The dome: a study in the history of ideas

A STUDY IN THE HISTORY OF IDEASBYE. BALDWIN SMITH DATE DUE Q726.5 S646d Smith, E. Baldwin (Earl Baldwin), 1888-1956. The dome, a study in the history of ideas. 19iO PRINCETON MONOGRAPHS IN ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY XXV BARR FERREE FOUNDATION PUBLISHED FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY PRINCETON UNIVERSITY THE DOME A STUDY IN THE HISTORY OF IDEAS BY E. NEW JERSEY PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS . BALDWIN SMITH PRINCETON. renewed 1978 by Princeton University Press copyright All rights reserved First Princeton Paperback printing.PUBLISHED BY PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS. while satisfactory for personal collections. 1971 LCC 75-160543 ISBN 0-691-00304-1 ISBN 0-691-03875-9 (pbk. 1950 by Princeton University Press. Clothbound editions of Princeton University Press books are printed on and binding materials are chosen for strength and durability. Copyright. SURREY 41 WILLIAM STREET. PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BY PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS.) acid-free paper. GUILDFORD. NEW JERSEY . PRINCETON. NEW JERSEY 08540 IN THE UNITED KINGDOM: PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS. PRINCETON. are not usually suitable for library rebinding. Paperbacks. now lives of the on. a sudden one. . At the same time he gathered a fine and rare col- books on mediaeval churches and towns in France. This cultivated and learned gentleman devoted much of his life to an appreciation of the arts and a systematic study of the Gothic cathedrals which he particularly admired. In New York he organized the Pennsylvania Society. the stimulation of intelligent cultivation of the Fine Arts.. he was decorated in 1922 with the Grand Cross lection of now forms Legion of Honor." Thus. and from its foundation in 1899 until his death in 1924 he was its Secretary and Director. During the First World War he gave eloquent expression to his wrath when his beloved cathedrals were attacked and seriously injured. Before entering business he became known as a Institute of Arts articles lecturer and. however. he continued to study the arts and compiled an extensive catalogue of the French cathedrals. as a result of his addresses delivered at the Brooklyn and Sciences} he was made President of its department of Architecture and the Fine Arts.TO THE MEMORY OF BARR FERREE Merely because this is the first monograph to be published with funds of the Barr Ferree Foundation is not the reason that the author takes so much pleasure in dedicating this book to the memory of Barr Ferree. even after he became a successful businessman. his estate was converted into a Foundation for the publication of books "on architecture and related topics in the Fine Arts. In the course of years his and interest in cataloguing "the buildings of architectural merit everywhere in the world" resulted in his being the first American writer to be elected to honorary membership in the Royal Institute of British Architects. His death. 1924. toward which the sustained effort of his life was directed. The dedication of his books and property to the cause of the Fine Arts in America has become what he wanted a lasting memorial of the ultimate indestructibility of his intellectual purpose and spiritual conviction. 'occurred October 14. which the nucleus and chief ornament of the Barr Ferree Library at Princeton. Because of the patriotic work of the Society and his personal efforts during the war. now the largest of the state societies in the United States. In accordance with his wish. working through the avenues whereby a University influences its students and the public. The real incentive comes from having known him and his great interest in the history of architecture. All his life. he graduated in 1884 from the University of Pennsylvania where for some years he served as a special lecturer on architectural subjects in its new School of Architecture. Born in 1862. . has made it possible knowledge of Byzantine literature and Greek architectural usage factor of to base much of the essential evidence on the texts. Another contributing was the it necessitated rewriting much of the manuscript. even though the one Grabar had published. The other question remains to be tested now that the scaffolding has been removed and The Dome in skeleton form has to stand alone.PREFACE admission that THE statement of fact book falls short of what it was intended to be is merely a and not an apology. Asia. that the author became indebted quite different from of his fine scholarship. Had the author's indebtedness been limpublication of Andre ited to the Martyrium the references in the text read his knowledgement. which had originated for structural a house in was but reasons some one mental concept. After the broad outlines of this evolution traced in Americas time and matter of from the primitive house had been the various ancient and retarded cultures of Europe. however. could have been imagine how certain portions of this study its written whose wide if it had not been for the assistance and cooperation of Glanville Downey. The to the man himself and came to appreciate the generosity to the mutterings of a dome-obsessed A. great importance. vn . Friend has listened fact that might have been an adequate aclast chapter and encouraged him to for the Syrian bema which was patiently to protect the author from the dangers endeavored and the read has manuscript mind. and the there arose the disquieting question of to what extent one scholar had the beliefs. since Grabar's Marty num. It was when Grabar it advanced an explanation publish it. There was a time when the author optithis and evolution mistically believed that he could present the major aspects of domical ideology in one study. Africa. The equipment to reconstruct the whole development of domical of Heaven" Dome "The time was settled conclusively when Karl Lehmann's showed that no one could expect to enjoy indefinitely a monopoly of domical ideas. Once it had become evident that the dome was not and environjust a utilitarian form of vaulting. before it is applied to such controversial aspects of domical evolution as the origin ancient of the Iranian dome and the still more delicate question of whether even Greece did not have It is difficult to own tradition of a symbolic. was before the rapidly expanding com- plexities of the subject organizing the material in a written form where the ideas would not be reburied under a mass of accumulated evidence and the difficulties of had become inescapable factors. M. which had country. which at least prehas the advantage of testing out the basic method of approach cipitates the major issues. wooden dome. Since so many of the conclusions are contrary to prevailing opinions. a partial study of the dome. That. primarily an ancestral acquired in numerous cultures its shape and imaginative values upon more into shelter long before it was translated for ideological reasons permanent and monumental form by means of wood carpentry and masonry. the whole problem of the dome opened up into a comprehensible but infinitely complex chapter In the history of ideas. PREFACE of Byzantine liturgies. make him responsible for the unorthodox approach to some of the problems. Estelle Brown for her help in preparing the manuscript and to Miss Rosalie Green for her scholarly care in checking the references. does not. BALDWIN SMITH Princeton University April 1949 . E. of course. The author is indebted to Mrs. THE ANCESTRAL SHELTER: QUBAB HUT AND KALUB B. 45 46 47 50 IV. THE SACRED KALUB C. THE COSMIC HOUSE Indian Tradition Asiatic Tradition 79 80 81 2. 5. Etschmiadzin Stephen. S. The Holy Sepulchre. Jerusalem Domus aurea. OTHER SACRED AND CELESTIAL ASPECTS OF THE DOMICAL SHAPE 1. 6.CONTENTS PREFACE I. and the Imperial Baldachin ix . Gaza 36 37 38 39 10. V ii DOMICAL ORIGINS 3 II. 32 Simeon Stylites. THE MONUMENTAL KALUBfi OF MASONRY D. 1. THE USE OF THE WOODEN DOME IN THE NEAR EAST 1. THE MASONRY DOME AND THE MORTUARY TRADITION IN SYRIA AND PALESTINE A. THE BRICK DOME B. Antioch Martyrium. Gaza 12. Nazianzus Martyrium. 11. Gaza 14 16 2. 29 31 31 4. Sion Church. The Omphalos The Cosmic Egg The Celestial Helmet 77 77 F. S. Kal'at Sim'an 34 8. Nyssa Martyria. Church. THE DOMICAL MORTUARY TRADITION IN SYRIA DOMICAL FORMS AND THEIR IDEOLOGY A. 3. 14. 10 Marneion. 61 61 67 70 71 74 75 2." Ba'albek 40 41 41 The Islamic Wooden Dome III. 7. 3. THE STONE AND "CONCRETE" DOME C. Constantinople S. 13. THE CONOID BAETYLS AND THE ANCESTRAL HOUSE CONCEPT AS A MANIFESTATION OF DIVINITY E. Sergius. 9. Mahoymac "Church. Jerusalem Cathedral. RECTANGULAR SUMMARY VI. DOMICAL CHURCHES: MARTYRIA A. Early Christian 83 85 V. An Ambon? . INSCRIBED CRUCIFORM F. Basilicas C. Pre-Islamic and Hebrew Tradition and Byzantine Tradition 4. THE PROBLEM B. I. THE MONUMENTS 1. 41 141 of Catechumens? 3. Ambon. 132 135 Domed Martyria 135 139 141 1 2. THEORIES 1 An Altar? 2. Choir and Mass 144 145 D. CRUCIFORM E. Sections 37-46 Translation and Notes by G. FOUR-LOBED. F.CONTENTS 3. CIRCULAR B. 147 151 APPENDIX: Downey 155 INDEX . CRUCIFORM G. SQUARE D. E. THE PLACE OF COMMEMORATION A. 95 98 100 105 m 108 115 TRI-LOBED 120 124 131 H. POLYGONAL C. THE EVIDENCE OF THE TESTAMENTUM THE PLACE OF COMMEMORATION DOMICAL CHAPELS Description of the Church of S. Stephen at Gaza by Choricius. THE DOME . . third. where originated. such curvilinear shapes. its inception. At the same at Seleucia Pieria 182). the port of being all of the basilican type. Christian and Islamic periods with tombs. to manifest so why the East Christians during the fifth and much interest in the dome as a form of church Islamic builders elected to make the dome the the existing evidence for the use of the antique and Early Christian world and by wooden dome in Syria and Palestine. Christian architecture in the Near East. because the early explorers. All of these questions can be answered in whole or in part by a study of the domical ideology which prevailed in the late architecture. a suburb of Antioch." and there is little justification for devoting a whole to a study of the dome and a hypothetical restoration of two Antiochene 3 . mosques. and the Antioch. memoriae. there arise the questions of how these central-type what part they played in the growth of a martyria and churches were roofed and domical.I DOMICAL ORIGINS it the dome took shape. or domical roofs of wood monograph churches. and audience halls. was a functional means of vaulting which originated for environ- struction of the mental reasons either in the brick architecture of the Orient or in the masonry conRomans. martyria. or some Roman why men had come ciate the to build Empire. second. or of "light volcanic scoriae. asso- dome in pagan. churches. Between 1935 and 1939 the Princeton Excavations at Antioch-on-the-Orontes uncovered the plans of two important Early Christian churches of the central type fifth (Fig. and Ever since the nineteenth century it has been generally believed that the dome. This effort to trace the dome back to a single place of origin has disregarded the Syro-Palestinian region as a country which should have played an important role in the development and spread of a Christian domical tradition. baptisteries. As long as the dome is thought of only as one kind of functional roofing. Persia. sixth centuries began and fourth. tabernacles. it would still be necessary to explain. Even if it and had a neat unilateral development Hellenistic center in the were true that the dome had started only as a utilitarian form of roofing as it spread from Mesopotamia. baldachins. ciboria. 170). conical. and why it became the outstand- How from ing feature of Byzantine and Islamic architecture are questions which have not been satisfactorily answered either by the Orient oder Rom controversy or by the misconceptions implicit in the prevailing theories regarding the origin purpose of the domical shape. fire temples. it is of relatively little importance whether these Syrian and Palestinian cult houses had pyramidal. such as De Vogue and Howard Butler. century martyrium time the excavators of Gerasa disclosed other churches of the central type. found so few extant domes among the Syrian ruins and because more modern excavators have uncovered no traces of masonry domes on central-type churches before the sixth century. why the dominant feature of their tombs and mosques. why they came to first. Since it has become apparent that in the cities of Syria and Palestine the churches were far from the fourth century martyrium at Kaoussie (Fig. aediculae. It des reliques et I' art is to be hoped. he says. are indicated results of a study of domical ideas so closely parallel of in his Martyrium. sheathed in gilded metal. and heroa of Rome and does not. both ence throughout the and in transforming them into churches of the larizing the central-type martyria 1 the martyrium concept. including Mesopotamia and Armenia. Grabar derives all the basic forms of martyria from martyrium-type the pagan tombs. and with great wooden other similar Syro-Palestinian churches. Martyrium. because of the magnitude of his investigation. attempt to deal with the other sources of domical ideology which were involved in the development 1 of domical architecture. because for centuries the dome had been a symbolic form of varied but related meanings. memorials. must have been roofed in domes of conoid shape. By the sixth century. with their mosaics. Therefore. used for its construction. Paris. by the revered churches of Palestine. associated with the martyrium because of its traditional mortuary was peculiarly this relationship and the bearing which some of symbolism. the It is Grabar 's conclusion that the mortuary implications of the martyrium churches of Syria and Palestine. Not only is it possible to complicated history show that the dome was ideologically an essential feature of the central-type martyr- antique sepulchral ium. regardless of the materials association with memorials to the dead and a long and highly Actually. recherches sur le culte chretien antique. coincided with the disregular cult. In explaining the growing popularity of the church. Consegospels. which the Christians had taken over from pagan mausolea and commemorative monuments. It is also becoming increasingly and illuminated sacred buildings of the Holy Land. and tecture in the Near East to the history of ideas. then. and northern Mesopotamia was not influenced of architecture Byzantium. and the spread of Syrian prestige of of the House of God exerted a widespread influthe symbolism regarding meaning in popuNear East. A. is by the fact that the the conclusions of Andre Grabar desirable to integrate the two approaches. it becomes more apparent why the temple. This spread of semination of the Areopagitica throughout the Greek world. Grabar. tic when the Syrian churchmen were insisting upon the idea of the church as a mys- universe. because of it the domical evidence has upon the pattern of development outlined by Grabar. the Cult of Relics. 1946. had an It was a shape which. a replica of the comprehensible dome. but it is also possible to demonstrate why the two Antiochene churches. should have become popular. however. the dome was in various parts of the antique world. Although Grabar has not attempted to deal with the problems the dome the dome in tracing the growing popularity of the martyrium-type church. frescoes a powerful and lasting influence upon all forms of Christian art.DOMICAL ORIGINS of great symbolical interest to the Christians. . The necessity of reexamining the prevailing conclusions regarding the origins of the value of relating the development of domical archiByzantine architecture. had to believe that the popularity of the dome on the religious quently it is difficult Armenia. which had a symbolical content evident that the the Christian thought of the period. that a partial history of domical concepts and the evidence for the early use of the wooden dome will show that Syria and Palestine had a native domical tradition which not only readily combined with the Roman and Hellenistic traditions of a mortuary dome. as the manifestation of an idea. T. . was first of all a shape and then an idea. but also account for certain specific types of free-standing domes so im- and help to explain why the dome. cosmic egg. Paul's in London. vihdra. Peter's in Rome. beehive. During the seventeenth century. Icelandic. the German. just as in ancient Italy. State-House. impressive houses of God. which in the course of the eighteenth century became standard usage for dome in English. dome meaning "Town-House. ancestral house. Les Invalides and the Pantheon in still Paris. must be realized. dome was and by 1660 dosme in France had acquired the specific meaning of a cupola vault. which might or might not have had a cupola roof. in its admiration of such churches as S. . and hence synonymous What is revealing in this derivation is that even in English the idea of a "dome" India and Islam words for began as a house concept. onion. architecture. amalaka tree. Oxford. Guilda city. became portant in Byzantine and Islamic Behind the concepts involved in domical development was the natural and persistent primitive instinct to think in terms of customary memory images and to attribute actual being and inner power to inanimate objects. Glossographia ." 