . Thakore Valmik M. prepare and submit to the state Government. 2) In draft development plan is not prepared and submitted to the state Government.D. It is expressed to two pJaces of decimals. (1970 A. DEVELOPMENT PLAN Document (a structure or a local plan) that seats out in writing and/or in maps and diagrams a local planning authority's policies and proposals for the development and use of land and buildings in the authority's area. DIAGRAM Diagram: integrating form of notation. boundary conditions. J * City as a diagram . They also present symbolic representations and forces that the designer must consider.2002 248 pages Maps & diagrams by Ruther F. For example. building blocks and streets and with their topological relations. He also argues that drawings are more than just a convenient strategy for solving design problems and that they are "the designer's principal means of thinking". In the early design processes." A diagram thus governs and transforms the meanings of verbal statement into a graphic context to solve design problems. shape. According to Ervin. The ability to "diagram" a context depends on designers' knowledge of related issues in a setting. Design diagrams convey configurations. · According to Rowe diagrams are used to establish guidelines or rules that help the designer plan andprepare for subsequent exploration. conveys the physical influence of certain demands or forces is a diagram" Readings: Use of diagram by Christopher Alexander Designing the City: Towards a More Sustainable Urban Form. Design drawing is thus an iterative and interactive act involving recording ideas. Diagramming can be used to explore variations of design problems and it allows our mind to "see. and thereby finding new forms and adapting them into the design. and communicating with others. shape and tone and using design "rules" to develop the design. adjacencies. Hildebrand W Frey . They are a means to express functions. The symbols typically convey spatial characteristics. analyze and synthesize ideas. the urban design begins with a diagram of elements of urban forms such as plaza. and orientations of physical elements. and the hierarchy of those functions. for example. designers draw diagrams and sketches to explore ideas and solutions and communicate their thinking through the "act of drawing". then adds details: such as size. the relationships between functions. connections. A "diagram" thus acts as an abstract graphic language. size. He argued that the use of diagram in designing is a sequence of refinement. placing vertical elements to define the street plaza.Diagrams are "primary forms of representation" in design. comprehend and respond" to more visual information than we can remember from verbal notes.Political Science . Diagrams are an important tool in the process of urban design and act as means for design development. Hence even the most abstract design diagrams are early efforts to explore and resolve spatial layout concerns.1999 ." He describes design as matching program requirements with corresponding diagrams argue "any pattern which. · Diagrams are drawn to focus design knowledge and present points of concern.Political Science .176 pages Urban & Regional Planning by Peter Geoffrey Hall . by being abstracted from a real situation. a diagram deals with organizing principles and relations between physical elements. For example. topology. Diagrams are also used to explore. and connections. a 'bubble diagram' represents functional spaces in a floor plan with rough sizes." and the end product is "a tree of diagrams. position. Diagrams transform verbal notation to an abstract graphic representation. "Graphic Thinking" is a guide to making drawings for working out problems. recognizing functions and meanings in the drawings. He describes a diagram as an analytic statement that may be a "composite of graphic marks and written notes. According to Christopher Alexander diagram is the "starting point of synthesis. generated by many diverse factors. 1956a. There is strong relationship between technological changes in the economic production and structural changes in the quality and production of urban spaces." Tiebout. ECONOMIC BASE Information about an area's future population is incomplete without a parallel understanding of the local economy that largely shapes its future. References ." Land Economics 29: 161-167. In times of economic trouble. Hence. therefore. and individuals. restaurants. its products are consumed locally. as it has been in the Seattle Metropolitan Area for the past several years. E."Mechanics of the Urban Economic Base Andrews. urban design is an effective tool that advances the quality of the urban environment. g A local grocery store sells its goods to local households. . In this context. regional and international image of countries and sets the stage for all economic activity. These have initiated and provided for lifestyle changes and a new urban environment. . Cities are extremely complex mechanisms. There has been major alteration in the land use and the Ownership patterns owing to the manifestation of new economic forces. 1953: Historical Development of the Base Concept. The non-basic sector. Manufacturing and local resource-oriented firms (like logging or mining) are usually considered to be basic sector firms because their fortunes depend largely upon non-local factors. Looking at them from one hand. Its clientele is locally based and. in contrast. Charles M.12. There is a competition prevailing between the countries that are seeking to get a larger piece from the global economy. they usually export their goods. Therefore the quality of the built environment is the key factor that significantly affects local. businesses. If the local economy is strong. Economic Base asserts that the means of strengthening and growing the local economy is to develop and enhance the basic sector. an area often will experience a loss in population. The basic sector is therefore identified as the "engine" of the local economy. is composed of those firms that depend largely upon local business conditions. and drug stores) are identified as nonbasic because they depend almost entirely on local factors. Land Economics 31: 9599. builds and sells large airplanes to companies and countries located throughout the world. though. Richard B. This sector is made up of local businesses (Firms) that are entirely dependent upon external factors. they are the outcome of economic and fiscal forces continuously at work in the society. Basic Sector."The Urban Economic Base Reconsidered.a direct result of a stagnant economy. Non-basic Sector. population growth is usually fast. Almost all local services (like drycleaners. considerations of economical factors are paramount in the evolution of strong urban design.g. E. Definition: Economic Base can be defined as a theory for understanding the local economy that breaks that economy into a basic and a non-basic sector. where surrounding refers to context and important activities it caters to. A very fundamental notion…” – Christopher Alexander. In urban design this word can be used in association with an important or famous building vis-à-vis its surroundings. ” When it is properly made.. They are lateral references rather than coordinate axis: Lynch Kevin. or map user. ed. FIGURE GROUND STUDIES An effectively designed map is one in which the intended message is clearly communicated to the percipient. River edge. Michael H. articulation and good contour. street edge etc. Journal of the American Institute of Planners 21: 114:132. Edges may also define boundaries between two domains or entities.- - "The Economic Base of American Cities" Ullman. 14. centrality. E. ENTOURAGE The dictionary defines „entourage‟ as a group of people accompanying an important or famous person. Edward L. In addition. and Harold Brodsky. 1971. encourages the formation of the groups which cross the boundary. or they may be seam lines along the two domains. by considering the intended intellectual hierarchy. a viewer can easily distinguish between the main figure on a map and the background information. encourage movement which starts on one side and ends on the other and allow activity to be either on or in the boundary itself. or the order of importance of each map . Rev. Dacey. By employing the concept of figure-ground. 13. Seattle: University of Washington Press. such an edge is a realm between the realms." Blumenfeld. Such edges maybe a barrier more or less penetrable.g. EDGES “Edges are linear elements not used or considered as paths by the observer. 1955. Hans. 15. which closes one region from another. Several concepts that are key to developing good figure-ground in any cartographic design are differentiation. "The Economic Base of a Community. It increases the connection between the inside and the outside. closed form. drawing attention to the most important objects first (Dent. One common example of using articulation on a map is differentiating a continent from the ocean. contour sharpness is can be adjusted (Dent. 1972). By developing a visual hierarchy. or the inclusion of brightness gradients at the land-water edge. Good contour on the map can be described as the viewer's ability to continue the line throughout the map. The ocean. 1972). Both alignment and centering can be achieved through measurement or through visual approximation (Slocumet aI.2005). usually through a brightness contrast (MacEachren and Mistrick. Incorporation of closure on a map is important because percipients interpret the figure to be the object or objects in the map that are closed (Robinson et al. 1972). Other map elements can be centered in the remaining visual space after the figure has been centered. Articulation utilizes texture to differentiate figure from ground. there is a tendency for the percipient to complete or close unfinished objects. 1972). the author can develop a visual hierarchy on the map that corresponds appropriately. By adding fine-textured shading to water. The location and shape of central figures on a map can be adjusted by varying the scale. will be the ground and the continent will be the figure (Dent. the common boundary between the figure and ground.. 1972). 1972). Research in Figure-Ground Relationships Fields other than cartography. refers to the idea that some map features are more important than others. in most cases. a simple black contour line can be drawn around the figure enclosing it and thus differentiating it from the ground (Dent. the continent pops out visually as the figure (Head. By emphasizing the colors of important figures and fading out the colors on less important figures. 1993). If developed on the map correctly. Intellectual hierarchy. Additionally. the perceived distance between the two is increased. visual differentiation will lead to figure definition (Dent. The figure of emphasis should be centrally located and surrounded by areas of a different character with contrast that lessens ground importance visually and emphasized the main figure. 1995). projection.on the map. neurology. The placement on a map or the ordering of information will convey relative importance of map features to the percipient. Figure-Ground Cartographic Elements Differentiation is described as the ability to easily discriminate the main figure from the ground. also known as a scale of concepts (Monmonier. such as psvchologv. and computer science. Also by employing color contrasts.and format (Dent. This can be accomplished by designing the desired figure as visually heterogeneous and reducing the level of distraction caused by the ground.The concept of centrality is important because the object located in the center of a map is most often assumed to be the figure. By adding surface patterns or textures to the figure. 1972).element. the percipient can distinguish relative importance to map objects. Many . The figure is formed by contour. Another method that can be employed for articulation called is vignetting. have studied differentiation of figure from ground. the intellectual hierarchy will correspond to the visual hierarchy established.1992)~If a figure is not separated entirely from the ground. 1995) Thus. Readings: Petruccioli. 1981. Rofe. gorges etc. its historical development and management. City of Divine King: Urban Systems and Urban Architecture in Egypt. An Understanding of the City. Copenhagen. A Human Construct. Continuity and Disruption in the Typological Process of the Islamic Mediterranean Building Landscape. and orientations of test pictures to determine the best method for figure-ground design with mixed results. and economic structure. 1999. City – An Expression of Human Domain. School of Architecture. 17. Conzen. By studying the way humans perceive figure and ground.G.studies have employed different experiments. cit. Attilio. School of Architecture. Consolidation: Wherein the fringe is engulfed by the surrounding proliferating growth of residential and other nature (Conzen op.R. Ahmedabad. Durganand. June 1992. Derasari. Research Paper. and China. India. New York. Interestingly. Ahmedabad. M. Barnow. Nepal. 16. As A Process In Time. Mesopotamia. Examples include. demographic. because the „institutions‟ are less dependent on accessibility. 1998). FRINGE Fringe areas could be discussed as areas that lie beyond some natural or man-made boundaries. FSI/ FAR (Floor Space Index and Floor Area Ratio) . Italy. Snehal. identified as the following: Fixation (Conzen‟s fixation lines): A significant barrier. Balsavar. However. the fringes to any city mark significant changes in the mixture of new land-use types. methods can be developed to improve computer programmed machine vision (Nordlund. many of them tend to locate themselves in these „fringe-belts‟. Undergraduate Published Thesis. Expansion: Wherein the „uses within the fringe-belt‟ expand into the surrounding areas. A current application of figure-ground research is the development of computer vision for robots. School of Architecture. Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts. The morphology of towns in Britain during the Industrial Era: The urban landscape. Undergraduate Unpublished Thesis. similar to Lynch‟s edges. natural ravines. the aforementioned changes manifest themselves in terms of not ordinary residential accretions. that creates a marked discontinuity in land that must be overcome for the development of the city to go beyond. temporarily limiting the growth of the town. CEPT. but first by institutions. 2001. not yet desired for residential use. Academic Press. textures. 2000. Finn. the same too go through phases of change. the city wall. with changes in social. CEPT.. varying the shades. open spaces and country houses. the railway lines. public utilities. Polytechnic of Bari. In other words. which in turn would be encompassed by a permanent greenbelt of agriculture with farms and parks inhabiting 2. a series of wide tree shaded avenues and homes surrounded by greenery. transport. the non renewal of lease or occasionally. Because the food is produced there itself. the Town County magnet as a town in the countryside. John Agnew. The outermost ring constituted all the warehouses and factories. the harassment of tenants. Osborn . is surrounded by an agricultural belt which is reserved for farms and forests.The city in cultural context. expenses are minimal.He visualized his 'garden city‟. The town would be a closely-knit center for 30. the farmers receives a good price. The town would accommodate the residential and cultural activities. The central space is laid out into a beautiful garden and surrounding this all around are situated majestically the large public buildings.000 people. The town is divided into wards.david Sopher .000 acres of the Hempsted plain with the idea of creating a 'garden city'. GENTRIFICATION A process by which dilapidated subdivided dwellings or slum neighborhoods are taken over by the wealthy or their agents through purchase. Rolf Jensen . The agriculture also prevents the town from the expansion out into countryside and ensures that the citizens enjoy both the compact urban center and ample open countryside-all within easy reach.The Town Planning Movement. The 2000 farmers who live there supply the town with the bulk of its food. Surrounding the park is the Crystal Palace where manufactured goods are kept for sale and most other shopping is done.18. Howard‟s garden city was to be industrial and commercial with a balanced mixture of all social groups and levels of income. and then reconverted to expensive single-family housing. It occurs within the inner city because the wealthy wish to live near central city job and recreational . The houses have been accommodated in the outer internal space. functional zoning is basic. wide and forming an internal greenbelt. Further outward was to be the Grand Avenue. This splendid avenue would have public school and their playgrounds and churches. bought a track of over 7. References: . This zone plays an important role in the economy of the garden city.John Mercer. shops. In 1869 Alexander T Steward. schools and the open countryside. 420 ft. In 1903. a term adopted later by an English city planner Sir Ebenezer Howard .Cities of vision. All opening out in front of the railway line that connected with national railway. one of New York's leading merchants.Green belt cities.the first Garden city was established on Howard‟s plan 35 miles from London. Within the town. 19. and all are within easy reach of factories. all have individual gardens. GARDEN CITY Few communities in the United States were planned as a model towns from its beginning. Fredric J.000 people. The city is the healthiest in the nation. Sir Ebenezer Howard Britannica Encyclopedia. The garden city proper. A low density. Peter hall and Ulrich Pfeiftor Urban Studies. and other artifacts still useful in the contemporary context. the Indian Institute of World Culture. 1003-1017. PROTECTION AND Preservation of heritage. Asia Publishing House. The City in History.L. 39. Readings: . Legates and Federic Stout Urban Future. and the deduced facts should be able to be observed.V. buildings. memories and traditions become resources for present. therefore.12 Nov. Inter-India Publications. Its Origin.Lewis Mumford. . . nos 56. While a hypothesis can be partially confirmed by showing that what is deducted from it with certain initial conditions is actually found under those conditions.Dr. The context. that. 40.'opportunities.Bhowmik. It follows. the Indian Heritage. pg. Richard T. then we create the heritage that we require and man age if for a range of purpose defined by the needs and demands of our present societies.Humayun Kabir . . mythologies. an Anthology of Sanskrit Literature. HYPOTHESIS Something supposed or taken for granted. Readings: City Reader. Heritage does not engage directly with the study of the past. if heritage is the contemporary use of the past and if it's meaning are defined in present.Heritage as knowledge: capital or culture? Urban studies. as well as between cultures and trough time. The Indian Heritage. vol. political and cultural context. Gentrification is a reversal of the normal FILTERING PROCESS. HERITAGE Heritage itself is conceptualized as the meaning attached in the present to the past and is regarded as a knowledge defined within social. it cannot be completely proved in this way. 20. for it involves old substantial dwelling that usually filter down the social hierarchy but in this case get colonized and filtered back up. It is capable of being interpreted differently within anyone culture at anyone time. Instead it is concerned with the ways in which very selective material artifacts. Its transformation. 2003. with the object of following out of its consequences. vol. . . It is best learnt from the living oral traditions. 21. interpretations and representations of the resource are selected according to the demands of the present. But the initial condition should be able to be observed or to be produced experimentally. no.K.2002. The concepts involved in the hypothesis need not themselves refer to observable objects.Raghavan. the hypothesis may have to be given up or modified. If the predictions derived from the hypothesis are not found to be true. CEPT in planning. but zoning may also regulate land use. William Benton publisher.355-357. Image of the city . . which are experienced at a distance.The world book encyclopedia. which are places to entered and experienced from within. Some understand them as outstanding physical object with dominant architectonic physical characteristic while according to them they are manifested as buildings. Patterns of land use arise naturally in a culture through a customs and practices. Urban land use planning focuses the location of these activities and their spatial relationships with one another In the non-urban context land use assumes a resource -use context.Readings: . trade and commerce etc.Encyclopedia Britannica. . Readings: Lynch Kevin. land use refers to location of activities like industries. more likely to be chosen as significant if they have clear form.Kevin lynch. what time is this place? MIT press Cambridge. and if there is some prominence of spatial location.vol. 22. The latter describes the actual material present on surface of the earth e. Land use is 'often confused with land cover. nO. In Indian context.Paul k. vol. 7. and mining etc the focus of land use planning here is on the natural productive attributes of land like fertility mineral content etc. field enterprises educational corporation. obelisks. The activity associated with an element also makes it a landmark. . recreation. Asabere and Peter F. 12.com 23. bridges. LANDMARKS Landmarks are the points of reference. This refers to non urban activities like agriculture. land cover of forested area may be a certain species of trees while the primary use may be recreation. school of architecture.g.murugnandam. They are three-dimensional sculptural objects in contrast to nodes.MIT press S. Land marks become more easily identifiable. Landmark in the urban fabric: The physical and associational qualities. fisheries. Readings: Bimal patel. hosing. pg. Keywords www. 1992 . urban studies (1985)22. LAND USE The term land use refers to cultural use of land. if they contrast with their background.wikipedia. flyovers etc. undergraduate thesis. the relative lot size hypothesis: an empirical note. school of planning CEPT. Land use is a pattern of construction and activity used in the urban context.Colwell. towers. Conzen (Urban Morphology Research Group at the University of Birmingham). Saverio Muratori (the Italian School) and most recently the French School at Versailles founded by Philippe Panerai and Jean Castex. distributional and volumetric aspects. The Architecture of the City. Hall. 3. 