2 For centuries. and bulbous. such as the roof and other parts of the house. a Dei. and Danish "cathedral. sacred or otherwise. This persistent association with the idea of an important house. In Middle A and Late Latin doma meant "house/* "roof. maphalia. . Bloimt. S. 1897. In ancient times it was thought of as a tholos. "dome. the ancient imagery both preserved some memory of the origin of the domical shape and conveyed something of the ancestral beliefs and supernatural meanings associated with its form. 1656. This gradual limitation of meanoriginal meaning began to fade into poetic usage ing was partly the result of the growing scientific need for technical terms. helmet. but largely because the eighteenth century. it To the naive eye of men uninterested in construction. tegurium." and only at times "cupola/' while during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance it was used all over Europe to designate a revered house. pine cone." 5 . melon. as well as scores as of other domical structures. which will be seen going back to the first beginnings of domical architecture. the Hall. Domus survived in the Italian duomo. kubba. As a shape (which antedated the beginnings of masonry construction). however. It is still a shape visualized and described by such terms as hemisphere. feature of all truly 2 New English Dictionary. key to the origin of the domical shape as a house concept is furnished by the derivation of our modern word "dome" from the Greek and Latin domus. considered the monumental dome the designating with domus. the dome. parasol." Dom 9 meaning and as late as 1656 in the English and Meeting-house in applied to any outstanding and important house.DOMICAL ORIGINS therefore. and heavenly bowl While the modern terms are purely descriptive. Syria. omphalos. It was the memorable feature of an ancient. London. apparently. kalube. or gabled roofs. vikdra. there no historical justification for the assumption that the domical in either brick or vault originated for purely structural stone. B. whose architecture evolved from primi- tive methods of construction. all the evidence and environmental reasons shows that early vault forms. pit house. a dismust be made between the cultural level when the domical idea took shape and acquired symbolic values and the historical period when there was a social i . The domical as idea shape must be distinguished from domical vaulting because the dome. both and as method of roofing. Palestine to trace all the beginnings of domical shapes a study of the domical tradition in Syria and impossible within the limits of and domical ideas in the dif- ferent countries of antiquity and to note their parallels in the retarded primitive cultures of Africa. such as tegurium. in world the domical shape became habitually associated in men's memories with a central type of structure which was venerated as a tribal and ancestral shelter. a house of appearances and a ritualistic abode. largely for symbolic and traditional reasons. or primitive shelter. the cosmos This tendency was strengthened by the primitive habit of visualizing both and divinities in the shape of the ancestral house. Hence. the earliest type of con1. royal and celestial abode of the Great One long flat after the ordinary domestic architecture had become rec- tangular with 2. At the primitive level the most prevalent and usually structed shelter. had some tradition of an ancient and revered shelter which was distinguished by a curved roof. Therefore. is G. but sometimes hoop-shaped or conical. Because of the animistic habits of thought which continued to attach inner meaning and magical power to the memorable shape of the ancestral round shelter. was preserved in many cultures and gradually translated into more permanent materials as a family or royal tomb. sacred. in tracing the evolution of the dome in any particular region. as an ancient and revered house form. whether a tent. was more or less circular in plan many parts of the ancient and covered by necessity with a curved roof. most early civilizations had deeply rooted domical ideologies which resulted in the veneration of the domical shape as a mortuary. Hence many widely separate cultures. a cult house and abode of the Great One. This domical shape. tinction . Instead. a cosmic symbol. or thatched cabin. 1. A. Instead. earth lodge. Asia and the Americas. to designate a It is came dome or domical structure. or as a utilitarian granary. is advanced. tent. 2. and translated into more perma- nent materials. venerated. sweat house and kiln. and kubba. Therefore. which can at least be checked against the domical ideas of Syria.DOMICAL ORIGINS house. kalube. were traditional roof shapes originating in pliable materials and later imitated in masonry for ideological reasons. originated in pliable materials upon a primitive shelter and was later preserved. a series of already carefully investi- the evidence for the origin of gated postulates. usually more or less domical in appearance. like the dome and the tunnel vault. tegurium. umbrella. began ganized society to in an imitative and sculptural effort on the part of orreproduce venerated forms which had formerly been constructed as more pliable materials. taking on utilitarian values as a vault upon which in the beginning were special adaptagranaries. divine. could not have originated in cut stone. Stone architecture the world over. upon temples. palaces. There were various domical 1. The formation of domical architecture in the East. was never wholly independent and indigenous in any civilization. such as the cosmic tholos. then in the Christian and Sassanian East. vihdra. divine. its ideology was further enriched by the popular ideas already associated with similar shapes. like any other curvilinear form such as the horseshoe to erect and arch. technical equipment. the dome. tabernacles. omphalos. aediculae. and by the introduction of ancient Indian beliefs regardas a symbol of celestial greatness ing the cosmic significance of the dome. By the late Roman Empire. It was the mortuary. 2. D. churches. the Christian and Sassanian Empire. Even after some cultures developed or acquired a monumental architecture with temples. The process. heroon. and the Islamic Empire was the result of an in- Roman tricate fusion of various domical traditions and a multilateral dispersion of structural methods of building domical shapes. and often the ancient construction. and later in the Islamic Empire. baths (sweat houses) and kilns tions and survivals of the primitive round house the domical shape. they religiously preserved the shape. India. At the same time that the dome was construction. mundus. stone. regardless of its E. or conoid domes.DOMICAL ORIGINS organization with the incentive. traditions in both the West and the East. martyria. ciboria and baldachins. Moreover. kalube. 2. sacred baetyl. also by the interests of the Orphic cults in and a heavenly salvation. Because the conception and meanings of the domical shape were primarily derived from primitive habitations. 2. divine helmet. in different civilizations and at different periods. maphalia. 1. was the mortuary. brick. of ancestral and ritualistic shelters for their inner sanctuaries. or concrete. acquired persistent symbolic values. 3. many cultures had domical ideologies before they had domical vaults of masonry. baptisteries and mosques. to turn a royal tent into a domical audience hall of brick monumental hemispheres. and craftsmen to translate an ancestral dwelling into a tholos tomb. palaces and churches of stone and brick. and kubba into a monumental structure of wood. royal and celestial meanings of these domical traditions with their symbolic ideologies which led to the popularity and monuIt mental use of the domical shape in India and the late Roman Empire. a celestial cosmogony egg and pine cone. furnished the incentive to translate the idea of an ancient tentorium. when the dome was acquiring so much distinction and imperial immortality. royal and celestial meanings of these domical ideologies which. however. 7 . from India to Stonehenge. because rock is shapeless and the image has to exist in the mind of the stonecutter. DOMICAL ORIGINS 4. By the fourth century the widespread popularity of these ideas and the belief that the domical shape was a heavenly shelter, going back to an ancient cestral past and an- when the gods gave the dome, especially with their Cult of the Dead, their veneration for the martyred dead, and their desire for and men lived together in an idyllic paradise on earth, in Syria and Palestine, its growing appeal to the Christians some tangible proof of a heavenly Domus. where timber was at first F. In those regions with an established domical tradition, and Syria, was an early and plentiful or easily imported, wood carpentry, as in India natural method of reproducing the symbolic shapes on an imposing and monumental architectural scale. Hence, in many widely separate cultures the wooden dome was an early form in the evolution of domical architecture. As a result of this evolution there were both historical significance and symbolic content involved in the different kinds of domical shapes which were prevalent in the late antique and Islamic periods. The most primitive and natural shape, derived directly from a round hut made of pliable materials tied together at the top and covered with leaves, skins or thatch, was the pointed and slightly bulbous dome which is so common today among the backward tribes of Nubia and Africa (Fig. 93). This in the tholos type of dome, resembling a truncated pine cone or beehive, is preserved tombs of the Mediterranean (Fig. 63), the rock-cut tombs of Etruria and Sicily (Figs. 64, 65), in the Syrian qubab huts (Fig. 88), on the tomb of Bizzos (Fig. 61) and on many mosques (Figs. 38-43). from the geometric cone we will call it conoid, because of the actual pine cone. 8 of the early Islamic To distinguish this its shape of dome recognized likeness to Other types of domical shapes, flatter and preserved roof, as is as tabernacles, ciboria and baldachins and unpointed, were derived from the tent (Figs. 144-151). These tent forms, however, could be puffed-up and bulbous owing to the light framework of the (Fig. 106) shown by the celestial baldachin above the great altar of Zeus at Pergamum and the Parthian dome among the reliefs of the arch of Septimius Severus (Fig. 228). at Rome There were also in Syria and other parts of the Roman Empire sacred rustic shelters whose ritualistic and domical coverings sometimes had an out- ward curving flange at the bottom of the dome ^ as the thatch was bent out to form an overhang (Figs. 111-117). n otner examples the curve of their light domical roof was broken by the horizontal bindings which held the thatch in place (Fig. 10). The hemispherical shape, which is today so commonly associated with the dome, undoubtedly acquired its geometric curve largely from the theoretical interests of the Greek mathematicians and the practical considerations of Roman mechanics.* 3 See pp. 74-75. While the Hellenistic and Roman mathemadcians and engineers undoubtedly developed the tion, the scientific aspects of * of Ashurnasirpal's palace at Nimrud (H. R. Hall, Babylonian and Assyrian Sculpture in the British Museum, 1928, pi. xvi) reliefs arcuated construe- there tion, geometric forms of arches and vaults is pictured such a shape. This representahowever, does not strengthen the out-of- knew were already known. The Assyrians probably the hemispherical form because on the date theory that the masonry dome originated in the brick architecture of Mesopotamia. In- DOMICAL ORIGINS This standardization of the domical shape, which made It easier to construct accurately in brick, stone and concrete, became the customary form of the antique domical vault. In erecting the hemispherical vault on a monumental scale on baths, Roman tombs and temple walls, the Romans found it necessary, in order to withstand the outward thrust, to conceal it on the exterior either partially, by loading the walls up to the haunch of the dome, or entirely, by carrying up the supporting walls around it and then covering it with a protecting roof of tile (Fig. 73). Hence, in the Roman tradition most domes of masonry were largely concealed on the exterior. In some regions, such as Armenia, where there may have been originally a wooden domical tradition in wood which was later translated Into stone, there may have also been climatic reasons for protecting the dome under a conical or polygonal roof. In those regions, such as Syria, where there was a persistent tradition of domes and strong wooden feature on dominant making the exterior, there was a marked tendency to exaggerate its conoid and bulbous appearance. In addition to the conoid, hemispherical and bulbous domes there were also melon domes (Figs. 16, 152, 153, 188), which were common in the Near East by the Early Christian period, whose corrugations on the exterior were due to their original construction in wood, although their peculiar shape was later imitated in brick and stone. The probable symbolism of the melon dome and its relation ideational reasons for the dome the to the lotus rosette of Egypt and the lotus domes of India will be discussed viously it later. 5 stead, it sustains the assumption that domical forms took shape in pliable materials and were translated into wood carpentry before being reproduced in brick and stone masonry. The could not have been constructed of this portable war-machine, but must have been made of wood and, perhaps, masonry on dome in question is a protective covering on the tower of an Assyrian battering ram. Ob- sheathed with metal. 5 See p. 122. II * THE USE OF THE WOODEN DOME IN THE NEAR EAST in the the wooden dome discussing the historical evidence for the early use of Near East, some consideration should be given to the theoretical advan- of why a domical style of architages of the wooden dome and to the question ture should have developed apparently so rapidly in Asia Minor, Byzantium and If the dome Syria regions which suffered such severe and recurrent earthquakes. BEFORE was only a practical form of masonry vaulting, why was it adopted in regions where the heavy masonry dome was more difficult and dangerous to construct than gabled and flat roofs? its Because of lapsing if disruptive thrusts the masonry dome was in constant danger of col- supporting it walls, piers or buttressing were disturbed. When built large and imposing, made upon raised required massive supports and buttressing up to its haunch, which it impossible or at least very dangerous to make its domical shape fully visible the exterior. The wooden dome, on the contrary, was light and could safely be clerestories. and of wide span on relatively thin walls and high Once constructed, its rigid framework exerted relatively little thrust. Furthermore, in wood carpentry the builders could easily and safely reproduce on up large, free standing a large scale the curved profiles of those conoid and bulbous shapes which were impractical in masonry but which had become customary and symbolically significant upon the traditional ritualistic shelters. Once completed, the wooden dome could be it protected and sheathing. made resplendent, like the celestial symbol that was, by a gilded metal And yet, in spite of the advantages of the wooden dome, we find in some countries which started with the tradition of wood carpentry and where the masonry domes were in danger of being destroyed by the recurrent earthquakes an evident desire or necessity to translate the domical shape into masonry. In those regions where timber was becoming scarce through deforestation and limited transportation facilities it is easily understood why the wooden dome was abandoned. At the same time there was in the antique world the conviction, regardless of fact, that masonry construction was in itself enduring and a mark of superior greatness. Roman interest in the mechanics of vaulting, and imperial ideas of a state architecture of solid and enduring of the empire. masonry, had perfected domical construction and introduced it into various parts The masonry dome had come to be a mark of royal and divine power. Since all large churches were built with the approval and assistance of the State, the Church was dome the strongly influenced by imperial building methods, and the masonry of stone, brick and concrete became more and more common. At the same time in Syria at least, to be so characteristic of the as wooden dome continued, it church architecture that was taken over by the Arabs the distinctive feature of their mosques. Individual scholars have recognized and discussed the use of the 10 wooden dome WOODEN DOME in the ancient IN THE NEAR EAST architectures of India, Russia of the and Early Christian periods and its later importance in the domical and the Islamic world. 1 Nevertheless, the significance in the early evolution of domical styles has been largely disreit it wooden dome garded, partly, would appear, because a derivative has left so little archaeological evidence, but largely because historians of architecture have been schooled to the belief that the wooden dome was as the form of construction, imitating masonry vaults. As long dome was roofs considered to have been only a kind of vaulting essentially it peculiar to the exotic art of the Orient, as was known in the nineteenth century, and the wooden upon the circular Hellenistic world were thought to and polygonal buildings of Greece and the have been always conical rather than domical, and assume that domical traditions scholars were unable to reverse their reasoning of masonry but were also developed independently in different parts of both Europe and Asia. The Etruscans certainly knew the wooden dome, as did the later Roman builders, and in the Saar basin of the earlier than those of wood were not only Germanic North it can be shown that the domical shape was used upon houses, tombs, temples and city towers and was not translated into masonry form until after the Romans came to dominate the country. It is also possible that domical houses and temples of wood carpentry were common from an Danube to early period along the borders of the Black and Caspian Seas from the contacts with the Byzantine Armenia and the Caucasus before and Sassanian Empires introduced the organized labor and technical means nent masonry. It is of reproducing the traditional domical shapes in more perma- only in India, however, that the importance of wood carpentry in the development of domical architecture has been fully recognized: 2 in a study and Mutation in Indian and Eastern Architecture/' William Simpson outlined the stages by which arcuated and domical forms developed from primitive habitations of bamboo and thatch and were later translated into cut stone. a In fact, entitled "Origin Simpson laid down the premise that wood carpentry was "one of the necessary between the first origin and its full development in stone," steps In 1913, when Birnbaum endeavored to demonstrate from literary sources that 1 H. Thiersch ("Antike Bauten fur Musik," Zeitschrtft -fiir Geschichte der Architektur, n, 1908/9, 33ff.) restored the tholos of Epidauros A. K. Coomaraswamy (History o/ Indian and Indonesian Art, 1927, 49) wrote, "Practically, it 3 with a wooden dome whose construction recalled the carpentry domes "en parasol" reproduced in a number of roek-cut Etruscan tombs L'Art etrusque, 1889, 156, fig. 124; (J. Martha, G. Dennis, The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, 1878, r, 239, 274, 448; K. Lehmann, countries, can hardly be doubted that, as in other the form of the god's house is derived from that of human dwellings and tombs, the main source leading back to the domed thatched hut and the barrel vaulted types of the Todas"; and in tracing the origin of the domical vihara and fire temple, A. "The Dome of Heaven," Art Bulletin, xxvn, Foucher (L'Art greco-bouddhique du Ghandhara,i, 1905, 128) pointed out that the domical forms went back to the primitive round hut 1945, 20 n. 176). Other references to the use of the wooden dome in Greece: P. Cawadias, "La Tholos d'pidaure et le peinture Pausias," Melanges Nicole, 1905, 61 1; H. Pomtow, "Die Grosse Tholos zu Delphi," Klio, xir, 1912, 2l6ff. and were constructed in wood long before they were translated into stone. 3 W. Simpson, R.LB.A. Transactions, vn, 22gff, 11 Simeon Stylites at KaFat Sim 'an with a pointed and bulbous dome of wooden construction. made no attempt to trace the wooden dome back to its early origins and was reluctant to admit that its bulbous form could have antedated the Islamic period in the archi- W. that the bulbous dome must have evolved "in the stratum of wood architecture which extended through India. Even though he says wooden dome in Islamic architecture was at an early date translated into it stone. "Mschatta. 4 ture. Nazlanzus and Nyssa had wooden roofs. 8 i. A. after careful study. 4). K. 4 Strzygowski. C. Jahrbuch der preussischen Kunstsammlungen. 6 1923. 9 In 1943 Born. Krencker. 1943." W. XLII. Watzinger. 1913. 1939. As early as 1921. C. Creswell. restored the great octagon of S. 1938.WOODEN DOME IN THE NEAR EAST the octagonal churches of Antioch. 10 Church Art. Klasse. 120-121. 83-87. 181-209. J. C. Somewhat later. a wooden dome is a paradox. as he wrote. 7 to trace the Islamic Having shown that the been built by Syrian workmen and presumably represented the continuation of a wooden dome back to its probable early Arab domes of wood must have Syrian tradition. no." Repertorium fur Kunstwissenschaft. C. without discussing the evidence. he does not intimate that may have had a long previous history in widely separate regions. 7 of the Born. Die Bau- kunst der Armenier und Europa. K. 1929. always came back to his undemonstrated conviction that the dome itself originated in the 5 brick architecture of Mesopotamia and Iran. 10 At that the even suggested that Syria must have led in the development. however. 1917. the Near East and Russia" and the tecture of Syria. Herzfeld insisted that the Early Christian churches of Syria had wooden domes which were taken over by the Arabs for their mosques. Krencker. By 8 polygonal and cruciform churches of Syria and Palestine. Die Wallfahrtskirche des SiStylites in Kal'at Sim'dn (Abhandlungen der preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. however." Journal of the Ameriin. fully accepted the existence of the wooden dome as the prevailing type of roof upon the circular. A. Strzygowski. in an article on the history of the bulbous dome. he disregarded the literal meanings of the texts and insisted that their wooden roofs were either conical or pyramidal in shape because. 1935. can Society of Architectural Historians. which seems to require further explanation. hist. Origin of Christian meon D. Altai-Iran. Creswell in his Early Muslim Architecture undertook prototypes in Syria. ii. cited ochia. 1921. Creswell apparently disregarded the logic of his own arguments. Phil. Nazianz 5 A. "Die Oktogone von Antiund Nyssa. 1918. considering the evidence as "somewhat ambiguous and unsatisfactory/* and invariably came back to the traditional conclusion that the Syrian and Palestinian churches of the central type must have had wooden roofs of conical rather than domical shape. in his study of the celestial symbolism of the dome. Early Muslim Architec- 12 . Watzinger. although he repeatedly pointed out the possible influences of wooden prototypes upon the stone architecture of Armenia and suggested certain wooden derivations for the Asiatic adjustment of the dome to a square plan. "The Origin and Distribution Bulbous Dome. Die altslauische Kunst. Denkmaler Palastinas. 6 Later. 1932-40. Hira und Badlya. Birnbaum. the experienced archaeologist D. Lehmann. xxxvi. In 1945 K. E. 9 131. same time he advanced the conclusion. 8. Herzfeld. 1933- 35. 12 Herzfeld. 11 The fol'In Syria wood was throughout antiquity the specific material for ceilings" and said that the great Syrian domes of Bosra. royal baldachin. and they disregarded domical construction in wood because so much of Syria and Palestine was thought to have been barren and tlmberless. the symbolIsm of the primitive shelter and house of the dead was extended to the whole church: gradually became the manifest symbol of the martyrium. 13 . it is necessary to review the evidence for the use of the wooden dome. xxvn. which possible to construct In the architecture itself a sepulchral a ciborium. he tells how the builders. a divine form and celestial symbol over an altar. Buildings. Jerusalem and Damascus. Procopius. because they did not realize how mud K. The existence of forests and the use possibilities of of timber as late as the sixth century are clearly verified by the account of Procoplus. which may have been domical. Even the acknowledged use of great timbered roofs on both the pagan and Christian and the knowledge that fine temples timber was plentiful in the Lebanese mountains. xi/xii. were constructed as double cupolas with an elaborate system of girders and ribs which was the result of 12 experience acquired In shipbuilding." 13 Ars Islamica. In Syria this association of the dome with the martyrium and its transformation from a symbolic shape into a monumental form of architecture was first about wood carthe dome brought by pentry. pulpit and baptismal font. Lehmann. "The Dome of Heaven/' Art Bulletin. 1-27. vL 67. In order to find large timbers for the roof. "Damascus: Studies in Archl11 tecture. did not outweigh the existing testimony of stone roofs in the Hauran and the unquestioned conviction that the dome was primarily a form of vaulting. while forests are known to have existed north of Hebron and in the region of Lake Tiberius. v. Early archaeologists and many later students of Early Christian architecture minimized the importance of the dome in Syria and Palestine because they found so few remains of masonry vaults on churches of the central the type. At the same time it is essential to note to what extent the dome was primarily the disfeature of the tinguishing mortuary shelter and the martyrium. all of wood. With the growth of the ritual of the dead and the architectural elaboration of the simple provisions for the mensa martyrium into a commemorative monument and church. In describing the new church of the Virgin at Jerusalem. "searched through tall trees 13 all the woods and forests enough and every place where they had forest heard that very grew and found a certain dense it produced cedars of extraordinary height/' Ever since recent excavations have made clear that the central churches oi Antioch. many excavators anc scholars have somewhat casually assumed. 1945. throne. Bosra and Gerasa could not have had masonry domes.WOODEN DOME much of the architecture and suggested that it IN THE NEAR EAST wooden dome In Etruscan evidence for the Importance of the and Roman lowing year Herzfeld wrote: may have been used In ancient Greece. Ill. it made tomb. Before the central-type churches of Antioch can be restored and properly related to the history of the domical tradition in from times down to Its adoption Syria pagan by Islam. puffed-up was free standing ("rising on high"). 75-87. The temple and its final destruction by fire in 402 A. F." 18 According to this account. 87. op. that their wooden roofs must have been either pyramidal or conical. 192). . 6955. Marc le Diacre. 1882. Die kirchliche Baukunst des Abendlandes. 1950.. 1-27. G. n. G. Stark. Kugener. i.. then. and perhaps pointed like a pine cone. cols. Once of the domical recognized and the mystic importance to shape is understood. Palas. Dictionnaire. That tells it of a burning beam was built of wood can only be inferred from the account which falling from the roof upon the tribune who was supervising the efforts to save this "most renowned center of a dying heathen world. Gaza und die philis14 (Deipnosoph. 36. Dehio and G. 16 A. from the Latin translation. the ruler of the universe. by Mark the Deacon.cit. the domical meaning of the Cabrol. rather than gabled. Zeus: a Study in Ancient no opening in the top of the dome Dehio. d'archeologie cols..WOODEN DOME IN THE NEAR EAST content the Christians attached to specific architectural forms. Sepp and Strzygowski inferred Religion. iii. Kleinasien. 72) who describes it as use for a domical covering over altar (J. MARNEION. may (c. B. and B. 1887. Sepp. 1913. Denk. K. 140. a sky god. wooden roofs. and by its later Byzantine use for a domical vault. taische Kuste.) The Marneion was one of the most renowned pagan temples and the earliest known 14 building in the Syro-Palestinian region which presumably had a wooden dome. 83!. 1903.D. Gregoire and M. are reliably described in the Life of Porphyry by Mark the Deacon who knew the Bishop of Gaza between 382 and 392 A.549!!. 46. Mark is very specific in saying that it "was round. J. Persian and Christian architecture this had a clearly recognized celestial 15 symbolism." which resembled a pine cone. Although Mark is the first writer to use the term kiborion for the dome of a building. 1914-40. 17 of The Life of Porphyry. 84) points out that Lehmann. Hill. well." Although most historians of the period have accepted the fact that the Marneion had a wooden dome. Cook. i. some scholars have 14 F. Bishop Gaza. the evidence for the use of the wooden dome in Syria and the Near East is very specific and surprisingly large considering how few and the records attempt to describe the appearance and construc- tion of churches fact that excavations can never reveal more than very in- direct indications as to the use of carpentry the use of the wooden dome it is domes upon the ruined churches. Die Felsenkuppel.. iSggff. "puffed-up.-A. Watzinger. xiv. becomes necessary reexamine not only the prevailing theories beliefs but also the plans of regarding the origin and dissemination of domical many Syrian churches which 1. Realencyclopadie. tomb or Braun. Cres- word by is Muslim Architecture. Pauly-Wissowa. 1852. Leclercq. it is significant that temple was dedicated to Marnas. Since Karl Lehmann has already shown that the dome in Roman. cols. N. Nevertheless. 15 Cabrol and H.cit. being supported by two colonnades. and in the center was a dome and rising on high. von Bezold. i.. Creswell there was as (op. liche Altar." In his 3 description of the temple. Der christ- 1924. its dome (Kifi&piQv). xiv.D. Stark. Early 1464*!. Dictionnaire chretienne et de liturgie. H. B. have had domical. 101. 111. cuplike. bulbous ("swollen"). vi.D. n. who was probably a Palestinian 16 adaptation of the Cretan Zeus. either a its clearly indicated by Athenaeus I. GAZA 130 A. Strzygowski. one within the other. 599-600. Grabar. Greswell resorted to argument when he insisted must have been conical "on the analogy of the Anastasis. it significant that the Eudoxiana was built by an An- perhaps actually built. for by this time there was a recognized 21 symbolic relation between the cruciform plan and a commemorative building. Sergius may have been part of the thirty- two of to 19 this particular marble which the Empress Eudoxia is known to have presented Bishop Porphyry for the construction of his church. the church of 22 23 which replaced it was a martyrium containle Diacre. an architect of Antioch. or celestial dome. as the as did the other fourth and at fifth century cruciform martyria. Creswell. cols. Diet. there are other indicatiochene architect at who knew.cit. 35). such Holy Apostles Gregory Constantinople. as the dedication would imply. 152-157. like so many Palestinian churches. there was a dispute at Gaza whether its round plan should be reproduced as a Christian church. S. Etudes sur I'andenne Alexandrie. Finding it difficult to believe that Gaza had two cruciform churches and did not continue ary.. 25 Since the only cruciform 123. xiv. M. Since one purpose of this study carried with it to show that the cruciform plan the concept of a monumental. Rivoira. 19 in a circle and insisted that its wooden While admitting meant dome. 109. 1496. case for this The presumption seems to be somewhat stronger than Leclercq stated it. 84. 1499. Although little is known about the church. the royal donor: at Alexandria. when the Empress Eudoxia decided that the new church should be cruciform. the Serapeion. which was finished in 407 and dedi- cated to Holy Easter. Moslem Architecture. as to "the Holy ful Man and expert person" (Bishop Porphyry) engaged Rufinus. G. John at Ephesus and the church of is Simeon Stylites at Kal'at Sim'an." 20 Following the destruction of the Marneion in 402 A. 23 Over and above this general argument that jy the fifth century the dome was symbolically associated with a cruciform type of martyrium. because he only drew attention to the possibility that the four columns of Carystos marble seen by Choricius in the church of S.. Cabrol. the day of the Resurrection. Martyrium. it ing the relics of John the Baptist (Gregoire and Kugener. Ibid. but it was a martyrium. T.WOODEN DOME disregarded the text that kiborion that it IN THE NEAR EAST roof was conical. 24 25 See p. sepulchral ciborium. and tions to show that the Eudoxiana was domical. a faithto build the new edifice. was destroyed at about the same time as the Marneion. S. by S. 39. to preserve its first Christian sanctu- Leclercq suggested that the Eudoxiana was actually the cruciform church of 2* Sergius which Choricius of Gaza saw in the sixth century and described as domical. de Zogheb.D. 314-334. Marc was known by the name of the 137) and was Emperor Arcadius not unusual for a church built with imperial assistance to be known for a time by the name (Sozomenus. is at the center of the cross. 