1982. Urban Morphology 6 (1). Cataldi. David. 2002.R. Cambridge. although at different rates (the building/land use being most vulnerable while the street layout being the most resistant). LANDSCAPE GRAIN 25. Academy Editions. Towns and Buildings: described in drawings and words. the levels of resolution and specificity towards a more responsible „urban form‟ making. The relation between tradition and innovation and hence a pre-industrial and modern approach to „urban form‟ finds application in the „typological studies‟. Gian Luigi. Interstingly. Gauthiez.24. The most noteworthy schools of „Urban Morphology‟ are the ones started by M. Gosling. Aldo. The MIT Press. and the building form. A. Hence. No. the street.C. Rossi. Steen Eiler. b. Vol. 2. Massachusetts. The history of urban morphology. A morphological analysis wherein the urban form is understood historically since the aforementioned elements undergo change. Saverio Muratori and the Italian Planning Theory. Journal of Urban Design. A morphological analysis wherein the urban form is defined by three fundamental physical elements: the street. Concepts of Urban Design. Readings: Rasmussen. .. Paolo. MORPHOLOGY Morphology or „Urban Morphology‟ is defined by Carlo Aynomino as “the study of the built form considered from the point of view of its production in relation to the urban structure”. B. Specifically. 1997. A morphological analysis wherein the urban form is made to understand at different levels of resolution corresponding to the city. the block and the plot. and Vaccaro. Cambridge.. 1951. London. Urban Morphology 8(1). Bernard. It is to be noted here that importance to „urban from‟ is the result of its capacity to enable an „urban‟ system to be „read‟ and „analyzed‟ through the following: a. 2004. Maffei. The term essentially relates to the study of the form and structure of an urban set-up or a complex whole wherein the component parts are expectedly interrelated and interconnected. the typological approach is distinguished from all other Italian contributions by its classical concept of architecture as a tectonic system legitimized by its derivation of principles and rules from the practice of building and according to a strong integration of structural. The MIT Press. 1984. the Italian morphological tradition has always looked at tradition and innovation at par with each other. c. and Maitland.G. the block. Dealing with Incremental Change: An Application of Urban Morphology to Design Control. Giancarlo. Sir Patrick Abercrombie and l H Forshow in the County of London Plan. These principles influenced the preparation of plans for cities and towns during and immediately after the Second World War. Vivek. Kropf. Urban Morphology and the concept of type: a thematic and a comparative study of the urban tissue. a population for neighborhood units of between 6. School of Architecture. The desirable scholar capacity of the elementary school and the desirability of fixing a maximum walking distance from home to school make the latter the one suitable building on which base the size and arrangement of the neighborhood units.G. CEPT. community buildings and smaller amenity open spaces. A neighborhood geographically localized community located within a larger city or suburb. a school or schools. preferably near the school as well as local shops. University of Birmingham. a neighborhood is small enough that the neighbors are all able to know each other.R.000 and 10. Elwin Alexander. Nanda. planned. Urban Morphology: A taste of a form-oriented approach to the history of urban development. Moudon. preferably near the traffic junctions and adjacent to shops in other neighborhood. 26. An early exponent of the neighborhood theory was Clarence Arthur Perry who contributed a memorandum on the neighborhood unit to volume VII of the Regional Survey of New York and its Environs (New York 1929).000 persons. urban area related to the larger community of which it is a part and consisting of residential districts. shopping facilities. According to the authors. Each neighborhood would have a center. Real estate definition: An area of a . 1989. 2002. Kristjansdottir. Urban Morphology as an emerging interdisciplinary field. Koster. religious buildings. It was the intention that the children living in the neighborhood should not cross the main road. University of Birmingham. open spaces and perhaps a degree of service industry. advocated the neighborhood as a valuable unit in the planning of communities. 3-10. Urban Morphology 1. The integration of architectural and geographical concepts in urban morphology: preliminary thoughts. Among the features of this scheme was the provision of an elementary school and other institutions required by the residents .Conzen. 1997. Published Doctoral Student Thesis. Karl. UK. NEIGHBORHOOD/ NEIGHBORHOOD UNIT: An integrated. Undergraduate Published Thesis. provision of one or more shopping districts on the periphery of the unit. Sigriour. 2004. Traditionally. Gianfranco Caniggia. 2001. Urban Morphology Research Group. a street system designed to facilitate circulation within the unit but to discourage through traffic and arterial roads at the boundaries to facilitate bypassing of the unit. Urban Morphology 8(1). 1943. They decided that: The elementary school should be the determining factor in the size and organization of the subsidiary or neighborhood units and those communities in which large scale reconstruction is proposed. Ahmedabad. Oscar Wilde and Aesop: or why urban morphology may be right but not popular. M. Anne Vernez. Theorist Aldo Rossi considers it indispensable to study the persistence of traces from the past in the city of the present. from Greek palimpsestos. He believes that each urban fact has a complex individuality: a singular quality arising from the successive marks that history's changes have left in its space over time. Walter Benjamin is another theorist who backs the idea of -City as Palimpsest. It will be seen that the neighborhood unit is a persistent them of modem planning. to rub (away). 1974 Website: http://www. again + psen. Benjamin concluded that a phenomenon is better perceived the closer it is to disappearing. . In a historic landscape it may be possible to 'read' a whole series of past uses written over each other. Franz Hessel. They provide evidence of past people and their relationship with the environment. Readings: 1. from palin. Benjamin wonders how the obsolete. Palimpsest is from Latin palimpsestus. In a review on a book of walks through Berlin (Spazieren in Berlin). nineteenth-century figure of the Baudelairean has managed to be so belatedly reincarnated by the book's author. as described in the beginning of U The Architecture of the City". PALIMPSEST Palimpsest as a word is used for an object or a place whose older layers or aspects are apparent beneath its surface. The word is often referred to historic and archeological sites. a theme subject to many variations that provide a rewarding field of study. Sites can therefore be studied archaeologically. This idea of the city as a palimpsest where traces of heterogeneous times accumulate gives rise to images of great plasticity. Encyclopedia of Urban Planning.com/glossarv/realtv/html 27. The architecture of the city comes to be the testimony par excellence of daily life because in its fixity the vicissitudes of humankind are registered throughout time. scraped or rubbed again. This characteristic is often referred to as a 'palimpsest'. as well as providing the context for individual sites and monuments. a common atmosphere or a common business area. Sometimes it is possible to make out the traces of several previous incarnations lying behind the one that survives today. "Palimpsest" serves as a useful term for the ongoing process of the construction of cultural identity through layering of partial erasures and of partial superimpositions upon previous cultural realities. NODES 28. In his book Hessel strolls through the new Berlin seeking the trail of its old inhabitants precisely because the current architecture .edsamuel. McGraw Hill Book Company. Arnold. by analyzing the way in which features relate to each other. author of The Aztec Palimpsest.municipality that is identifiable by a common use. According to Daniel Cooper. Whittick. . England: The MIT Press. . The ruins of pagan temples have become the foundation of Christian churches.Rilke. translated by M.com .Benjamin. A. Walter.and city planning do not favor a way of life that leaves traces. Control and Repair. 1997).. The Notebooks of Malte Laurids Brigge. Many urban streets in the USA lack street lighting (lamp poles). Goagea. 1984).Q. based on the reasoning that cars have headlights to illuminate their own way.1992) · Constantin.J Only a man in whom modernity has already announced its presence. and Corinthian columns have become part of new walls. England:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press. Inc. Massachusetts and London. and Wickham-Jones. Rome as we find it is a supreme palimpsest..com . Herter Norton (New York:W. Dictlonuy http://www. Many urbanists have extolled the virtues of pedestrian streets in urban areas. one on top of the other. as Benjamin states: "The coming architecture is dominated by the idea of transparency ['. 2 (1927-'1934) (Cambridge. Aldo. The Arcades Project. . Rainer Maria.http://dictionary.artlex. ancient theaters have been made into medieval family fortresses. 1994) · Macinnes.Dictionary. and Brown. Daniel . Vol. .Rodolfo. Layers of the ages exist. About specters as Poetical periphery of the existence . All Natural Things: Archaeology and the Green Debate. especially to counteract newer developments where 20 to 30 percent do not include sidewalks. This policy severely restricts or effectively prohibits pedestrian traffic and contributes to excessive car use on short distance trips. (Clwyd County Council.reference. (Progressive Architecture November1976). Some activists advocate large auto-free zones where pedestrians only or pedestrians and some non-motorized vehicles are allowed. . can cast such an original and "early glance" at what has only just become old. Readings: . PEDESTRIANIZATION Efforts are underway by pedestrian advocacy groups to restore pedestrian access to new developments.Cooper. Old Buildings as Palimpsest. Erosion on Archaeological Earthworks: Its Prevention. translated by Howard Eiland and Kevin McLaughlin (Cambridge. Walter.Beery. Massachusetts and London. Machado. translated by Diane Ghirardo and Joan Ockman (Cambridge.Benjamin. . Norton Company. 1964) . Massachusetts and London. however quietly.Art . 1999). (Oxbow Monograph 21.Rossi. Selected Writings. The Architecture of the City. England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.com/ 29. 