1918. op. 15. intended to commemorate a 22 holy event rather than to enshrine any actual relics. other than it was cruciform and called it the Eudoxiana. Further- 15 . A. the fact that it was cruciform is a strong indication that had a domical crossing. The new church was undoubtedly a martyrium.D. where another famous domical temple of the pagan world. vn. See p. the one built S. 20 2l i. i. at Nyssa. S. the cruciform martyrium Kaoussie-Antioch about 381 A. 1910. In the end.. Babylas at Kaoussie-Antioch.. It is. and Vincent endeavored to prove that its original dome of masonry was changed in the seventh century to a truncated cone of carpentry construction. have found evidence in the accounts of Eusebius and Aetheria to show that the circular rotunda could not have been erected until after the fourth century. a ritualistic sanctuary. if we accept the evidence of the mosaics at Gerasa (Figs. Martyrium. W. While this it schematic that identification of S. Sprache u. one by Modestus between 616 and 618 A. a second by the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Monomachus in 1048 after the destruction of the building by the Fatimite Caliph in 1009. therefore. 31) the martyrium of S. n." Zeitschrijt /. and then underwent a long succession of restorations and three rebuildings. Ejner was an open Anastasis was built of timber and so probably kirchen i ("GravJerusalem. 53-60) without advancing any new evidence am suggests that the Holy Sepulchre semicircular exedra. Creswell arrived at the conclusion that it had a conical roof of wood. 1938. "The later dome over the J. which was burnt by the Persians in 614 A.. Crowfoot and Watzinger are of the opinion that its dome 28 was wood. "Une Mosaique byzantine a Ma'in. while favoring a masonry dome. sacred not this whether or know martyrium had a gilded history of architecture to wooden dome.D. as a celestial form. we must 25 assume that both cruciform sanctuaries were the first church of Gaza. Unfortunately. open at the top. 27 28 Grabar. Early Churches in Palestine. would have established the type to for subsequent martyria and carried over into Christian symbolism the antique ideas of the domical shape as an ancestral abode which was given man by God.D. 1941. agypt. 29 John the Baptist 28 at Alexandria was domical R. Grabar.-XLVii.xiv/2. then it is merely unfortunate that the Ma'in mosaic is so three gabled arms of a cruciform plan and. 1935.WOODEN DOME IN THE NEAR EAST church mentioned by Choricius is the domical church of S. H. Altertumsk. If this is a reasonable deduction. Sergius and since the later mosaics at Ma'in show the city of Gaza as characterized by a cruciform church. Watzinger. Crowfoot. Evers ("Zu den Konstantinsbauten Heiligen Grabe in Jerusalem. this omphalos of the Christian faith. JERUSALEM The memorial tomb of Christ erected by order of Constantine was the most revered of supreme importance to the sepulchral monument of Christendom. a royal baldachin and a cosmic house.. it does prove that to the Christian builders at Gaza carried on a domical tradition which went back pagan 2. pl. did not undertake to depict a domical crossing. very little is known about the appearance and construction of the Constantinian rotunda. Sergius with the Eudoxiana is still problematic. Denk. 131. more. 29 For the purpose of this study it is possible to disregard their theories. LXXV. de Vaux. 30. A few scholars. Palas. because the shows only of the restricted space. original There has been no agreement as to whether the martyrium had a domical or conical roof constructed of masonry or wood: Heisenberg and Leclercq believed that it had a massive. 257. (326-335 A. i.. 105. G. of the If domical. entertains the possibility that it 27 may have been wooden. was the Constantinian dome".) THE HOLY SEPULCHRE." Studier fra Sprog-og Dyggve 16 . times. built in the center New Jerusalem." Revue biblique. hemispherical dome of masonry. it should be noted. a divine heroon.D. and the third by the Latin crusaders in the twelfth century. group of neophytes on the mysteries of the Resurrection. In fact. Jeru- salem* u. 81 Oldtidsforskning. which he instructed C. written in 347/8. which must have resembled the two wooden domes on the Qubbat-as-Sakhra (Fig. carefully replaced by the Patriarch Thomas. even the structural history of the Holy Sepulchre. The 17 . n. 30 It is equally clear from this account of Eutychius that the wooden roof. who was a ground [as here] like the (Vincent and Abel. 80 ward of Bishop Makarius and present at the dedication in 335 A. was constructed with two domical cedars and pines in order to introduce Thomas between 807 and 820 A." Byzaniinische Zeitschrift. sume that the rotunda was built after the elevated above the royal mausolea?" fourth century it is necessary to disregard the evidence of S. In order to as- and earlier where he was preparing his audience for the simplicity and significance of the actual cave in which Christ was buried. E.. Oriental. must have been domical... Clermont-Ganneau. the Divine Imperator. series in. for building a conical roof with an inner Russian Daniel described the church as e 106/7. Cyril of Jerusalem. Copenhagen. "not closed by a vault of stone" but covered 1 and outer shell. the arguments why an imperial type of mausoleum was built and why it must have had a gilded dome of wood apply with equal validity to a successor of Constantine. Christian. i).D. as late as ^ with a cupola constructed of wood. Jerusalem. 1898. 31 Vincent and Abel. n. it must be assumed that he pointed to the monument the and grave enclosing mausoleum as he asked the rhetorical questions: "Is it a tomb made by the hand of man? Is it this Holy Church" to Constantine. 186. That Modestus rebuilt the roof in wood carpentry is made clear by the account of Eutychius (876-940 A. because there was no structural reason roof. Regarding the construction of these domes Eutychius relates how Thomas "covered the dome with plaster inside and out and then built another dome. so8E). 37). Vincent f and F. "The piety of actual Rulers has clothed with silver and gold this a logie Corpus Scriptor. provides some indication of the shape and carpentry construction of its root Considering the Christian reverence for tradition and the immediate restoration of the holy monument by the Modes tus between 61 6 and 618 A. n f 258. must have been domical. in the lesson (n. instead of altering its symbolic dome to a truncated cone of wood. rebuilt the roof "bit new shells. 334-335. Publication of the Philological-Historical Society. Weigand ("Zwei neue Hypothesen iiber die Konstantinischen Bauten am heiligen Grabe in Jerusalem. for questionthe Constantinian ing origin of the rotunda.WOODEN DOME because. 78-88) refutes both theories that the Constantinian structure was not a rotunda. S. it is reasonable to assume that he restored the Holy Sepulchre to the sacred form and character which it had before the Persians burnt it in 614.> H.). Pococke ed." or qouhah.D. in Eutychius. In his Catechetical Lectures. leaving between the two a space sufficient for a man to walk around/ this ninth 1 Evidently century wooden which Eutychius and others after him so specifically designate as a "dome." sending to Cyprus for timbers in place of those erected by Modestus. opxit.-M.D. Recueil d archeaorientate. he said. 422-425. 19x4-26. as we know it. no. Duckworth and Creswell.D. as there were valid reasons. H. XL. 242 247. 1941) endeavors to prove that the tomb holy church in which -we are united" (n. 6) and then goes on to attribute "the building of was in a large semicircular exedra which was the apse of an unroofed basilica. Abel. even if IN THE NEAR EAST do not seem to be. as suggested by Vincent. which there Quite apart from the ideological reasons why a mausoleum erected by Constantine an aeterna memoria of Christ. who tells how the Patriarch by bit. or great domical baldachins (Fig. Creswell. Khitrowo (Itineraires en Orient. i. "Doder Sonnenpalast. either a symbolic Creswell. the original Islamic dome of 685-705 A. There were many square fire temples. however. Grabar has sugof Septimius Severus mus aurea gested . I/Orange. Duckworth.cit. which it is it by Mrae.). 161. . 249) that the Syrian the Janiculum at Rome may have of temple been a domical structure because at the center of its polygonal plan there was.D. "Le Couple h&iopolitain ." Serta Eitremiana.. therefore. Geneva. open at the top. a chronological comparison of the different types of Latin seals of the twelfth century. altar Gauckler. xxix. 32 Furthermore. which cal. as far as it goes.. . 220. as is illustrated in Figures 218-227. F. one arrives at the conclusion that the Arab dome of the early seventh century over the Sakhra which Eutychius says was a dome taken from a Christian church at Baalbek and the ninth century dome on the Anastasis both continued a native tradition of domical construction in in the original Holy Sepulchre and went back to wood which was followed 33 pagan structures like the Marneion." 82 33 (Martyrium. was covered with a trun- Why. then. 1909. i. . and that scholars have generally assumed that all the representations of the twelfth century were intended to show the building as having had a conical and hypaethral roof of wood. Le Saint Sepulchre est [plac] sous cette coupole decouverte. . usually restored with open interiors. H.. Le Sanctuaire syrien tomb or du could not have been the only antique temple of Syria which was domi- The Marneion Janicule. de sorte que Feglise est d&ouverte par le haut. op. 84. is IN THE NEAR EAST Constantinian building was burnt by the Persians and immediately replaced with a timber roof. idem. P. 453) made use of the Latin 35 seals in his and 18 said. 1889. mais se compose de poutres russes (H. 34 cated cone? been too skeptical about the early use of the wooden dome and the existence of a domical tradition in Palestine and Syria? Or is it that Is it that they have they have not realized the tremendous symbolic importance of the dome in the late antique period and hence have attached too much significance to some of the seals of the Latin kings of Jerusalem and the is fact that the roof of the Anastasis was not domical after the twelfth century? It true that a few Crusader seals depict the Holy Sepulchre with a truncated cone. On evident that the Holy Sepulchre had its the basis of the graphic evidence. 34 Ever since Be Vogue (Les figlises de la Terre Sainte. 1942. 1922. as it should. "la coupole de 1'eglise n'est pas fermee par une voute de pierre. clear. 1860.. . op.D. 239*1. 74. 123) like the one over the Great Altar of Zeus at Pergamum (Fig. 106) or like the bulbous dome on the square Parthian fire temple (Fig. then the original roof of the Holy Sepulchre. 1912. 228) which is carved on the arch Vincent and Abel. have highly competent scholars disregarded this evidence and concluded that the Holy Sepulchre. en bois en guise de charpente. were presumably covered with similar gilded domes of wood. i). by accepting CreswelTs arguments dome of Qubbat-as-Sakhra (Fig. T. at least since the seventh century.cit." Melanges d'archeologie et d'histoire. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre. that if the must have been made roof of wood. Abb. 35 1 1 make Byzantine translation dome until about 6g. opxit. 87. if Modestus reproduced the original was repaired in the ninth century by Thomas. which is known to have had a that the and his roof present double dome of wooden planks In 903 A. then the wooden roof of the Constantinian building was domical Hence.WOODEN DOME The evidence. constructed as recognized by Creswell. by Modestus. (P. Actually. 13) reads. reproduces. study of the churches of Jerusalem "During the Middle Ages the trun- . as in a Chris- tian t martyrmm. 37). Al- new rulers began to renovate Holy Sepulchre.two domical buildings for the seal of his city of Ramah (ibid. 163-167. 38). appears the first Holy Sepulchre with a conoid dome to the of the series (Fig. of xvi/3). balancing 1175) the structure 12. 219) with a hypaethral opening. 5. which was crowned with a Holy Sepulchre looks like a domical surmounted by a crescent (ibid. and not conical. 127. 223). of representation. xvi/5). no. shows the similar one on the Templum (ibid. Following accurately (Fig. Baldwin V (1183-1185) the Holy Sepulchre. Holy Sepulchre What is most F. 220). 227). 225) cross in place of the Arab crescent. it was natural for the design to have the Anastasis on the left.. no. i. example again illustrated by another seal of Ramah. nos. while not the entirely true to fact because at this time Anastasis had an oculus in the top of its dome. Fur- thermore. no. no. and Sigillographie de I'orient latin. 221) which shows that he had are noted. the traditional intent of presenting the dome with an hypaethral opening is more evident (ibid. pi. and on the Jean de loss Brienne (1210-1237). on the later seal (Fig. pi. different from the were presented on either side of the Tower of David. its domical shape (Fig. so exaggerated in many cases that it looks like a crescent (ibid. no. while the Templum was on the eastern tion: indicate the persistence of a domical tradion the seal (Fig. 1/3). with the difference that one a crescent dome is surmounted by and the other by a die-makers is cross. which the Arabs had built in imitation of the Holy Sepulchre. evident in the are way that the single. pi. xvi/a). like the one on the Templum Domini." architectural historians and numismatists have assumed its IN THE NEAR EAST evidence of these seals has been the disregard of a chronological development.. which guarded the western and principal entrance of the city. the royal seals start out at the 131) beginning of the century by showing the Holy Sepulchre with a conoid dome (Fig. 134. seals of Baldwin II (1118and Baldwin III (1144-1162) modify the design and present the Holy Sepulchre more 1 cal intent of the Schlumberger. gave rise though to this some verted the Aksa mosque (Fig. is the seal of BaldII win (Fig. on which the domical buildings flanking the tower are surmounted by flying banners (ibid.. now moved to the right of the tower.. in interpreting the architectural What 19 is most significant in this whole series .. 43) into a part of the palace and transformed the Dome of the cases make stylized simplifications which in the roof look like a truncated some cone surmounted by a crescent. Blanchet. The subsequent In contrast.WOODEN DOME cated cone with characterized the rotunda at Jerusalem. Lusignan (i 186) is still very apparent seal of (ibid.. it is important to note that the seal of Baldwin I. the series as a whole Rock (Figs. the curious variations and even misunderstandings of the roof on the later seals all David. 1943. 1/2). pi. the Templum. 222. 17. at the and enlarge the same time they con- change. 222. It necessary to question this conclusion when the different types of seals depicting the Holy Sepulchre are arranged in chronological order and the variations in the treatment of the roof is proof that the designers were at sciously first strongest con- presenting the Holy Sepulchre as domical.. pi. significant is that the earliest in the series is dated 1172 (G. pi. into shows that the intent was to present the roof as a dome with an oculus (Fig. 37. belonging to Baldwin III of Mirabel and dating between 1 168 1174. pis. 386) attributes a seal of beams showing that all the representations of the Holy Baldwin III to Baldwin I The Sepulchre on the lead seals of the Crusaders were intended to represent a conical roof. Chalandon and A. pi. v/g. 18. no. 218). 226) on a seal of Guy de XVI/l). 218). Therefore. xvm/4). to have an onion-shaped dome surmounted with a crescent (ibid.. The domi- top is that of the Canons of (Figs. 26. pi. 220} of Amaury I (i 162- side of the city. The method no. intended to depict the gores of clearly dome. When the royal seal was designed during the reign of Baldwin I (1110-1118) the two great historic and domical buildings of Jerusalem curved the lines. One of the difficulties of Jerusalem (Fig. Since the Sepulchre lay immediately to the left of the Porta straight. The only series which unquestionably depicts the building with a truncated cone of straight timbers converging on the opening the at the taken over the royal design of a tower flanked by. 126. xx/s). the no. executed after the proves that the building was still symbolically thought of as a domical structure. 223). intended to distinguish the Anastasis from the Templum. the capture of the city in 1099 an d the establishment of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. xix/j). n. double lines of the timbered cone on the seals of the Canons (Figs. for Vincent (Jerusalem. fig. This intent is a church known as the Templum Domini. 6). Les le royaume de Vincent and Abel. 224)... the Byzantines undertook to rebuild the Holy Sepulchre. 10. 138-140. and back to the time of Modestus. . Paris. fig. but not the Martyrium. La- doire. when it was consecrated Monuments des croises dans 149 completed (C. Les glises de la Terre Holy Sepulchre in 1169 to show that it must Sainte. it and studied. the church of Calvary in the in plan of Cambral (Fig. was conical. there are indications and having built the new domical choir of the Calvary church and joined shell left to the rotunda of the Anastasis. quia ecclesia desuper patet disco op eric. 259. u. was 1 truncated cone. 266-279).cit. cupola of masonry. 217220) advances the evidence from the Cartulaire du Saint-Sepulchre and the complaint of the op. which present the Holy Sepulchre in the same manner as it appears on the seals of the Canons of the Holy Sepulchre with an unquestionable truncated cone of rigid timbers (ibid. .. is not and the account of Ladoire in i7ig. 454). which Thomas had restored in the previous century. Even though they did not have time to complete the rebuilding before the arrival of the Turks and then of the Crusaders. 1928. Republic of Genoa regarding the removal of their inscribed charter from the wall of the u De . 20 . pluvia cadere possit sanctum super sepulchrum. The fact does not lessen the presumption that periodic rebuildings of the roof of the building it continued to be distinguished by its heavenly dome until the Westerners shifted the emphasis to the dome over the choir. He wrote: Et opertum ne dum pluit. that the Crusaders shifted the domical emphasis to their own massive with an oculus in its dome. then. while the seal of Amaury I dating from 1168 shows the Anastasis in the traditional manner was at this time. Their introduction of an oculus the Crusaders testified to had captured the city by Saewulf in 1 102/3.. op. After the fire of 916 the wooden cupola. Hence it seems probable that it of the same period as the seals of the Canons. leaving it with a Although it is clear from the various pilgrim accounts that nearly all the work on the new Crusader choir. From the evidence. 140. Vincent and Abel. dom and of royal stamps are the seals of (Fig.cit. 9. . One is immediately struck by the fact that these particular seals of Amaury I are have been in 1169 that the old rotunda was combined with the new choir. Then. and for some reason removed the outer. 1720. Vogue. domical shell from the roof of the Anastasis. the is fact that the church was covered with a truncated cone after the twelfth century no proof Holy Sepulchre in the Byzantine period. following the systematic destruction of both ium in 1009. when the two parts were united. This opening 38 but in the roof was later referred to by William of Tyre between 1 1 60 and 1 1 8o. Amaury I Jerusalem. Enlart. . was repaired between 969 and the Anastasis and the Martyr983. op. H. De Vogue (op. nos.cit. removed the outer with a truncated cone. the Holy Sepulchre proper Whatever may have happened that the to the domical roof under the Crusaders.> dating from 1169 and 1172. 36 but it implies a all modern and Western disregard of that the dome had come to symbolize in the that there were Early Christian and Byzantine architecture of the Near East. 93-95. we may be sure that they restored this venerated monument with is a wooden roof in their own domical tradition.rit. it may be assumed that some change was made in the shape of the roof around 1169. s6 Vincent and Abel. 257.WOODEN DOME true has not been fully published after IN THE NEAR EAST that the Crusaders. in 1048. Voyages 37 . The case for the conical roof. which was after but before they had had time to establish a king- start rebuilding. as presented seals only based upon the Latin by Vincent and Abel. which is but thought to depict the city of Jerusalem around date somewhat later 1150 may because of the presence on it of the bell tower alongside the Holy Sepulchre.WOODEN DOME IN THE NEAR EAST there are no indications in any of these accounts that the hypaethral roof was not domical in shape. 6).. n. The key is mediaeval discrepancies in the representations of the Holy Sepulchre the traditional ideo- of the dome with the monulogical association ment of Christ. 4. Jahrhundert. which is dated about 1 180. n. represented in the plan. dans le royaume de Jerusalem. they also prove that the dome continued to be associated with the monument. Jerusalem. the drawings give no clear indication of when the Anastasis was left with only a truncated cone. the plan of Cambrai (Fig. Although dated by the writing around 1150. bis 16. was the dome of the choir or the traditional roof of the 40 Anastasis which 39 is depicted. finial. but the fact that at this tern over the oculus (ibid. xv. the builddome and a laning still has a large bulbous op. Ibid. representation of the building on the plan of Stuttgart. 4). presents the Anastasis after the later Enlart (Les Monuments des croises is Byzantine tradition with a bulbous dome and a lantern over the oculus (Vincent and Abel. deut. this plan of Cambrai may be somewhat if and dome.. figs. in 1 106/7 specifically describes 39 the roof as a wooden cupola. not only shows both the Anastasis and the Crusaders' choir with domes. 135). n. round lus. which includes the Crusaders' bell tower 5). "Karten und Plane zur Palastinakunde aus dem 7. was not constructed until sometime between 1160 and 1180. Even in the drawing of Bernard de Breitenbach at the end of the fourteenth century. and Abel. Furthermore. xiv. Taf. Both a Greek manuscript (Fig. Another... fig. 136). because the domical association of the building was still so strong that a Greek manuscript of the beginning of the fifteenth century (Fig. to all these 153. is time the Holy Sepulchre. like the Templum Again this shift of emphasis seen in the en- which was formerly the Dome of the Rock. . op. Palastina-Vereins. such as was used to characterize the Holy Sepulchre in the Codex Rossanensis (Fig. 16). a lantern that fig. n. While the subsequent drawings prove rather conclusively the conical form of the roof after the twelfth century. 137-141.. shows the church called "Calvaria" with an onion-shaped dome (Rohricht. capped with a or perhaps with a stylized ocuthe which has a plain dome (R. 317. fig. Zeit. Taf. where the emphasis has been shifted to the Crusaders' dome. an elaborate lantern Florilegium Mekkior de Vogue. made by Erhard Rewick of Utrecht. 1892. 6) in the library at stasis" Cambrai (no. 285. 258. with a gored dome. 756. capped by a small domical lantern (Enlart. 152. 1891. capped by a lantern. 282). fig. This drawing is apparently exceptional. as is best illustrated by the drawing of 1436 in the British Museum (MS has a melon Egerton 1070) where the Anastasis dome with a small oculus and the Crusaders' dome with the Holy Sepulchre. Durrier. d. 64) at Paris clearly shows the Anastasis with a truncated cone and the Crusaders' church with a hemispherical dome. Because of the traditional association of the graving of about 1485. was thought of as domical and hence depicted with a melon dome. much more schematic. on the Crusaders' church. Rohricht." Zettschrift des deutschen Palastina-Vereins. 437) shows the "Ana- century in the Bibliotheque Nationale (MS fr. but also strengthens the evidence of the Latin seals that it was about 1 169 that the Anastasis was left with only a truncated cone. 197-207). although a representation of the end of the fourteenth dome up detail with the steps is depicted in great the exterior of the stone cupola and with (P. n. even though the emphasis was shifted to the masonry dome. Vincent 387). The signifi- cance of the drawing is not so much a question of its accuracy. In fact the Russian pilgrim. 5) of the early fifteenth century and the drawing of Bernard de Breitenbach at the end of the century still regardless of whether it emphasize the bulbous and domical character of the structure. 1909. 289). 40 The plan of Jerusalem (Fig. where it is the Crusaders' dome with op.cit. alongside Crusaders' choir. Daniel. 38. is depicted (Enlart.cit. 140) cor- rect in believing that the bell tower.cit. "The Spain. in 1745. 41 wooden roof. show what is called the "cupola und Palestins . . "Au milieu de Ffiglise 8c directement sous le Dome (qui est ouvert par le haut. 1595. A Description of the East. de Bruyn (Voyage an Levant. written in 1596 and first published in 1609. shown in the restoration. pi. C. of the exterior. it is A drawing of 1586 (G. comme & la Rotonde qui est & Rome). as it did after the rebuilding wooden dome. O. what remained of the There is a hole in the top of the dome to give damaged in the fire of 1808. R. could not have been supported on light columnar supports and without massive and much heavier buttressing up to its haunch. 7) depicts in a crude fashion a wooden roof domes. the one over the tomb being made of cedars and covered with lead. a "dome. 41 light. impossible to see how the Arabs consistently described as a domical building. 1671. shows why a rotunda of this kind must have always had a wooden roof. pL 4. this restoration. 1620. 260. Quite apart from the historical evidence for the use of a considering the question of either the gallery or the shape of the actual tomb. Asia. 3). 1935. i) and assumed that it had a gigantic masonry dome supported upon a circular colonnade in two stories. in its relation of solids to voids (Fig. Pococke. authorities for the most part have accepted Pere Vincent's restoration (Fig. which had been seriously was rebuilt with a dome that was replaced between 1863 consisting of two domical shells pierced is. It By 1810 the roof. . Krautheimer. pL 114. Goujon (Histoire et voyage de la Terre-Sainte. furnishes any evidence in support of the belief that there was a conical roof on either the seventh century or the the history of the by an which Holy Sepulchre. 288. . Florenze). old roof was preserved as reliques. 345) the roof depicted as a wooden. giving a new one. which is done in careful perspective.WOODEN DOME IN THE NEAR EAST Later in the history of the monument the casualness of the Western interest in the shape of the roof is illustrated at the end of the seventeenth century by De Bruyn. 24). and the King of .88. who calls it drawing drawing of the interior (Fig. Pococke. gives it the appearance of having been domical. n. // Devotissimo viaggio di Gerusalemme. Lyon. 1745. Twentyfive years after Ladoire described and drew the interior as conical. 22 . exterior. "Santo Stefano Rotondo a Roma e la chiesa de San Sepolcro a Gerusalemme. Sepulchro" with a truncated cone (pis. die account of J. truncated cone. 1681. 1700. and without such as is by Modestus. 15-16. xn. . in 1681 (Dr. R. mais ensorte pour lacd del S. 4). Dapper. 129135) says that the Holy Sepulchre has two tant qu'il est garni d'un treillis de fer entreen fa^on de lozanges. Since all the evidence for the Holy Sepulchre combines with the other evidence for the Syrian use of the wooden dome to prove that the rotunda had a only a question of establishing its shape. par ou la lumi&re vient. the Callot drawings in the account of Bernardino Amico (Trattato alle Piante <ir Imaginj delle Sacri Edifizi di Terra Sante. Byzantine structure. fig." but describes it as a truncated cone and so shows his it in his and yet at the same time shows the interior as domical in the same way that roof was of cypress. therefore. Regarding the construction and appearance of the original and presumably Constantinian building. Beschreibung des ganzen Syrien is with an oculus which gives the impression of a cone on the interior and a dome on the exterior." Rivista di archaeologia cristiana. Structurally a masonry dome of seventy-two feet in span. Zuallardo. 144) writes. and 1869 by the present metal roof oculus. 23. as in the Pantheon at Rome/' . De Bruyn did and writes. and the crude drawing shows the roof of the Anastasis as a truncated cone. and the other over the Crusaders' choir being made of stone. interior. an ancestral dwelling like the Domus Romulus. Because predominant interest in the mean- ing of the architectural forms. 48 R. of Christ as in tugurium and tiburium. Later in the combination and also because of the influence West. 1942. for example. 1924. 6-110." Aft Studies. of existing that this new conception of the Sepulchre actually influenced the rebuilding of the inner tomb. 277-282) is o the opin- Reference to the Liturgic Drama/' University of Illinois Studies in Language and Literature. and especially those of Western which are nearly always In connection with the scene of the Holy Sepulchre. the representations of the sepulchral dwelling of Christ vary according to local types and iconographic purpose. 9). Grabar (Martyrium. as will be seen. Style it. are unreliable as origin. mortuary were frequently called a tegurium. while in the lower register is the subsequent event of the angel receiving the Holy Women at the door of the empty Sepulchre. the Holy Sepulchre was actually visualized in more monumental terms as a two-storied structure (Fig. presenting it figuratively as a divine type. at the evidence of the actual appearance of the Anastasis because the intent of the Christian artist was not to show a specific building that few had seen. C.WOODEN DOME One reason IN THE NEAR EAST several competent scholars have favored a conical rather than a domical roof for the original Holy Sepulchre is that they have attached too much Importance to the few representations which show the Holy Sepulchre with a conical roof (Fig. 90. The representations of the tomb of Christ. the memorial of Christ was represented in a of great variety ways. 23 . it is not a two-storied mausoleum which is Instead. 43 42 that the western ivories preserve the appearance of the tomb. 1921. v. shelters. I. for the Christian. depicted. The representations have been compiled by N. vn. as Krauthelmer 42 has shown in the Western imitations of the Holy Sepulchre. As late as the seventh century Arculph described the tomb medio spatio huius interiores rotundas domus rotundum inest in una of this eademaque petra excisum tegurium. "Introduction to an " 'Iconography of Mediaeval Architecture/ Courtauld Instithe and Journal of Warburg tutes. This habit of the mediaeval imagination of dealing primarily with the symbolic content of architectural forms resulted. 1-33. In the end it Is likely 8). but to present a traditional and ideal whose tegurium Implications of salvation would be readily comprehensible. with ion Special E. Brooks. Symbolic imagery of this kind. On the Trivulzio book cover (Fig. Krautheimer. Because of this subjective interest in the meaning of the forms. 9). combined in superimposed In the upper register the symbolic tomb it a traditional tegurium with the tree of the garden growing beside and the guarding soldiers asleep on the ground. the representation artist is is made up of two quite separate iconographic scenes which the registers. as an ideal eternal house in the celestial garden of an afterlife. was ciborium over either a tomb or altar. Baldwin Smith. partly as a result of this fortuitous pagan heroa and mausolea. in never copying a Women building in to to but. Sometimes it was shown as a simple round hut covered with either a domical (Fig. tigurium. was taken over by the Christians with the result that various forms of ritualistic like a man. "A Source of Mediaeval in France. instead. like the antique fully accustomed to think of a shepherd's hut. 7) or conical roof. "The Sepulchre of Christ la Art and Liturgy. vi. a IN THE NEAR EAST is purely symbolic intent of these representations best shown in the mosaics Nuovo (Fig. I. . 221. where one might expect more fidelity forms of the tomb are more ideological than naturalistic: on the Madaba 1 it is only a domelike omphalos rising out of the center of the Holy 1) and on the Rabula Gospels (Fig. vn/i4). "Insignien und Tracht der op. Abb. Numismatique constantinienne. xv/jgg). it usually occurs on coins dedicated to Romulus. While there are several types of memorial. six on a coin of Maxentius (Fig. 21). Sepulchre. 46 The on coins struck by Maxentius.cit. was the only form under which Constantine could 46 recognize a heavenly master. 711/5. pi. to be noted that the mausoleum with one door open undoubtedly indicates that no body was actually buried in the me44... the city is dominated by a structure whose melon dome. / heavenly and eternal memorial in the center . that it became an imperial type of monument until after Diocletian erected his domical tomb temple next to his royal dwelling and made of it a kind of omphalos in the center of his city of Spalato. gle. pis. 10) it is a Syrian rustic shelter. 2. by the late antique period essentially a Roman form of mausoleum. Apollinare tholos. n. regardless of the sequence of events. 9. op. 1908-12. Voetter." Romische Mitteilungen. the memorial. pi. The simplest its drum decorated with statues in projecting gabled niches and suggests the appearance of Theodoric's mausoleum at Ravenna (J. pi. in the scene of the Entry into Jeru- mosaic (Fig.dL } ii. On the eternal memorial of an immortal kosmokrator the dome. op. 1936. xix/io). 102. n. Collection R. figs. the Quite apart from the various ways in which the tomb of Christ was presented in the Holy Sepulchre had to be domical because at the time to when Constantine undertook honor the King of Heaven the domical mausoleum was an established type of imperial tomb or memorial. A. xvii/i*. Even in the East. 11 and xix/i. Jameson. which had a profound symbolic significance in relation to the Cult of the Caesars. 