1999).W. D. L. The Aztec Palimpsest! Mexico in the Modem Imagination. or traversal of North America from coast to coast. Since the nineteenth century. interest in pedestrianism has dropped. These feats are often tied to charitable fundraising and have been achieved by celebrities such as Sir Jimmy Savile or Ian Botham as well as by people not otherwise in the public eye. Adj. often in conjunction with public transport enhancements.] A pedestrian is a person traveling on foot. During the 18th and19th centuries. a walker.com) . Some roads have special pedestrian crossings. Also some shopping streets are for pedestrians only.org/campaigns/reclaiming/) 30.Houghton Mufflin Company Dictionary. pedestr-. and there are roads not associated with a footpath. relating to. has been developed over the last 40 years principally due to the work of Danish architect Jan Gehl. 1. Pedestrian A person traveling on foot. pedestrianism was a popular spectator sport. from pedes.(http://www. in the United Kingdom. called the sidewalk in American English and the pavement in British English.In contrast pedestrian traffic is officially encouraged in some parts of the European Union and construction or separation of dedicated walking routes receives a high priority in most large European city centers. Undistinguished. pedestrians share the road with horses and vehicles whilst on others they are forbidden from using the road altogether. from pes.com) . going on foot. foot. which are used purely by pedestrians. whether walking or running. However. . In Copenhagen the world's longest pedestrian shopping area. [From Latin pedester. it fails to catch public attention in the way that it used to. 2. a pedestrian.(http://www. Of. On some of the latter. Although it is still an Olympic sport. Going or performed on foot: a pedestrian journey. the Stroget. roads often have a designated footpath attached especially for pedestrian traffic. References: .answers. the term mostly refers to someone walking on a road but this was not the case historically. PERSPECTIVE PLAN . pedestrians are still carrying out major walking feats such as the popular Land's End to John 0' Groats walk. hikers or hill-walkers. or made for pedestrians: a pedestrian bridge. There are also footpaths not associated with a road. 3.wikipedia. A bridge solely for pedestrians is a footbridge. Such footpaths in mountainous or forested areas are called trails. ordinary: pedestrian prose.transalt.(http://www. particularly ramblers. ped-. Nowadays. In modern times. Hence the concept of public places can be destinations. One is a familiar and chance encounter. The charter of public spaces here is freedom of action and the right to stay inactive.that support or facilitate public life and social interaction. Architectural Press. intenningling and communication and a stage for social learning. 32. religion. 1992. Burlington. actions and associations are revealed. public executions. in or characteristic of cities. 1999. public places urban spaces. open to all persons of. . But the distinction of purpose holds the fact that in public places we act in ways we cannot or do not in the private realm. Two aspects can be attributed to the concept of public places. riots.Mathew Carmona. PUBLIC PLACE A public place is a destination and a purpose built stage for rituals and interactions. Urban public realm: a methodology for analysis. which have been custom built to promote human contact as settings for functions. Readings: Spiro Kostoff. The reference is to places we all are free to use.31. It is in this realm that a range of activities takes place involving human interactions and social relations. Manish Sachdeva. Defined as the sites and settings of public life and including some notion of 'public space' the public realm ideally functions as a forum for political action and representation. personal development and infonnation exchange. London: Thames and Hudson limited. gatherings and rituals. Tim Health. They are themselves often defined by the private architecture of surrounding buildings. celebrations. Public places host structured or communal activities . the concept of "public realm" gains importance in urban situations as apart from a place for gathering and exchange.publicly or privately owned . Although these functions are rarely wholly attained in practice. ' Although public areas/spaces have always existed in any kind of human settlement. The fundamental aim of the public place is to ensconce community and to arbitrate social conflict. The city assembled. PUBLIC REALM In simple tenns public realm can be defined as 'an unrestricted field or sphere. 2003. Readings: . CEPT publications. their definition provides a measure of the degree to which 'real' public realms fall short of the ideal state. economics and politics between individuals and groups are raised and multiplicity of intentions. as a neutral or common ground for social interaction. Taner 0 C and Steven Tiesdell. The public realm has physical (space) and social (activity) dimensions. The second aspect is a ritual one. questions of ethnicity.festivals. It is a realm where. The public realm is understood here to mean the spaces and settings. restructurion.. including improvement of local community living conditions”. The term „revitalization‟ (or in American English „revitalization‟) is used in many fields dealing with urban structures development: town planning. regenerating and rehabilitation. Stone A. Rivlin L. sociology. whether the normal routines of daily life or in periodic festivities.- Manish Sachdeva. „Revitalization – the process of spatial. Generally referred as urban revitalization means bringing back life or „vitality‟ into areas of the city. Public space is a place where anyone has a right to come without being excluded because economic or social conditions (fees. Cambridge university press) ." the Latin word for „life. Francis M. Public space should entail a continuous urban topography.. The city of collective memory. and parks in an urban context.. squares. Its historical & Architectural perspective. Massachusetts. REVITALIZATION The heart of the word "revitalization" is "vita. Its appearance was preceded by many terms of a close but not identical meaning. We see public space as the common ground where people carry out the functional & ritual activities that bind a community.). Before 18th century it was designed as honorific place celebrating power of aristocracy where as the great political revolutions of the 18th & 19th century transformed this ritual conception into the democratic public sphere.. Revitalization is often described as a process of stimulating city spatial modifications/transitions – mainly of the functional and economic character – aiming at reversing degradation process and increasing city competitiveness. being poor .(Carr S. like: renewal. It also does not impose any time limitations. a spatial structure that covers both rich & poor places. monuments‟ conservation. CEPT publications. Public space. Cambridge. Revitalisation of city central areas can be characterized as a process of structural changes increasing activity and attractiveness of its space due to the coordinated strategies of private and public sectors . 33. London.) 34. and should include places for public assemblage & public debate as well as private memory walks & personal retreats... that might have lost such life. has traditionally meant streets. meaning places of public debate & gatherings where rational voice of the people could be heard. Christine. MIT Press. The notion of the public space has been changing. geography. 1999. which goal is to bring the revitalized area out of the crisis state and leading to its development. PUBLIC SPACE In general. paying an entrance. Urban public realm: a methodology for analysis. social and economical transitions. the definition of "public space". rebuild. permanent & short-lived forms.(Boyer. honorific & humble monuments. Readings: . STRUCTURE PLAN 38. or having the nature of space. Generally we perceive properties which may not be present.(Anna Wojnarowska.com 37. Thus schematization therefore is a process which never comes to close. and their importance is so great that may almost put a sign of equality between schema and perception. Readings: . SCHEMA A diagrammatic representation. an outline or model The word schema comes from the Greek word “skhēma” that means shape or more generally plan. we are forced to revise it. is one which might occur in a mountain valley or near a lakeshore. and consistent plans. In English literature. We understand that the schemata are formed during socialization. that the schema does not allow a sufficient intentional depth. In the case of Bombay it is a mechanism by which development rights are given as compensation to a plot owner whose land has been acquired. both schemas and schemata are used as the plural form of "schema". While a scheme refers to a loosely described plan.Readings: . and discover that our perception is wrong.Integrated Revitalization Programme PROREVITA for Lodz central areas) 35. as we usually are not conscious of our schemata.http://www. areas. for instance.wickipedia. distances and sizes. any property relating to or occupying space ii) Spatial scale provides a "shorthand" form for discussing relative lengths. London 1963 36.Spatial aspects of the revitalization process . We define a “schema” a typical stereotyped reaction to a situation that is as a typical attitude or a characteristic coherence system of intentional poles.wickipedia. relating to. involving. The owner can i) ii) . whereas a mega trend is one which involves the whole planet Readings: http://www.com .Norberg Schulz Christian: Intension in architecture – George Allen & Unwin ltd. When we discover that our reaction is unsatisfactory. well documented. SPATIALITY i) Of. A microclimate. a schema usually refers to specific. TDR: TRANSFER OF DEVELOPMENT RIGHTS A mechanism by which the development rights of a property are separated from the property and can be exercised and can be exercised else where. representative of the varying degrees of public intrusion or private revelry. where development is to be discouraged and is allowed to be used on a plot. whose overall form is seen in the light of three distinct levels of resolution: At the level of streets and blocks At the level of plots in the identified urban blocks.Lukachan. but not necessarily the most economical use. Nieswand H. At the level of building forms within the identified plots. which could then be put to other social.Chavooshian Budd B. Transfer of Development of Rights. which . THEORY 40. It purposes varying from Acquisition of private land for public purpose. This is a way to eliminate the pressure of development on the parcel. The concept of „tissue‟ thus evokes ideas of interweaving and of connections between parts. .Pizor Peter. TISSUE LEVEL STUDIES Tissue-level studies essentially expose the components of an urban ensemble. together with a capacity for adaptation. Bombay's Development Plan. . Thus the owner of the plot is not deprived of the economical benefit of his property.Mehta Jaswant: Transport of Development Rights: A vital instrument of Town Planning {Ambuja Lecture Series 1994}.New Dimension of Urban Development. Presence of environmentally sensitive areas the receiving areas were demarcated after considering the market demand for development and the areas capability to support the additional density in terms of infrastructure. In fact „urban tissue‟ remains the most central element in the morphological analysis. Biju. School of planning postgraduate thesis: Transfer of development rights: an enabling mechanism for urban planning and management.utilize the development rights himself on some other plot or can sell them to someone else. In this mechanism the development rights are separated from the plot.George.Norman Thomas.Davin .Drabkin Hain Land Policy and Urban Growth. They hold immense significance in reading and illustrating the inside-outside relationship. Readings: . wherein the same is looked at as an organic whole.GIHED . The aim of the system is to encourage desirable social objective. Conserving landmark by discouraging demolition. The „urban tissue‟.J: Making Transfer of Development of Rights work: a study or programme implementation. . 