17-21). salem on the Rossano Gospels (Fig. 1 2) where the tomb is a traditional classical and mortuary to fact. 19) (Maurice. i. vn. L.. It is morial. 16). or heroon. pis. Lie- "Architekturbilder auf antiken Munzen/' Die Antike. The second type has columns. This idea of constructing a had become Medaglioni romani. Romischen Kaiser. 1913. of Divus Maximianus (H. 235. 183. as a glorified tegurium and cosmic dwelling which occurs so frequently during the Constantinian period on the coinage as an aeterna memoria and from the time of Diocletian became the standard mausoleum of Western and Early Byzantine emperors. Munzen . (Fig. Gnecci. F. surmounted by the celestial eagle (Figs. Therefore. has importance of the domical mauso- leum during the Constantinian period is shown by its appearance on the imperial coins. arcuated doorway occurs on coins of Valerius (ibid. Romulus tiquity in various parts of the it Although the domical tomb had great anMediterranean world. 1-158. Diodetianus bis Romulus. 25/d. Maurice. XVH/IO. 1912. however. 44 City. was intended to represent the Holy ideational art of this period. Martyrium. Alfoldi. Cohen. xn. masonry cylinder pierced by a rectangular doorway (J. 1880-92. or tomb. 44 45 Grabar. i. type 17) has a plain. At about the same period. Cohen. pi. 48). 128/2). The third type 1935.WOODEN DOME The of S. the domical tomb. Description historique des monnaies frappees sous I' empire romain. 18) struck in honor of Constantius Chlorus (Maurice. 533). a kind of native and ritualistic kalube. and on others (Fig. but a variant with an (Fig.cit. had a heavenly implication which appealed to all those who by the fourth century had 45 corne to visualize the Saviour in all the conventional terms of a divine imperator. they are all characterized by a dome surmounted by a celestial eagle. . 20) and four on others (Fig. There is no evidence. when his domical mausoleum was built in the center of Constantinople and next to the church of the Holy Apostles. or imperial mausoleum at Milan. Constantine built at Jerusalem. Constantius. with varying degrees of condemnation. This imperial tradition was continued by the Gothic Emperor Theodoric at Ravenna and the Frankish Emperor Charlemagne when they built their sepulchral memorials near their palaces. for the rein- Incastro hypogeum near Monte dell* mausoleum o Santa Costanza and that of Monte del Grano. he erected for himself a of the 47 similar domical tomb adjacent to the martyrium church Holy Apostles. 48 Grabar." Saggi sulf architettura etrmca e romana. 9-26. C. which was a kind of omphalos in the center of his city and. even to memorializing himself in his Thirteenth Apostle. does not lessen the presumption that the plan Jahrbuch der deutschen archaeoliscke Imtitut. domical and imperial tomb with a Domus Dei. That the actual construction of the church and tomb was of his earthly stantine. "Mausolei imperiali e reale de basso impero e dell' alta medioevo. for the King o Heaven at Jerusalem and another for himself at Constantinople. the center of the spiritual memoria (the Holy Sepulchre) in connection with a spiritual "residence" (the "Royal Church") for the founder of the heavenly kingdom. or heroon. "Das Konstantinsmausoleum und verwandte Denkmaler.ll* Rom. 185-203. erected next to his palace. held the belief that Constantine built the church of the Holy Apostles and had the desire to be mausoleum to the King of Heaven. i4*ff. hence. of Honorius attached to the transept of Peter. . and throughout the late Empire was a strong contributing factor in the development of domical architecture and in associating the 1940. in the middle of his universe. Like Diocletian's domical tomb. whether it started with Diocletian's palace at Spalato. the combination of a symbolic. 1940. built the mausoleum in connection with church of the Holy Apostles and probably the imperial 48 it. Cecchelli. XLVIII. t XLVI. de Angelus d'Ossat. G. The popularity of the domical tomb at Rome leum der westromischen Dynastie bei Sankt-Peter. the parallel breaks down when it is realized that there are no longer any secure grounds for believing that Constantine.. the historical evidence indi- cates that Constantius was the builder of the church and tomb. an aeterna empire. Marty rium> 1 am indebted to G. i. Koethe." Saggi su. 1933. Architecttura domical shape with a divine and heavenly hereafter. Sciavi. At Rome there were the so-called tomb o Helena on the Labicana." Alt- 1931. the all' Inviolatella. Downey 229-239. Constantine's construction of the Holy domain was carried on by Conmore probably by Constantius. the Also at Rome was later the domical heroon of the which Constantine and Constantius played in the building o the tomb and church. While it may still seem unlikely that Constantine would have neglected to build a mausoleum for himself. perhaps constructed by Theodosius I (H. Rome. Outside Rome there was a domical and presumably pared as part of the study of the Holy Apostles being written by the scholars at Dumbarton Oaks.. and at Saloniki the rotunda of San Giorgio was originally a royal tomb. because he permitted me to read the manuscript which he has preterpretation of the parts Romulus and of tomb S. and then at Constantinople. Although successive generations of Christians. architettura etrusca e romana. Koethe. "La Forma e la costruzione delle cupole nell' archittemra romana. 41 1921). Mitt. 22$ff. Nevertheless. rather than compared as the his son Constantius. the center of his own earthly kingdom. Rivoira." carried to completion by his son. the Torre de' romana. "Zum Mauso- was prepared by Constantine.WOODEN DOME According lishing a to IN THE NEAR EAST Grabar it monumental parallel was with a conscious and profound symbolic intent of estabbetween himself and Christ that Cons tan tine had con- structed an eternal memorial. which may have been erected by Valentinian II. R. 73) was near to the church of Santa Croce. R. 177. this imperial mortuary tradition and the in was the Holy Sepulchre shape and construction of the dome. That it was slightly puffed-up and pointed." Man. 51 For celestial symbolism. Grabar. 1908. in iv. while evident symbolism is shown by the stars painted on in the background. Wulff and fig- 59"> tinische^ O. is than the eighth century and so far as existing criteria indicate might date as early as the sixth" (Morey. which cannot be dated later than the seventh century. at Ravenna the cruciform and domical tomb of Galla Placidia (Fig. Morey. 'The Painted Panel from who arrived at the the Sancta Sanctorum/' Festschrift zigsten zum seek- that the script cannot earlier Geburtstag von Paul Clemen. as the name of its architect. the domical tomb of Charlemagne was next to his palace at Aachen. It was constructed of wood in the Syrian manner and by Syrian workmen. Grisar at- tributed the turies. these traditional conceptions of a domical structure as a ideal dwelling in the afterlife to give added content to the shape of of probably preserved in the scene of the Resurrection on the from painted reliquary Jerusalem in the Museo Sacro 49 of the Vatican (Fig. fig. which would have required concealing much of its domical shape on the exterior by but- The only essential difference between tressing. would suggest. is indicated pentry which rose on high by graphic evidence and by the fact that the conoid shape had long been a manifestation of divine presence in Syria. Die wmische Rap elle Sancta Sanctorum und ihr Schatz. 91. Vincent (Jerusalem. or Constantius's erection of a mausoleum adjacent to the church of the Holy Apostles. Later. 14). Piot. 1918. C. Morey obtained the opinions o Monsignor Mercati. 13. 978. Instead of having been built in the Roman manner as a geometrical hemisphere of masonry. 113. Stephen at Gaza. 1906. 1926. having the form of a truncated pine cone like the domes on the pagan Marneion. xv. fig. Martyrium. AUchristliche und byzanKunst. 60 Lauer dated the box by the inscription as late as the tenth century. Grisar. "Le Tresor du Sancta Sanctorum. "unanimous conclusion be of so late a date. Morey. Zenobius. n. and. based on an imperial type. and the Arab some mosques. Peter. was close to his palace. R. 52 49 its under surface 51 and by the trees C. the tomb of Theodoric. op. box to the ninth or tenth cenDiehl favored a late date.WOODEN DOME IN THE NEAR EAST Sepulchre at Jerusalem. pL xiv/2. ln the Resurrection scenes on the Sancta 26 . The box "is the only certain piece of Palestinian of the painting Early Christian period light. 151-156.. had a lasting influence upon imperial sepulchral architecture. The appearance its soaring dome o wood is which we possess" and. Dalton were both inclined to the sixth century. H.. i. Wulff. according to C. Lauer. 312. the church of S. 259. P. 151). in Carolingian times. the dome of the Anastasis to was a free-standing and gilded form of wood car- make manifest the heavenly character of the abode of Christ. 108) published the scene as a representation of the Constantinian Holy Sepulchre on a tenth century miniature from the Lateran. will be considered the other beliefs Chapter which were combined with kingly tomb and the Holy Sepulchre. "affords us the best indication we its 50 have of the -appearance of the Holy Sepulchre in the sixth century/' dome suspended above the ciborium is slightly puffed-up and The shape of the pointed. i.cit. fig. At Rome the round and domical tomb of Honorius was built adjacent to the church of S. 290. see p. Pio Franchi de* Cavalieri and Professor Mercati. As early see a domical prevalent. was a traditional form of the supports of a domical baldachin which covers an open-air altar in an idyllic and sacred garden of love and happiness (M. the statuary and the narrow bridge over which the soul had to pass. an ancestral and divine tegurium. This conception of the tomb of Christ lived as a funerary symbol in a celestial garden is also indicated early Western pilgrims to the atrium in front of the by the references of Roman representations of fu- nerary gardens and late antique ideas of the afterlife. de 27 . tholos. branches mingled with Rabula Gospels (Fig. for the tomb of Lazarus is depicted on an early piece o! with 23) as a domical tegurium it the domical tholos a mortuary significance and to make its association with a sacred tree the symbol of a future paradise. presumably of Alexandrian origin (E. R. xi. classical combination of shrine. 136. 40). In Early Christian art the representation of "Riflessi di pittura allesandrina in Calabria. et d'hist. but also that there were mystic implications in the domical shape as the sacred dwelling of a divinity who once romantically ruined columns. (Fig. sepulchral pyxis are all the elements of an the Holy Sepulchre as a traditional domical tomb. arch. Robert. 24) by Fra veneration for the mythical golden age when men. gods and animals lived together in a sylvan and earthly paradise. (Fig. figures of Pan. 14). no." Rivista del R. Jaeger. Architettura numismatica. 1911. Inst. "Trois albums de dessins de Fra Giocondo. rustic shrine and ancestral tegurium was a common theme in both Hellenistic the domical shrine. 1565. B. shows a domical shrine as a monumental version of a sylvan tegurium in combination with a dead tree. Istituto d'archeologia e storia dell' arte." Melanges d'arch. XLV. sometimes used to depict the ancient abode of a god in his sacred woods. 1942. the which the Christians had appropriated from Roman and Hellenistic art. it is easy to how the Christians came to take over this a tree behind (G. 1891. divine and funerary gardens (P. or mortuary tholos. which antedates the first century B. fig. Nate storico biblwgrafiche di archeologia cristiana. 44. of Melicertes at Corinth appears on the coins 24). vi. the combination of a tree with a circular and domical sanctuary. domical tholos. 32-46. The subject was also a popular motif in sacred. Here on this i). the Trivulzio ivory the Munich ivory (Fig. 9). deut an early Hellenistic funerary garden is preserved on an inlaid cover of a pyxis (Fig. for their own ideological repre- or the beginning of the fourth century the which the soul of Jonah is transparadise to is depicted in a tomb at Cagliari in ported Sardinia by means of a domical (Fig. and as the ideal abode of the soul in a paradisus.WOODEN DOME Sanctorum panel (Fig. 8) and the IN THE NEAR EAST tombs: in the Domus its 145) a great tree has Vesonius Primus (Fig. Les Jardins romains. Since this study went to press. with a sacred tree. and was. Donaldson. 1943. in combination with a tree. 10). Ferretto..). or heroon. i. the Christians did not limit the symbolism to gold-glass (Fig.C. all indicating the romantic interest were other objects in this and similar graves. but more often to show the antique (T. 25) found in a tomb at Tresilico sentation of in the Italian province of Reggio Calabria. 22) with a tree on either side of the rotunda dedicated to this particular hero cult and Roman art. although completely Hellenized. the sacred trees of the garden. 22). Abb.. who tells am indebted to me that the scene. The association of a sacred tree with a Rom. 1939. 70) sentation of a heavenly paradise. G. 1 d. pi. and a Renaissance sketch (Fig. Thymele. or heavenly garden. shows not only that the domical shelter had a symbolic significance ideal paradise the round. or tegurium. Miss Segall has heard rumors that the cover may be a forgery. "Die hellenistisch-rornische Architekturlandschaft/' fig. F. domical dwelling for the soul. L. the sepulchral abode of Christ. pagan symbolism appropriated by the tians. 61. reflects an underlying Egyptian tradition of the Isle of the Blessed which was a Nilotic conception of the future life.. Chris- Rostowzew. In using this scene I Miss Berta Segall. as in an idyllic past and a kind of lost paradise. connected with the Isis cult that influenced on earth among men. Galli. tav. xxvi. and symbol of Jerusalem (see p. Mitt. 61) of Hellenistic origin. In Roman art the subject began to appear in Pompeiian Roman painting and on the stucco ceilings of tegurium and two as a trees. 1930. de Geymuller. as the end of the third 236. Grimal. kalube. "Die Bronzetiiren von Bethlehem/ J&hrb. A repre- Giocondo (H. one the olive tree of the other the palm peace and happiness. 54. While it is difficult to disentangle the various antique beliefs which combined to give Anastasis as a hortus and paradisus. a maenad and two female divinities. 1859. In adaptthe domical ing the antique symbolism of shelter and its rustic setting to their own use. 1937. 1892. Morey dismisses this argument as "not a serious one. rectangular altar stone seen in front of the cibo- rium of (Fig.WOODEN DOME As scene far as the actual is IN THE NEAR EAST equally domical character of the Holy Sepulchre is concerned. or was shortly after Modestus restored 614 Grisar's argument painted for a later date in the ninth or tenth century was based upon the stone in front of the ciborium. both of the sixth century" See p. in the sixth century before the Anastasis was burnt by the Persians in the monument in 616-618. pi. clerestory windows. 66. A. When the monument was re- 28 . strongly In either event the building on the reliquary box. pels (Fig. 130-144. "Cubicoli sepolcrali cristiani adorni di pitture. the gold excited the cupidity of the Persians. one in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection (Fig. this the reliquary was executed as Professor Morey significant whether has argued. to assume that the panel although Professor Morey has presented a strong case for a sixth century date. one in the vestibule and the other in the presbyterium. vi). commemorate the restoration of the Holy The Palestinian origin of the box and the reliability of its representation of the rotunda are further strengthened by the similarity of its scene of the Holy Women at the Tomb to the same scene on two ampullae. which appear in a good photograph of the box.. suggest a Rossi. whether supports the other evidence of its having had a dome of wood. from the Holy Land the rotunda is also depicted as columns and round-headed. and there is no reason to believe that Modestus made any change in the shape and construcin two by the Persians in order to tion of the dome built for Constantine." because "the existence an altar is at the entrance of the Sepulchre 'Hiero- proper attested by the Breviarius de (p. i o). 158) and another in the Detroit Institute of Arts." Bolletino di archeologia cristiana. in. presentation of the Resurrection was to Sepulchre. Since 53 the inscriptions inside the box cannot be dated later than the seventh century. 99. The significance of sacred trees in relation to the martyria stored the fragments were squared and used as altars. 71-75) and will again be considered on p. it does not alter the domical evidence may have been executed shortly after 618 A. it preserves the appearance of the Constantinian or the early seventh century memorial of Christ.D. This panel shows a rectangular altar Grisar considers to be the rectangular altar that Modestus had cut out of one of the fact that the pieces of the round millstone at the door of the Sepulchre after it had been broken remove the band of gold that decorated it. 152). The emphasis given to the dome. suspended like the canopy of heaven above the tomb of Christ suggests that the reliquary was made to contain one of the pieces of True Cross which had been recovered from the ruins of the holy site and that the novel decorated with yellow dots as stars. the only difference being that the the celestial two phials a circular building with interior these 54 On designer of the ampullae. 53 In front of the tomb of Christ was the millstone which had been adorned with a band of gold and' jewels as is shown on the Rabula Gosof the box lay great emphasis upon the white. who broke the stone solyma and the Itinerarium Antonini. according to Arculph. 14). The radial and segmental lines on the dome.D. Holy Land has been discussed by Grar. Grisar's arguments for the late date of the reliquary bar (Martyrium. In 614 A. left off dome which is so prominent on the box. series 5. because of the small. into two pieces.D. circular space at his disposal. Les T Miniatures du Gregoire de Nazianze de l Ambrosienne. pi. Although the Agrimensorum Romanorum derived from early Roman sources. i. DOMUS AUREA. Martyrium. 36. 1911) says that the CLV. As 29 . probably of Palestine. Thulin Romanorum. slight in themselves. which was the "head of all 59 the peoples [of the Orient]. 57 Grabar. Diet.. s8 Cabrol. free standing. /&/>* symbolizes the manuscript shows a strong Byzantine influence and that the actual archetype does not antedate 450 A.) other important early central church (Fig. Furthermore. 318. 49-50) which Grabar in conjunction with the shape of the wooden dome on the church of S. 1943. Martyrium Holy Sepulchre become consistent with the whole tradition of the dome In Syria and Palestine. which may have been Influenced by of the form and the construction of the dome on Christ. Malalas." or Domus aurea at r Antioch. r. 220-227. presumably begun by Constantine but finished by Constantius. Therefore.D. (Die Handschriften des Corpus Agrimensorum Preuss. ANTIOCH The (327 and 526-588 A. 259. I. support the contention that the dome of the Constantinian monument had the conoid which was char- acteristic of the domical tradition in Syria. 13) dome 56 puffed-up. i. fig. XLVIH/J and LII/I.cit. 39) and are so frequently shown on representations of Palestinian domes (Figs. 324. Grabar. Martyrium. "Antioche. op. 26). 16. presents Jerusalem by a schematic and symbolic drawing of the Holy Sepulchre (Fig. was the "Great Church. Its soaring character and was made of wood and "not surely a vault of stone" as has been Insisted. 237. 59 Grabar. ed. 61). AL.D. 19. Chronographia. Vita Constantini. the drawings are a later addition.. possibly of the sixth or seventh century. shape In the section "Be Sepulchris" of the Agrimensorum Romanorum has a the drawing of a typical sepulchral monument (Fig. cod.. 168). Eusebius. col 341) says that tomb of Christ. Stephen at Gaza and the tomb of Bizzos the (Fig. Agri- salonica in De sacro Templo mensorum Romanorum. I. Malalas records that it was founded by Constantine but was completed by Constantius. century Symeon of Thes(i3$-Migne. 1831. C. 325." cols. Wolfenbuttel. 23728. in.P. fol. V 77 .WOODEN DOME IN THE NEAR EAST domical construction in wooden gores such as is described in Choricius' account of the dome at Gaza (p. 55 Two original other bits of evidence." That it was domical and situated on the island in the a of the "New City" as part imperial palace of Antioch has been fairly well established 6* 56 Grabar. late as the fifteenth fol. Bonn. a ninth century dome (Ambr. 15.23 Aug. 3. when all this evidence is combined and taken hemispherical of masonry. Also it size are all indications that its slightly puffed-up shape. at a time when the Holy Sepulchre with Its is free-standing and pointed of dome of memorial tomb rather than the wood would have been pictured as the Ideal type traditional imperial Roman mausoleum with a Greek manuscript and Oriental was influenced the archaic says by strongly traditions. 50.G. and pointed. 15) as a tholos with a conoid dome within the 57 walls of a massive edifice. Little the fire of is known and of the Constantinian building before it its rebuilding after 526 except that of great magnificence that was a large domical octagon with interior colonnades 58 It its interior was raised "to an enormous height/' was dedicated to Christ-Concord and according to Eusebius was a "unique" building of particular beauty in order to be worthy of Antioch. Spalato in the center of his city and next to his palace and intended to make another symbolical parallel between Constantine and Christ. according was a martyrium like the Holy Sepulchre. "were the foundations were thrown destroyed very up.cit. queror. brought As a traditional imperial memorial." he wrote.WOODEN DOME by the fifth IN THE NEAR EAST century topographical mosaic at Yak to. 19558 364- the island. 62 Malalas. that the inscription.cit. for no masonry dome could have been tilted. 95) called the master-builder who erected the wooden cupola. 21." on (Downey. the theory of El tester.. with the of Concordia poenitentiae. Antioch Mosaic Pavements. which had been built by the Emperor Constantine the Great. i. LXXX/C. as translated by Evagrius. Patriarch Church History. in 588. triumphal and memorial heroon of the imperial cult. location and symbolism this domical church of Christ. op. signifies the Porta Taurlana and thereby locates the church inside the entrance gate of the palace area. 60 Doro Levi. Evagrius. Domus aurea because of gilded and celestial unique which became known as the covering. 30 . braced with timbers and then settled back into place. 8. Beyond the fact that church of Christ necessitated an apse at the was domical and presumably built of wood covered it. its 61 religion of Christ. PIAVA. stood for two after the frightful visitation of When the Golden days to God occurred." he goes on to the earthquake which followed [under Justinian in timbers. with gilded lead like the structure which replaced the roof of the original "Great Church. central structure." whom comes Orientalis who became Patriarch of Antioch in 527 of Antioch. Grabar (Martyrium." nothing more is known about House was destroyed by fire in 526. is considered unsound by Levi but has been de- G. located like Diocletian's mausoleum at to Grabar. but its religious purpose as a it west side. it was a domical. only the hemisphere being saved. ' Downey. a traditional funereal. vi. 223-225." 62 Later. "The Great Church of Antioch. Malalas says. with a man standing beside it looking up in prayer and veneration. relate. translated by G. an eye-witness. It is presented as a polygonal building (Fig. was worshipped Christ. just as the Emperor. 60 By derivation. 61 Grabar. was Ephraemius. "Ephraemius. the heavenly ruler and conwho accorded to his universe the gift of Concordia. when the disaster occurred and everything else fell to the ground. so that everything about the most holy church fell to the ground. Downey. op." right place as fell These though by Evagrius' account leaves no doubt that the sixth century dome was made of wood. *947> 332> pi. 528] so that received bracing through the violence of the shock [in 588] when the hemisphere settled back and was restored to its it was set there a rule.. title Here in this temple. "Many buildings. a village near Antioch. 215-227) yeloped by into a convincing argument for the location and purpose of the church as part of the palace Strzygowski (Kleinasien. 29) having a cupola and apsidal vault. described the effect of the second great earthquake which wrecked Antioch. after his triumph of about a union of the Roman universe in the 325. and it caught fire and was destroyed the ground. which had been when constructed of wood from Daphne by Ephraemius 63 after it had suffered in the earth"toward the north by it quake under Justinus. vn." "It was tilted. the the "Ephraim. 419. 157. (before 374 A.Although there is nothing in the account to prove that this rnartyrium of eight sides (Fig. Birnbaum. the use of the word "heaven" and the emphasis upon its being a dazzling source of light show. NAZIANZUS Gregory of Nazianzus. xxxvi. chap.) ^ "It surrounds itself of the two stories when describing the 'living memorial" of his father. fig. ochia. Birnbaum. i. which the an to compares rnartyrium octagonal sanctuary 62 presumably the rnartyrium of S. 379-394 A. its true to Watzinger says it had. IN THE NEAR EAST MARTYRIUM. 778. except that it was in the at Alexandria.. Martyrium. customary Near East to erect domical martyria in to believe that the famous rnartyrium of honor of the Virgin. Keil (Kleinasien. 30. Denk. 27). according (Fig. inexplicable in its is struc- turally location of the columns. Nazianz based upon Gregory's description. 207. and his plan (Fig. n n." 88 While nothing is known about the church of the Virgin at Tyre. A. "Above the eight apses the octagon will rise. 65 ' 70 cit. but it depicted as domical in the sixth century mosaics at Gerasa (Figs. n. writes. Further confirmation of the domical form of this memorial is furnished by a scholion of uncertain date. 63) interprets Gregory as saying that it was a geometrically conical roof." 70 This specific statement that the roof of the rnartyrium was like 64 In Migne. 152*?. as Keil recognized. 66 Watzinger. Simeon Stylites at Kal'at Sim'an The letter of to century. while the statues placed upon vault [oupaz^> heaven] flashes down upon us from above. there is every reason the Baptist at Alexandria was domical. and it dazzles our eyes with the abundant sources of light.G.. 267. Kunstwiss. The pine cone which rises from this will be cone-shaped (/ccovoetSTfc). sisted of a central apsidal octagon with four exedras making it. "Die Oktagone von Anti- 181-209. describing the rnartyrium which he was undertaking to build at Nyssa he writes. Kleinasien. and is raised aloft by the beauty of pillars and them are porticoes.WOODEN DOME 4. 4.. because the Christians with their cosmic symbolism always thought of the dome as a celestial shape. the vortex reducing the shape of the roof from a plane to a point. NYSSA (c. when that renowned domical temple was destroyed by the Christians at the beginning of the fifth century. 39. 1093$. f. P. 68 See Chap. und Nyssa/' Rep. 94. n. 32). it is very evident from Gregory's use of words that Birnbaum was wrong in thinking that the church had a polygonal roof with a hypaethral open68 ing. 133. op.. P.". 69 a cruciform structure like the rnartyrium of Antioch-Kaoussie (Fig. it 31). iv n. 41. Gregory Amphilochius sometime between 379 and 594 furnishes important and conclusive evidence regarding the shape and construction of domical martyria in the fourth to Grabar. 25 and Chap. XLVI.D. 31 . 1913." Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. which must have been later than the fourth century. Father. with eight regular equilaterals. John the Baptist. 27). 170) and the church of S.. 67 that it was a cupola. vn.. MARTYRIUM... Palds. Regardless of whether the roof was constructed of wood or masonry. 67 Keil in Strzygowski. 28) had a wooden dome. Migne.G.) The rnartyrium which Gregory had built around 380 at Nyssa in Cappadocia con(Fig. as life. xxxv. "On the death of his 69 Grabar. 5. D. Not only did replace the pagan Serapeion. and to "the Theotokos naos at Tyre. The specific evidence for the existence of these fourth and fifth century wooden domes is neither reliable nor conclusive for any particular church. for I have learned that when this is steadier than that the if it rests on supports. earlier martyria with wooden domes which had already established the domical tradition for the churches which Justinian and his successors rebuilt with masonry domes. It is difficult to visualize what Gregory meant by domes built without centering being steadier than those resting on supports unless he is thinking of stone squinches. the account of the wooden dome on the church of S. to be fitted onto the octagon. Is kalube and cosmic house. and the later Arab adoption of the wooden conoid proof that the "pine-cone" shape and the idea of a domical martyrium were last quarter of the fourth century. rather than wooden supports at the corners where the dome had 6. was to be reproduced in stone. there were in Constantinople. is namely whole structure be roofed with stones. when taken in combination with the description of the Marneion. It is most unlikely that this apparently sudden popularity of the dome. Back of it must have been a customary pattern of ideas which had already associated the domical shape with buildings for the commemoration and glorification of the dead. but the collective evidence proves that the Christian chroniclers of Constantinople knew and accepted the tradition of the wooden dome. which we have known only in its masonry form. It is also significant for the history of domical architecture that Gregory goes on to say he would prefer to build this martyrium with a wooden dome if it were possible. Now it is becoming evident came from the ascendancy of the Cult of Martyrs and the gradual adoption by both the State and the Church of a martyrium type of sanctuary with its central plan of commemorative and mortuary implications the real incentive to build domical structures and symbolic dome. 32 . as there were in Syria and Palestine. because of the scarcity of wood. Sophia.WOODEN DOME IN THE NEAR EAST a pine cone. he writes. After asking Amphilochius to send him the required workmen. leads to this plan. the conoid dome on the tomb of ritualistic Bizzos. the shall is scarcity of wood. could have been solely its the result of either a veneration for the martyrium churches of Palestine or of the introduction of domical construction from Asia Minor. "It is already traditional by the especially necessary to give attention to the point that to build it is some of them shall know how done domes (eiXijo-ts) without centering. because there no wood suitable for roofing in this region/' This of swollen confirmation of the assumption that domes and pine-cone shape were commonly built of wood and were sufficiently customary so that the conoid shape. indeed. (fourth and fifth MARTYRIA OF CONSTANTINOPLE It centuries) has been customary to think of the Byzantine to dome as a masonry vault which that began be common upon the churches largely because of Justinian's interest in a monumental state architecture of stone and brick. or pendentives. the persistence in the Christian East of the conoid shelter as a dome. Stephen at Gaza. Long before Justinian undertook to rebuild such famous churches as the Holy Apostles and S. in this context. 1901-1907. executed in gilded bronze. 73 If one views all evidence with the presupposition that wooden domes were improbable. T. Washington. 1836) to be a false interpretation of luAocrreyos. who was acquainted with the domical Holy Apostles. had a "wooden dome/' Since the Patria was compiled in the tenth or eleventh century from sources going back for the most part only to the eighth and ninth centuries. ed.e. A. Holy Apostles. Downey's translation of the account in the Vita. i. n. Preger. which was a cruciform martyrium probably planned by Constantine but actually built by his successor Constantius. it must be admitted that these references. wooden roof. Bonn. I in the Vita Constantini would suggest. of the reflection of the sun's rays. Grabeskirche und Apostelkirche. However. ed. are not highly reliable.. And he en- Good Shepherd (Fig. evidence that the original Holy Apostles had a wooden dome. D. merely imagined that the wooden roof of the original church was domical. 495. In fact. TS whole. it may also be argued that Glycas appearance of Justinian's church of the made the same mistake uA. 9-13. follows the notes in the Migne text and takes domation as the equivalent of doma. Michael Glycas.C. am indebted for these references to that domation might be employed here to mean a lantern or wooden structure. 2 iff.. word meaning roof or house. . zwei Basiliken Konstantins. 70). 158]. had very specific symbolic meanings as the dwell- by means those up. terpretation of the word DOMATION which is used in the Vita Gonstantini to differentiate Descriptively. in the Early Christian period a domical "little of tiles provided protection for the building. refers only to a 71 Scriptores originum Constantinopolitanarum. a lantern or outer casing of a dome would be regarded as a special or symbolic kind of 'little roof/ a little house. [ceiling]. the that it Patria. 99) and home heavenly the celestial covering of a Domus aurea of God.. Heisenberg. Two passages state was ^Xocrreyo?. and the unpublished Monza ampulla in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection [Fig. on the roof-top above. themselves. In fact. Ibid. which is of the copied by Michael Glycas in his account church of the Holy Apostles (4g8L." Hence there Downey this passage goes on to say: "Heisenberg. attributed to Eusebius (iv. . the is cannot be taken presumption strengthened by Downey's in- . a in paradise (Figs. 15. The ref- Downey of Dumbarton Oaks. . 