39. where development is desirable. . to indicate the inherent organization and the inter-relatedness of the same with the delineated environs. A new concept in land use management. . The rule hence solves the dilemma of individual rights against community. Cambridge. Proceedings of the International symposium sponsored by the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at Harvard University and the MIT. Tradition means any long established custom. 'Complexity And Con tradition In Architecture. Typological Process and Design Theory. but which appear as a system with linkages in each part of the city. Oford.Venturi. March 1995.. Tradition must be perpetuated for the realization of art. whether conscious or unconscious. 2. Tradition is something that is not static.New Delhi. Petruccioli. 2004. The Architecture of the City.. by which elements are continuously transformed and readopted. It is in the process. 41. . Attilio Ed. Urban Forms: the Death and Life of the Urban Block.Robert. To most. Architectural Press. VERNACULAR: A built environment belonging to a particular group of people can be termed as vernacular. The MIT Press. Panerai. including architects. Desai.'.Lang.1997. No. 3. 1966. which appear to develop on from one another over a period of time. . Castex. Tradition patterns are responses to forces that exerted themselves over a long period of time. Samuels. Phillipe . and are to an extend capable of building on their own.is the superimposition of several structures acting at different scales. TRADITIONAL AND VERNACULAR TRADITION: A tradition is a series of cultures or industries. Dealing with Incremental Change: An Application of Urban Morphology to Design Control. References: . when the individuals are not just owners or buyers but are also participants in the building process which has been evolved over a long period of time. Mdhavi. It is not synonymous with stagnation. climatic . 1982. Charles Jean. Jean. Depaule. 'Architecture And Independence' . practice or belief. Tradition and art are intertwined. Newyork: Museum Of Modern Art. Hall. 1997. Vernacular dwellings and settlements are expressions of a complex interaction of potentialities of available materials. A. Journal of Urban Design. but is ever changing. Aldo.C. Readings: Rossi. Cambridge. cultural skills.John. can be defined as the culminating point of three systems: Roads as movement corridors and distributaries Plot sub-divisions and the respective ownerships Buildings and their uses. Ivor. tradition involves the maintenance of past social structures and past architectural patterns rather than the use of past processes of change. Press.Miki & Desai. Vol.Oxford Univ. which are handed down from generation to generation. conditions and economic levels of a place arrived at through a process of trial and error over a long period of time. An early work was Bernard Rudofsky's 1964 book "Architecture Without Architects: a short introduction to non-pedigreed architecture".A Short Introduction To Non-Pedigreed Architecture'. and based it on history. 1979.Rudofsky . .Buildings. although it was considered iconoclastic at the time. and Epicurius when the writings on philosophy and psychology ideated the term „typos‟. however. Unlike traditional vernacular. Vernacular building shapes. 1977. it was in France that „type‟ as a theory took a definitive footing. 'Timeless Way Of Building'. New York: Oxford Univ. floor plans. 'Architecture Without Architects . customs. Press. materials. Readings: . from Polish salt-caves to gigantic Syrian water wheels to Moroccan desert fortresses. but do so slowly.Christopher. brought forth a completely new understanding of „type‟. refers to 20th century American suburban tract and commercial architecture. 'Pattern Language: Towns." Christopher Alexander attempted to identify adaptive features of traditional architecture that apply across cultures in his book A Pattern Language. construction techniques. materials and climate. TYPOLOGY AND TYPE The earliest reference to „type‟ dates back to the time of Plato. the design and construction of these types of buildings is remote from their eventual users. A study of vernacular form gives one an understanding of the basic human responses to the built environment. nature and use. those who study traditional vernacular architecture hold that these characteristics define a more useful and fundamental partition of architecture into vernacular and non-vernacular than whether or not a kind of architecture is accepted within academia. and other characteristics are often generated from centuries-old local patterns. These patterns are continually changing.Alexander. The term "commercial vernacular". It also teaches one the link between built form and tradition. popularized in the late 1960s by the publication of Robert Venturi's "Learning from Las Vegas". Construction'.Alexander. New York: Museum Of Modern Art. TRAVEL TIME GRID 43. social values and physical factors such as topography. 42. . describing a set of characteristics present in a group of concrete individuals. Aristotle.Oxford Univ.Christopher And Others. 1965. The book was a gentle reminder of the legitimacy and "hard-won knowledge" inherent in vernacular buildings. based on his MoMA exhibition. Howard Davis's book The Culture of Building details the culture that enabled several vernacular traditions. until then regarded as a „model‟. and they do not represent long cultural traditions. as a reaction to the perceived decline of the Baroque and the Rococo. at the end of the eighteenth century. However. Quatremere de Quincy.Bernard. . Press. De Carlo. The Journal of the Architectural Association. Oppositions no. Undergraduate Published Thesis. Raphael. Readings: Anderson. 1969. Scolari. Colquhoun. Casabella 509/510. 1985. Frampton. 70.Jean-Nicolas-Louis Durand. 3. Types and Conventions in Time: Towards a History of Duration and Change of Artifacts. Arena. 1989. Petruccioli. Findley. 1825). September 1992. The Typological Commitment. Terrance. which ought to serve as rule. Vol. Typology. all is more or less vague and subject to variation in the type‟ (Encyclopedia Methodique. W. London. Casabella 509/510. London. Functional (Theatres. Augusto Romano. London. Vivek. Progressive Architecture. Aymonimo. Massimo.Type and Context in Urbanism: Colin Rowe Contextualism. Carlo. presenting less the image of a thing to copy than the idea of an element. Modern Architecture: A Critical History.231. Braham. Moneo. Typology and Design Method. CEPT. 1985. De Mauro. On Typology. Nanda. (1983) Rob Krier: Urban Projects 1968-1982. 2000. AD 55 5/6. Roman Palaces. 1983. „Type‟ could thus be regarded as a „set of common formal characteristics. Hence while all is precise and given in a model. Durand and the Science of Architecture. Alan. After Typology: The suffering of diagrams. Carlo. . Giancarlo. Typological Process and Design Theory. Unearthing the Type. however. 2-27. Oppositions 13. March 1995. 1978. Burelli.. R. 1979. 1985. Ten Opinions on the Type. May-June. Moorish details). 1985. Hospitals). Typological Theory in the United States: The Consumption of Architectural “Authenticity”. Goode. AD 55 5/6. Urban Morphology and the concept of type: a thematic and a comparative study of the urban tissue. Journal of Architectural Education. Proceedings of the International symposium sponsored by the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at Harvard University and the MIT. Cambridge. Stanford. Ahmedabad. 1982. Leandro. Casabella 509/510. 18. Type and Typology. Type and Typology. Casabella 509/510. Meaning in Architecture. AD 55 5/6. William. Gianugo. 1985. Attilio Ed. London. Notes on the uncontrolled ascent of Typology. Perspecta 18. Architectural Design. No. Aymonimo. Markets. 1985. Polesello. Madrazo. vol. Journal of Architectural Education. 64. Ellis. September 1994. School of Architecture. p. p. Paris. substituting it by the term „genre‟ and deviating from Quicy‟s preoccupation of the same with stylistic categorixation. 1985.J.. Tullio. Round Temples (From considered as a distinctive feature of a building). 1980. Typology and Composition in Architecture. Republished in Charles Jencks and George Baird. Kenneth. June 1967. elaborated the understanding of the „type‟. to developing a principle-led following categorization: Historical (Egyptial Temples. Oppositions. and the subsequent establishment of an economic and political base then becoming a criterion for the coveted designation (Thapar. 65. Oppositions 8. and the choice of site. A. as also wells for availability of water. Dictionnaire Historique de l’Architecture. Vidler. lands were a collective possession. 1984). another ideology. The Luck of Aldo Rossi: Notes on the critical success of his works. the hierarchies – Fortified settlements (Pura) Market settlements (Nigamas) Town (Nagara) Large Town (Mahanagara) Township (Qasba) City (Shahr) Completely abandoning. Add to this. Hence. URBAN Interestingly. emergence of a class of landowners. on the other hand. the resultant emergence of a mixed group of people and the subsequent diversity in occupation: all. Apportioning of land. There is however. N. and agriculture. Thus in rural societies. Spring 1977. what with the expansion of trade. The Third Typology. The theory outrightly regards the basic phenomenon of migration of population to safer riverine hinterlands as the most primitive type of „urbanization‟ giving rise to most rudimentary urban centres. which goes beyond this simplistic differentiation and imparts urban status to settlements that gradually arise as commercial magnets. Interestingly thus. however. the size of the settlement also contributed to the status of an „urban‟ set-up. 1976. the qualitative difference between „urban‟ and „rural‟ is made synonymous with the planned efforts of the settlement dwellers towards the laying of basic infrastructure. Urban civilizations are thus recognized as those that were linked by river traffic. land becoming a subject of transaction. 44. Anthony. all essentially discussing in the light of the pre-industrial era. emerges yet another perspective that acknowledges the inseparability of the town from the larger social environment and „regards towns . and the act of erecting a solid and relatively impermeable fortification for defense: (fortifications being sharp reminders of the several layers of separation between the Royal Court from the townspeople. allowing for the intensification of the urban culture. shaping up the beginnings of an „urban system‟ (Barnow. when every settlement thriving on agriculture was seen as rural. there have been several ideologies pertaining to the understanding of settlements with respect to their „urban‟ and „rural‟ designations. 1984).. drainage and soakage pits. a singular force representative of collective behaviour and control. Architecture + Urbanism No. this concept of separation between the town and country. 7. 2001). notwithstanding their agricultural predominance or the relatively controlled homogeneous densities (Thapar. 1978. as well as the urban from the rural). Vidler. London. 45. The City Shaped: Urban Pattern and Meanings Through History. Nepal. Its form is defined by the peripheral conditions of the open-spaces that either generate the block or are generated by the articulation of the block. 1999. and China. From lineage to State: Social formations in the mid-first millennium BC in the Ganga Valley. stressing upon the continuity of social stratification between the town and the country‟. School of Architecture. (Gothoskar. R. An Enquiry into the aspects of Urban Edge as an element of participation. A strong political structure. the block is the result of individual and isolated buildings that stand in space but not necessarily establish coherence‟. A site favourable for trade. „urban‟. 1991. world economies – is partially but crucially worked out (Champakalakshmi.as sites in which the history of the larger social systems – states. Trade. It primarily refers to an entity which is defined on all sides by a network of traffic routes: planned or unplanned. Mesopotamia. School of Architecture. Thapar. its control and use (Barnow. Today. Vineeta. Kostoff. societies. To conclude. 1988). and which remains constituted by building types that may (ideally) or may not (necessarily) contribute towards its edge definition. City of Divine King: Urban Systems and Urban Architecture in Egypt. Spiro. . CEPT. may also be referred to as the „built mass‟ of the city that constitutes an agglomeration of buildings. 1984. however. the urban block was essentially formed by a single and continuous built mass that represented the extent of the block and in turn gave the street a certain definition. Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts. Ahmedabad. New Delhi. Romila. Readings: Barnow.. In the traditional cities. Ideology and Urbanization in Southern India: 300 BC to AD 1300. India. 1999). As Kostoff (1991) neatly puts it: An entity which has a positive ecological base. A complex social organization. plurality in the ownership of land. Finn. modes of production. in other words. 2000) as well as the coexistence of agricultural and commercial base.. Thames and Hudson Ltd. A sense of technology which improves the agricultural base. Champakalakshmi. and a sense of permanence attested by a political and a military structure: all become the determinants for regarding a settlement formation. New Delhi. Copenhagen. Infact urban sociologists treat towns as „fields of social realization of power. „The „Urban Block‟. URBAN BLOCK The „Urban Block‟ is essentially a typological element in the overall urban composition. Oxford University Press. 2001. trade. Oxford University Press. Undergraduate Unpublished Thesis. Urban design is always both a public and a political act” . Readings: Panerai. 46. URBAN CONSERVATION 47. an image of an ideal world." . It has a meaning only in relation with the network of streets that define its boundary.Gordon Cullen "Urban design is Architecture and not a separate entity mediating between planning and building. 2004. traffic advertisements and so on. Samuels. Castex. These are conditions required for generating useful great city diversity" . but only when the process by which the city gets its form is fundamentally changed. Urban design should integrate physical design with the power of policy-making to shape the large-scale public/private environment and manage its growth and change. Its purpose is to take all the elements that go to create the environment: buildings. Gothoskar. Ivor. We believe that the task of creating wholeness in the city can only be dealt with as a process. Phillipe. Oford. URBAN DESIGN “Urban designing involves the planned intervention in the marketplace and in the legal processes of allocating and designing the combination of land and building uses and building configurations that constitute the three-dimensional physical nature of human settlements. "We propose a discipline of urban design which is different. . Charles Jean. It is the physical expression of society's hopes and intentions and a means of using and developing human and architectural potential. from the one known today. but is a modest one: simply to manipulate within the tolerances" . must become the science and art of catalyzing and nourishing these closegrained working relationships. Jean. It is in this respect not an architectural form but a group of interdependent building plots. Architectural Press.The „urban block‟ thus emerges as a part of the urban area „isolated‟ from the neighboring parts if the larger territory by streets.Jane Jacobs "There is an art of relationship just as there is an art of architecture. involving areas of concern which do not recognize boundaries between public and private domains. School of Architecture. a model of the environment. water. Such a planned intervention is based on a model of the human being. Vineeta. Ahmedabad.Jon Lang "The science of city planning and the art of city design. An Enquiry into the aspects of Urban Edge as an element of participation. The aim is not to dictate the shape of the town or environment. Urban design is concerned with the built environment of cities (and other human settlements) and the public welfare. IT cannot be solved by design alone. nature. trees. Undergraduate Unpublished Thesis.Michael Wilford. 1988. and to weave then together in such a way that drama is released. CEPT. and a set of values. Depaule. entirely. These models and values are seldom clear and almost never stated explicitly. Urban Forms: the Death and Life of the Urban Block. in real life for real cities. urban ecology. 1961 . New York. the same sees the urban built environment in conjunction with various values of the space context (economic. Gordon. chemistry. In other words. „Ecology is essentially a term of Greek origin. The Failure Of Town Planning. and environmental). A New Theory Of Urban Design. Icon Books Ltd. Jane. meaning a house or a dwelling place. Oxford University Press. ethnic. URBAN ECOLOGY. „The concept is essentially that of a structure called Arcology or an ecological architecture. the traditionalists‟ idea of ecology pertaining to the natural and geographic settings has witnessed a tremendous change in the recent times in both meaning and vision. Cambridge. geography. meaning the study of life habits of over a million different kinds of plants and animals. 1987 48. Architectural Press. in our view it is the process above all which is responsible for wholeness. social." . Urban Design: The American Experience. which concerns itself with as much as the structure of the cities. Vintage..Christopher Alexander Readings: . Jon. Van Nostrand. 1994 . in response to the increasing divide between the natural and the built environment. the existence of concentric environments: internal and external. the impact on the neighbourhood. and the impact of urbanization on the „ecological field‟ of the city. 1992. William. there were worldwide concerns. Hence the emergence of a new discipline.Alexander. .Jacobs. what with the „urbanization‟ assuming the role of the most significant phenomenon of the post-industrial era: a world where the „natural settings and the built environment have begun to constitute distinctive variables‟ of a larger urban ecological setting. as well as the entire natural and social sciences. consumes only requisite resources but in turn also contributes to the enrichment of the ecology. anthropology. not merely the form. Ecology for beginners. including the manners of influences and interaction among them‟. Townscapes.Thus. ARCOLOGY. Readings: Croall. If we do not change the process. New York. as much as its location in a particular eco-system. London. Christopher. New York. 1961 . Interestingly. and Lagos. but one idea which evolved from conception to actual realization is the concept of Arcology by Paolo Soleri. Ecology as a discipline of study extends itself to not only the life sciences but also to others like archaeology. Stephen and Rankin. there is no hope at all. which would take the place of the natural landscape in as much it would constitute the new topography to be dealt with‟: an organism which lives and lets live. Death and Life of Great American Cities. Interestingly. If we might create a suitable process there is some hope that the city might become whole again. from Oikos.Cullen. ECOLOGY.Lang. the urban landscape as found. 1994 50. however it may locally be contorted or riven. political processes through which the physical urban form is produced and consumed. References: Lang. Physical form and spatial structure of the city gives it its form. primal form. New Delhi Prentice Hall. something that may be cut or disrupted . Typo morphological studies use building types to explain urban form and the process of shaping the fabric of cities. Urban Evolution: Studies in Mathematical Ecologies of Cities. Diminos and Mullaly. Landscape Architecture. Dr.. the existence of denser “nodes”. 1961. Illefe Books Ltd. 1981. in contrast to built form. The Indian Publications. Oxford. New York. Leutsher. 1971. Arcology: The City in the Image of Man.P. industrial or institutional). also embodies the concept of continuity. The urban fabric is also differentiated from urban structure. Oxford University Press. commercial.and . London and Henley. 49.. Cambridge Massachusetts. Just as the surface of the earth is as a thin skin over the global mass. John Ormsbee. which could easily be regarded as being a collection of freestanding objects. Sinha. 1986. Alan. Dendrinos. economic. Paolo. Franklin Walts Ltd. The MIT Press. London. whose name connotes conscious and incremental construction. The urban fabric. Simonds. Kormondy. In this sense the urban fabric may therefore be seen as representing the idea of a pre-existing. The pattern of development in an urban area. Ambala Cantt. Jon. Perhaps the urban fabric is always conceptually „what was there before‟ at a given point in time. Dictionary of Environmental Terms. including aspects such as urban density. Routledge and Kegan Paul. Urban Environment and Cotemporary Ecology. 1985.„the‟ urban fabric . Urban Design: The American Experience. the urban fabric may be likened to a cloak overlaying this skin. Edward J.. and the degree to which urban development is contiguous or fragmented at the fringes. Gilpin. as urban fabric is often cast as a passive entity to which things are done. Alfred. URBAN FORM Exploring the links between the concrete physicality of the built form and the complex social. 1976. Ecology of Towns. centers or corridors. 1975. forming a new surface. URBAN FABRIC The urban fabric is the physical form of towns and cities. London. S. Soleri.. like urban structures and spaces. The habitual use of the singular .implies that there is only one per urban area. Van Nostrand. the use of land (residential. Henri. Concept of Ecology. as its significance is associated with the concave street spaces occupied by people as they move through „it‟. Readings: Alexander C. by new interventions is considered as an urban insert. New York. 1977. If the original inhabitants have been shifted then the new spaces thus formed from their removal will have newer inhabitants and different functions as compared to the previous order. It is no coincidence that the term „urban fabric‟ has a garment-like resonance. 1966. their impressiveness. deliberately assembled as such. such planning is also never innocent of political or social ends “Urban planning” that was actually implemented bears faithful testimony to a concentration of authority. The system of streets. creates a continuous urban fabric and in a sense confirms the coherence of urbanity.N. Thames and Hudson. which was condoned to make room for the public theatres of Napoleons regime. Thames and Hudson. and. 1967. Alexander C. monumental nodes and the standard tissue that gives these monuments their status. Haussmann.com/urbanfabric 51. Much of the planning we recognize today in ancient. URBAN INSERT The urban fabric of a city which is usually conceived as „what was there before‟ at a given point of time and is subject to change whether it be in terms of it being cut or disrupted or modified and healed once more. princes. London.urbanity.by new interventions. leaves fewer homes and the large population expelled would again as usual be driven into creating worse congestion in other quarters.healed once more . . Architectural Forum. each powerful enough to define the urban order. If cavernous squares and heroic avenues are proposed they will upset the subtle spatial play between small buildings and large. buildings. prelates. it is not truly two-dimensional. Bacon. “a better environment” through congested and unsanitary areas which is quite unsparing to the old homes and to the neighborhood life of the area. the “ demolition artist ” as he was called by many of his detractors. aristocrats or oligarchies. London. was the great precursor of pitiless massive urban surgery causing the destruction of entire sections of a city. as it incorporates the vertical dimension of built form: the urban fabric may be said to be „torn apart‟ even when the street plan on the ground remains largely intact. A City is Not a Tree. Oxford University Press. rather than being a unitary construct. The conventional plan is to drive a new imposed order. which binds the built form into the urban structure of the road network. E.50megs. Design of Cities. Urban inserts in more modern times are undertaken to “relieve congestion” and “restore decorum” and create a “better environment”. Website: www. medieval or renaissance cities was the work of kings. Neither is the urban fabric fully three-dimensional. construction. A Pattern Language: Towns. URBAN RENEWAL Urban renewal (also called urban regeneration in British English) is a movement in urban planning that reached its peak in the United States from the late 1 940s through the early 1970s. October 1976. It is a method whereby a great variety of ends could be served. in others. Cambridge. Article by Spiro Kostof: His majesty the Pick: The Aesthetics of Demolition. 1982.Readings: . It essentially means rehabilitation of impoverished urban neighborhoods by largescale renovation or reconstruction of housing and public works. as it often imples the use of eminent domain law to enforce reclaiming private property for civic projects. Urban renewal is controversial. Urban Renewal. rehabilitating sound but decaying homes to improve living conditions for residents. developing land that will attract new businesses into the community or clearing land that will get unpopular businesses out of the community. Design Quarterly.Wilson James. new structures rise or the uses of old structures are changed. in others. Great Britain. Urban renewal is not a goal. .P. . USA. Urban Studies. R. The City Shaped: Urban Patterns And Meanings Through History. Urban Renewal in Asian context: A case study in HongKong.Gavin McCrone. 2002. The Culture of Cities. Planning the Twentieth Century City: the advanced capitalist world. Urban Renewal: the record and controversy. stabilizing blighted(diseased) neighborhoods and encouraging residents to improve their properties. Minneapolis. housing projects. vo1. 52. January 1 976. 1970. Mehta. . . In some places. Bibliography: . getting 'Undesirables' out of 'Desirable' neighborhoods by spot clearance. renewal has meant erecting a civic monument in a downtown plaza. A+D.LT. Urban Renewal: Scottish Experience.m sprawl-vast areas being demolishoo and replaced by fTeeways and expressways. Press. December 1991. 1947 . voL28. Augustl998.Function and Metaphor.Mum ford Lewis. streets and community facilities are rearranged.David Smith. 13. And while envisionoo as a way to redevelop residential slums and blightoo commercial areas. in others.Ward V Stephen. . 1968. "renewal" often resulted in the creation of urb. and vacant lots-some of which remained vacant at the beginning of the 21st centUlY. Homes are destroyed or rehabilitated. but a tool. Canada 1991.Tyrwhit Jacqueline.Spiro Kostof. Urban Studies. M. . London UK. . in others. Urban Renewal physically takes things and turns them to new uses. Patrick Geddes in India. wherein a generator brings about a change in the existing conditions (social. It is the expression of a built-form to form a physical as well as a social setting for the city‟s dwellers – where the street space is not simply a public open space but can be used freely by the pedestrians without having been invited or inhibited any one. Archit(. Growth by Extension. These transformations need to be guided to derive a coherent and 'transformed' urban environment. capital and state. Economic. Readings: . The consequences of the process of transformation often differ in the various parts of a city. Ahmedabad. URBANITY and URBANISM Urbanity refers to the relation between the urban environment and the city dweller. London. Giurgola. Seeker & Warburg. its transfonnations and its prospects. which thereby influences a change in the urban fabric. cultural). Also. 1988). 48. Growth by substitution. One of the earliest reference to the term dates back to 1938.characterized by the urbanization of open areas around the peripheries of the city 2.53. . social and cultural progress today takes place in large cities and relates directly to the modification of the physical space involved and the living conditions of the people. (Gothoskar. City: its origin. . on the other hand. There are two most prominent modes of Urban growth of a city namely: 1.. Urban Transformation is a process and a tool of intervention. the term „urbanism‟ is referred to a „holistic consideration of the built environment within its physical.1963.. Cities are in constant evolution and where the main changes in our society take place. CEPT. after having addressed the inherent growth pressures and the generators of such a condition. . which should become a commonly used urban design method to attain historical and spatial quality for urban spaces. Sage publication. London.26. Urban Transformations.'Ctural Association. historical and social contexts‟. School of Architecture.Lewis Mumford. . economic. which represent the urban aggregate in the broadest sense of the word…besides denoting the material act of planning”. URBAN TRANSFORMATION The term Transformations predominantly means 'change'. An Enquiry into the aspects of Urban Edge as an element of participation.Rodrigo Perez De Arce.Leon Krier. April 1978. Undergraduate Unpublished Thesis. 1984. Vineeta. Urban Transformations and the Architecture of Additions. no.Smith Michael Peter Ed. Cities in Transfonnation : class. vol. Architectural Design.involving the demolition of existing Urban elements and their replacement by new elements. defined the term „urbanism‟ as an art and discipline whose “aim is an architectural synthesis of all those values. 54 and 56. 1990. The second aspect deals with the issue of Urban Transformation.Urban Affairs Annual Reviews. London. when it first appeared in the essay by Louis Wirth in order to mean „the way of life of the city dwellers‟. wikipedia. Doubleday. 1999. New York. and which became increasingly urgent as the industrial revolution developed. Goodman. Cristopher. 1973. Ahmedabad. Random House. two attitudes seem to have emerged„urbanist‟ with a capitalist attitude.www. New York. MIT. 1966. Unpublished Undergraduate Thesis. as one designer‟s formulation of a possible complete solution to the design problem „town‟. American Architecture and Urbanism. . Published Undergraduate Thesis. Nanda.com . Building Typology and Urban Morphology: A Study.Gosling David. 55. Morphology of the Urban Block: A Study. Architecture in Change. Giurgola. Fourier.Tafuri Manfredo. Postmodern Urbanism. evolving naturally with the needs of the society as it exists.the utopian or the ideal – in which town design is closely allied to the design of the society itself. as the physical result of a multitude of small forces and actions. In this. Wright and Howard devised their utopian models. . Massachusetts. I this. Ellin. Serge and Alexander. Vincent. Cambridge. Community and Privacy: Towards a new architecture of humanism. Concepts in Urban Design. and „disurbanist‟ advocating a Marxian development. the ideal town can exist only in theory. it contrasts sharply with another powerful tradition. New York. Urban Morphology and the Concept of Type: A Thematic and Comparative Study of the Urban Tissue. Chermayeff. Marcus Whiffin. Ahmedabad. London academy editions. Readings: . CEPT.1976. Cambridge. A second major theme explored by the social utopias. CEPT. 1989. After the revolution in Russia. Henry Holt. Howard‟s Garden City and Le Corbusier‟s Ville Radieuse. Scully. Rao. Thus Urbanists like Campanella. Dinesh. Growing up absurd. Nan. School of Architecture. URBANIST Despite the confusing counter claims made upon it . MITpress. Ronaldo. Le Corbusier. the term „organic‟ suggests an amoral development process.Mass. Bacon. New York.Readings: Tafuri. Desai. 1963. Manfred. Whereas the organic town can exist only in fact. Monika. School of Architecture.Architecture and Utopia:Design and Capitalist Development. Vivek. Ahmedabad. 1984. 1990. The propagators of such utopian thinking are generally referred to as „Urbanists‟. 1969. The three alternative formulations of this relationship were expressed by Wright‟s Broadacre City. CEPT. 1956. Paul. Architecture and Utopia: Design and Capitalist Development. Princeton Architectural Press. was the relation between the city and the country. Unpublished Undergraduate Thesis. School of Architecture. assumed a new wave of ideational thinking and practice. 58. In terms of a geographical place. or the increase of this proportion over time. It is frequently used as a derogatory term by opponents of large-scale urban peripheral expansion especially for low-density urban development on or beyond the city fringe. namely the proportion of total population or area in urban localities or areas (cities and towns). pattern of building forms. which is the rate at which the urban population or area increases in a given period relative to its own size at the start of that period. since much less of the population is living in a rural area while in the process of moving to the city. Both can be expressed in percentage terms. Sprawl is considered unsightly and undesirable by those critics.57. popularly referred to as New Urbanism and practiced in many a States of Northern America (the chief proponents in the field being Andres Duany and Elizabeth Plater-Zyber). incoming migration. The process could occur either as natural expansion of the existing population (usually not a major factor since urban reproduction tends to be lower than rural). This has however. used primarily to recreate the old world charm through „neo-traditionalism‟. such that they apply to all cities irrespective of regional differences (Salingaros. urbanization has profound effects on the ecology of a region and on its economy. ZONING 59. who point also to diseconomies in travel time and service provision and the danger of social polarization through suburbanites' remoteness from inner-city problems. the rate of change expressed as a percentage per year. The solutions are however. decade or period between censuses. Urban sociology also observes that people's psychology and lifestyles change in an urban environment. The rate of urbanization over time is distinct from the rate of urban growth. or the rate at which the urban proportion is increasing. URBANIZATION Urbanization is the expansion of a city or metropolitan area. or a combination of these. NEW URBANISM The recent times have seen a shift from the much practiced. the United States or United Kingdom have a far higher urbanization level than China. but a far slower annual urbanization rate. It can thus represent a level of urban population relative to total population of the area. The increase in spatial scale is often called "urban sprawl". For instance. India or Nigeria. urbanization means increased spatial scale and/or density of settlement and/or business and other activities in the area over time. The urbanization rate represents to the city. yet the much maligned. „use-based‟ zoning to „type-led‟ zoning primarily to govern the character of the sprawl at the edge of the cities. 2001) and presently stand in complete contrast to the principles of typomorphology that recognizes the „urban landscape‟ as not being „form-centric‟ but as a hierarchic structure with the town-plan. the transformation of peripheral population from rural to urban. and pattern . The type essentially being „formal‟ and hence in many a case. In either case. Mc-Graw Hill. New York. Harvey also indicates that when the decline in the rate of profit forced the rigid "Fordist system" to the "flexible accumulation". In a chapter entitled "Postmodernism in the city: architecture and urban design" Harvey demonstrates a link between Fordist methods of mass production and the international high modernism of Le Corbusier." In this sense postmodern urbanism can be seen as a more diversified and ephemeral discourse on the pre-existing structure of modern urbanism. Readings: Panerai. The Seaside Debates. in T. Nikos. Salingaros. The New Urbanism. 2004. anti-universalism. the search for urbanity. 2002.of urban land-use as the chief components (Conzen. include contextualism. Samuels. 1999. In "The Condition of Post Modernity" David Harvey defines the postmodern city with the rise of historical eclecticism.). The Future of Cities: Absurdity of Modernism. pluralism. Jean. Ivor. Castex. POST MODERN URBANISM Themes of Post modem Urbanism Post Modernist idea of the city emerged as reaction against modernism. The rising values . 1973). collage. These themes. 60. populism. self-referentiality. He asserts a correlation between the shift to postmodernism in the cultural sphere and the shift to "flexible accumulation" (post-war fordism) in the economic sphere. The functional universalism of high modernism (International Style) gave way 10 new forms of particularism. and rediscovery of the local. Urban Forms: the Death and Life of the Urban Block. according to ElIin. and irony. Depaule. (reference with the locality and ethnicity) and spectacle. Katz. historicism. loss of faith. regionalism. Nan. there was a corresponding shift in architecture and urban design. (as inventing tradition by imitating the older forms) multiculturalism. (a theater scene. Rizzoli. New York. apoliticism. Harvey views postrnodernism as enveloping modernism and adds "there is much more continuity than difference between modernism and postmodernism. (anti-universalism) Another commentator Stuart Hall thought postmodern city as discontinuous and fragmented space self-contained 'alternative' cities. Urban Land 61. Ellin. Notes on the History of the New Urbanism. Charles Jean. commercialization of built environment) He explains the turn from "modernism" to "postmodernism" reference with the change of economic system and cultural codes. commercialism. depthlessness. Princeton Architectural Press. He shows the usage of industrial methods of Ford ism as a model for mass housing projects in response to the crises of the Great Depression and the Second World War. reflexivity. Katz. ephemerality. Phillipe. superficiality. 1994. Oford. Architectural Press. Peter. Peter. New York. Bressi (ED. each responding to the dynamics of the city through different pace of change and transformation. Postmodern Urbanism. an interview with Leon Krier. Collectively there is wide variety of overlapping themes in the postmodernists' vocabulary. preoccupation with image/decor scenography. January 2002. fragmentation. In their works "Collage City" Rowe and Cotter proposed a harmonization between old and new. reflects wide variety of design approaches. pedestrian fiiendly design (addresses the vitality and livability) and urban design (maintained mainly by historic preservation and environmentalism). the site and the past New attention to the qualities of built environment has been given after 1980s in response to global competition of cities and their parts. as best demonstrated in the modernists' Charter of Athens.e. street design. Appleyard and Altman. "if one proposes all kinds of nice public spaces. connected streets and figured piazzas. we can not mention about the single and dominant theme and approaches in postmodern urbanism. present and past In sum. They aimed to create an intimate physical environment that supports the communal identity. will there still be an audience in a highly technological society for their use?" No doubt that. Urban design in postmodern urbanism. This complexity and chaos is explained as "schizophrenia" by Jencks.) . But the current implications in urban design chiefly refer to downtown revitalization projects. This made the role of urban design more significant in the production of the built environment. Another group of postmodem architects and urban designers (neoclassicists) advocated the return to vitality and the beauty of pre-industrial forms. The postmodern school of thought in urban design promoted the "return to vitality" after late 1960s under the guidance of prominent designers such as Rapoport. and public space enhancement projects. the search for urbanity based on historical eclecticism may become misguided when it ignores the contemporary context.and fields of postmodern urbanism are community participation (based on pluralism and regionalism). mixed use (associated with ecological approaches). They suggested that vitality could be restored by creative land use allocation and sound urban design principles by encouraging integrated and mixed land use and making these uses more pedestrian oriented. from mass production for a mass society to flexible production for a fragmented society brought about a new interest in the built environment. Urban Design in the Post modem Context In the beginning of our century urban planning had evolved as the branch of architecture dealing with urban design issues. The center of the urban design has moved from producing good and beautiful forms to drawing inspirations from mass culture. the social context. in postmodern period the structural change in the economy. contexts and applications. One the other hand there was some between the historicists and modernists. (1933) However. traffic calming etc. During this early period design had a central role in urban planning. However this romantic reaction against the boredom of modernist's projects failed to success due to the ignorance of the social equity and prevailing economic forces. Ingersol criticizes this new type of historicism: "pre-industrial forms and spaces are not necessarily suited to post-industrial ways of life". therefore. (i. Then he asks. historic preservation. Size . Roads immediately outside towns therefore came to be lined with funerary monuments.small enough for all places to be within walking distance of each other and for people to know each other. The city of the dead antedates the city of the living. Tim Health. especially in the Roman Empire. Thus it may be called an urban village. 62. URBAN VILLAGE The definition used by DDA: "Traditional rural settlements. literally a "city of the dead". to commune with or placate the ancestral spirits.mixed within street blocks as well as within the village as a whole. .Herbert J. Examples of this kind of necropolis can be found on the Appian Way just outside Rome and at the Alyscamps in Arles. A mixture of different building types and sizes. . typically. Taner 0 C and Steven Tiesdell. Gans. including some degree of mixed use with buildings. and in a sense is a forerunner. a collective barrow. Necropolises were built for many reasons. Readings: . A range of uses . which have been changed and merged with urban areas" Urban villages Size .Group and class in the life of ltalianAmericans. A pedestrian fiiendly environment .The contents and discontents of urban villages. Other cultures created necropolises in response to prohibitions on burials within city limits.Robust building types. a cavern. public places urban spaces. France.such that there is a theoretical one-to-one ratio between jobs and residents able and willing to work. infact most of what is left of that great civilization is its temples and tombs. Smriti Sachdeva . a mound marked by a cairn. These were landmarks to which the living probably returned at intervals. A balance of houses and flats and workplaces .61. Sometimes their origin was purely religious: the Valley of the Kings in Egypt is a prime example. Apart from the occasional application of the word to modern cemeteries outside large towns.large enough to support a wide range of activities and facilities and to be able to stand up for itself if its interests come under threat.Mathew Carmona.both for residential and employment uses. 2003. Mixed tenure . the term is chiefly used of burial grounds near the sites of the centers of ancient civilizations. NECROPOLIS A necropolis (plural: necropolises or necropolis) is a cemetery or buryingplace. The dead were the first to have a permanent dwelling. almost the core of every living city.catering for the car without encouraging its use. is one in which European immigrantsand more recently Negro and Puerto Rican ones-try to adapt their non-urban institutions and cultures to the urban milieu.The urban villagers. Burlington. Architectural Press. The former kind of area. 1961. Secker and Warburg. elaborate memorials. Readings: Mumford. its Origins. necropolises enjoyed a revival spurred by the Victorian fashion for large. its Transformations and its prospects. for instance. London. Website: www.wikipedia. The word is often used with a different connotation in fantasy literature. Lewis. it might refer to a city populated by zombies or other undead creatures. The City in History.During the 19th century.com .