1908.WOODEN DOME IN THE NEAR EAST Regarding the original fourth century church of the Holy Apostles..orpovA. 94. 214. a with dome mean a gilded clerestory over what was the martyrium proper.. Heisenberg. Leipzig. who is preparing a documentary study of G. "Anon- 33 . And much gold lit this house/' figuratively a tegurium or kalube. The Anonymous Description of the Building of St. the church of the 72 erence to the 'pierced grilles' or 'lattices* which follows immediately of course suggests winas are shown domes in the painted box from the Sancta Sanctorum [Fig. furnishing safety for the rains. 18. . ing of the circled the little roof [DOMATION] round about with pierced grilles. 286.os because his when he wrote that the original church of S. i. 5-8. Sophia was source." 58) reads as follows: "And itself.* and hence could be designated by the diminutive of the If 1 the "little roof" over the crossing of the Holy Apostles from the DOHA or regular roof over the rest of the church. in his translation of the passage. 74 Sophia. a tomb. that it had a "wooden roof/ 171 but a third passage says that 72 the original church was gv\6rpov\o$. 14] . such by it- in the representations of self. with the customary attitude of his generation toward the wooden dome. Bonn. referring to the roof as a In his forthcoming note on is every reason to accept Downey's must suggestion that domation. says that it had a wooden dome. so that it shot forth dazzling light. over this bronze instead what I may add to Downey's interpretation hope will become evident in this study. 74 order to make clear that he had some distincThe context of the passage tion in mind. Although this as dows passage. to it who beheld from afar. at the base of a dome. Heisenberg takes ^XorpovXos. he does not seem to have taken into account the possibility that the writer of this passage used the two forms in 102-103. assumed that a mistake when taken by had been made and that the writer of the Patria. ed. n.e. martyrium church Anastasia in the ninth century by Basil I. architecture civile et religieuse.rj built by Theodosius the Great [579-395 the Elder [920-944 A. or was originally an octagon com- quary. 6 iff. Dominicum au- Bawit [Memoires de Tlnstitut francos d'archeologie orientaledu Caire. plates un- 80 C.] rebuilt Romanus most unlikely that all these references to a wooden dome were the as result of a misunderstanding. it has seemed curious that the octagonal crossing. In fact. 75 carried with it the implication of a symbolic domical shape. Grabar. Soi. It can. 79 Ever since the church was published by De Vogiie and restudied by Howard Butler.WOODEN DOME IN THE NEAR EAST the rebuilding of the At a period more nearly contemporary with of S. 139150. It was both a church of the eucharistic cult and a martyrium. Grabar. pis. Drioton. the important focal point and martyrium form. Ibid.D. it. rr 376. Mar- M. like the Ephesus and the church at Korykos. but not fully supported martyria of S. a relic sanctuary to which the cruciform arms were added later. Maspero and E.) has presented the evidence for the difference in date of construction for 79 tyrium. de Vogiie. the Patria says that the original church." Scr. vi. be argued that there was no misunderstanding or confusion in the use of ^lAdo-reyos and ^XorpouXo? because it was well understood that any reference to a wooden roof on a martyrium attributed to Maurice. Const. Martyrium. they make one "think dome was not of the analogous coverings of the ancient martyria of Syria/' 7. John at by archaeological investigation. 1903. i. n.) The S. 77 S. Instead. 32) was undoubtedly built by workmen from Antioch. 59]. i. SIMEON STYLITES. according to Grabar. 2." 76 wooden dome And when It is it uAorpovXos) collapsed the Emperor (^yd\. was a major relic of the saint. ymous Description of the Building of phia. built around not the tomb but the column of the saint. ficochard ("Le sanctuaire de Qal'at Sem'an: Notes arche"ologiques. Stylites at Kal'at Sim'an (Fig." Bulletin d'etudes orientates ~de I'lnstitut franfais de Damas. 80 St. C. 34 . 1932. they should be accepted evidence that the wooden exceptional but for the first two centuries after the Peace of the Church was associated in men's minds with a martyrium. making from it necessary for the assembled visitors to listen to long sermons of the Stylite his columnar pulpitum under the intense Syrian sun. 234. the evidence would seem Constantinopolitanarum says that Mark The collective weight of because the Scriptores originum near Taurus was a great church with a A. 10. 184. the suggestion has been made. M. As the 78 goal of a celebrated pilgrimage this column. had a wooden dome. Syrie centrale. Martyrium. KAL'AT great cruciform church of S IM'IN Simeon (460-490 A. that it was originally. Architecture and Other published). to justify this conclusion "St. 78 Arts (Part II of the Publication of an American Archaeological Expedition to Syria in 1899-1900).D. Const. therefore. TS 5cr. n. 376. i. 1936.]. 75. 1865-77. orig. As Grabar has remarked in discussing these Constantinopolitan references to a wooden dome. i.. Grabar. ed Preger. Grabar (82) reli- the various parts of the building gested that it and sug- also cites the terracotta tabernacle.D. should have been uncovered.. 277. 365. H. Butler. J. orig. from Bawit which consisted of a square chamber surmounted by a cupola with an imitation of either "wood or metal coffers" (J. comparable to the tomb of a martyr. Fouilles executes a parable to the Constantinian reum at Antioch. . he assumed that the original roof must have been destroyed at the time for tradition when Evagrius wrote. 35). If covered. but he also discovered recognizable fragments of horseshoe-arched niche squinches supported on corbels at the angles of the cornice (Fig. If the great church of the saint ing. tyrium at Nyssa and the wooden dome on the Qubbat-as-Sakhra Later it will be seen that this shape had a special religious significance in the region around Antioch and Emesa (Horns). of the Christian respect and the importance attached to a symbolic covering both for a martyrium One. as Antioch. no. was referring to the ideational meaning of the covering when he wrote of the "court under the sky. where the saint dwelt and preached as one directly inspired from heaven.80 m. Akad. WalHahrtskirche des Simeon Stylites in KaVat Sim'an uberdekt?". thick. Krencker restored the octagon shells. writing about 560 A. 1938. This dome he made with two ous like the "puffed-up" and pointed dome described by Mark the Deacon on the pagan Marneion at Gaza. since a polygonal wooden roof could have rested directly upon the cornice. 111. XLIX.. 1934.D. Krencker. "War das Oktagon der See p. hence. 1939. suggesting that the earlier architecture of profile occurs so frequently in it must have originated in an the outer one slightly bulb- wood and pliable materials. Krencker. cluded that it Evagrius. then it must have had a a o light wooden roof. 82 Phil. Rom. Inasmuch. with a wooden dome.WOODEN DOME IN THE NEAR EAST This central octagon. d. was covered with a similar dome. These he quite rightly as- sumed would only have been necessary to fit the continuous round base of a wooden dome onto the octagonal walls. 37). it seems more likely that Evagrius took for granted the actual dome with its celestial implications and.. Mitt. 81 82 D. 81 In view. d. Even after Krencker had restudied the remains and found conclusive evidence that the octagon had been covered with a timber roof. as were the niches of the church of El Hadra and of martyrium at Resafa. it is most unlikely and sacred of the pulpitum dwelling place Stylite was allowed to remain without its architectural ciborium in the sixth century. 35 . Syrian described the octagon as avKy imaWpio?. Because the clerestory windows and the squinches at Kal'at Sim 'an were horseshoe-shaped. preuss. scholars conwas an open court with only the sky above it. Wiss. however. it at Kal'at Sim'an had a wooden dome over the S. Since sepulchral domes that the elevated and for the public appearance of either a Divine or Great and royal baldachins at this time were heavenly symbols decorated with stars. in diameter and had walls only . the pine-cone dome constructed by Gregory on the mar(Fig. Die Stylites Simeon in Wallfahrtskirche des Kal'at Sim'an (Abh. 62-89. however. and because the horseshoe the church apses of northern Syria. 4). cross- should follow that the cruciform church of (Fig. hist. for he not only found pieces of the stone cornice of the octagon with notches for the roofing timbers. Klasse." Certainly Krencker has proved that it was once covered. was 27 m. 173) Admirable near Antioch. which also Simeon the Younger at Mont had an octagonal center. nichelike form decorated with craftsman as to whether he was the on confusion been an explicable part of the a slightly of back the or it. L'Art byzantin. 85 at at Riha the Dumbarton Oaks Collection Washington. The arcuated covering over Christ may 36 the beginning of the seventh century Ebersolt dated it. according to an Armenian text of the was the "Chamber of Mysteries/' the Coenaculum. on the 479) as approached by a flight of steps south side of the church and as being covered by a vault. 480) says was to the right of and up sixty-one steps. 160). One of these chapels. XLVI} 9**> same time it is apparent that the arch in both Hellenistic and Roman art frequently had a ^ . 941.. Bain reads. series 4. Peirce and R.. Although there appears to have curious.D.cit. also his martyr's a martyrium. to the south of the apse. the domical shape is more clearly presented two figures on the Stuma paten. and not to and iconography it %. which was covseventh century. Friend. Peirce and 140/8. an apse and the dome. 85 H. where . ence Christian art and divine presence. Cook. Princeton University. N. Zeus.WOODEN DOME 8. and Abel." with its small apse. Washington. op. 144. hence it is possible that the artist was consciously trying to bolism of an arcuated combine the celestial symlintel. as its domical covering signified. IN THE NEAR EAST SIGN CHURCH. this "High Place. n. which was supposed to have taken depicted the sacred in the Coenaculum when Christ and his Apostles withdrew to it in order to ered with a wooden cupola. Therefore. vm. B. The inconsistencies between ** A study o the Sion Church and is its inRu- have been a Syrian convention for showing a royal being prepared by upon A.. the shape is that of altar an over a ciborium apse depicting 88 bulbous and pointed dome. "Le Tresor de Stuma au Mu- see de Constantinople/' fig. 86 ship that of the paten indicate belongs to the great period of Syrian art between the end of the fifth century and the first half of the sixth century. M. which according to the liturgy of James was "the mother of churches" and the most illustrious of the holy places glorified by the manifestation and murals had a farof Christ. the style. archeologique. The scene which was on the dome (Fig. Armenian description by M. Reme pi. one from Stuma other from a North Syrian tomb of the reproduced upon two Syrian patens of Aleppo. Ebersolt. In contrast.. 456 the translation of the a 5.. op. Vincent and Its Symbolic Interpretation in Late Anat the 1 ticl ue Art. was a five-aisled basilica whose liturgical provisions Christian art and Syrian iconography. the church n.O. not by columns. op." AJ-A. Tyler. The all Sion Church. xvii. cupola that was Last Supper of the Saviour. 41 Tyler. is sixth century. and the scholars at Dumbarton Oaks. 34). having a cupola supported on four arches. 1911. n. 8r J. gested by Brown ("The Arcuated D. which Phocas (P. 83 two domical sanctuaries. In it an altar at which the litdeurgy is celebrated. "To the right of the church the chamber of the mysteries. Among its special reaching influence upon chambers or oratories it had in the upper story of the east end.Q " Vincent and Abel. where it is supported. and the south town a small 33)." Later this chamber is scribed by Daniel (Vincent and Abel. as has been sugLintel D. (Fig. heavenly meaning (A.) S. workmaniff. which is the ciborium over the altar is a in a conch. On the Riha paten. 84 It was around the lower zone of this place that was both a communion performed by Christ and perform the mystical repast was both feast. and a ciborium above the actual altar that was located beneath the wooden dome. JERUSALEM (456-460 A. but by the 87 two the on scenes the patens can be of Christ himself. and a wooden sacred supper cupola in which is imaged the of the Saviour.cit. 1932-34. Jerusalem. F.cit. CATHEDRAL. Instead. 1936. domical tradition in Armenia which from the seventh century on. . were confronted with the problem of representing both an actual event which was supposed to have taken place under a symbolic ciborium and a scene which was located In the Coenaculum upon the dome Since there was no ciborium over the altar in the "High Place. 59) points out how frequently -the word "domed" occurs (J. 483 A.. which went back to classical models. 60. seems more reasonable to wooden origin of the domical form. with the Cult of Relics and was derived from martyria types. Travels and Studies.WOODEN DOME cations of the event IN THE NEAR EAST explained by the fact that the craftsmen. that the Armenian dome had first Asia Minor. Der Nersessian.D. I. and kaiube. F. tegurium. u. 12. ETSCHMIADZIN The early use of the (c. H. which in so many other scenes (Fig. 7) tated from wooden prototypes even to their irregular intersections and the use of wooden pegs. of Central Asia the native domical tradition naturally combined with the domical tradition of the Medi- 182-183. 328-330. but advanced the theory.cit. where the domical church became the standard type In stone construction after the East. 340. Grabar (Martyrium. little Strzygowski. popular in the Near East. where it was translated into sun-dried brick in North Iran before being introduced into Armenia. without any convincing arguments. Near The is Etschmiadzin seventh century. 70) was also a sepulchral ciborium and the Ideal is a stylized abode of the martyred dead in a 9.. are persistently evident throughout the histhere seems tory of Armenian architecture. 378-379) believes that the domical architecture of Armenia developed i. 1918. The floral patern around the suspended canopy on the the Stuma paten ornament presumably intended to suggest the Idea of rustic construction and thereby indicate to the Initiated the underlying meanings of the domical shape as a god-given ancestral shelter. 614-625) recognized the derivation of early stone architecture from wooden suppose that there was an old and persistent wooden. Strzygowski (op. Since the early Armenian churches are so established in stone of clearly sculptural reproductions forms which must have originated in wood and since the influence of these wooden prototypes Le Pwbleme de ogive et 11. Lynch. Syria and Palestine and at the time when there was probably an exodus of stonecutters. the designer of the Rlha seems to have endeavored to combine paten the aspidal niche of the chamber with the idea of a ciborium. Armenia. Die Baukunst der Armenier und Europa. I' figs. wooden dome was both man on Stuma paten was more concerned with emphasizing the heavenly canopy above the communal altar. when the Transcaucasian region began to be powerfully influenced by the domical martyrium churches of prototypes whose wooden domical tradition had survived in the Ukraine and South Russia. terranean martyria which had already been translated into masonry vaults. a cosmic house. celestial paradise. there are clear indications that turally 88 many of the stone forms were sculp- 88 reproduced from wooden prototypes.) wooden dome was not limited to any one region in the evidence for a wooden dome of the fifth century on the cathedral of important to the history of domical architecture because in Armenia. 1945. 334. Baltrusaitis. as well as Christians. B. 264. Armenia and the Byzantine Empire. originated on the primitive wooden house from Syria." because the a ciborium and the celestial covering of the martyrlum as a cosmic house. Miss Der Nersessian (op. while the other craftsitself. 1901.dt. As late as the twelfth century Armenian stone ribs at Hahpat I'Armenie. Regarding the possible brick dome reason for introducing a hypothetical as a transitional stage of developit ment. 18) and Horomos were literally and sculpturally imi(fig. in their effort to show the mystical impliand Its domical setting. In his History of Heradius Sebios does S. 238:. F. it must be recalled that Gaza was the where the pagan Marneion. Early Muslim of Gaza by Choricius of Gaza." and where Rufinus. constructed on city the site of the heathen temple a cruciform church that was probably domical The translations of the passage of Choricius on this church of S. his been drawn eye having up from the elaborate marble and the in the early how Armenian church literature and Armenian text of the Septuagint. op. they mistook his geometrical and technical description of the dome for some kind of indefinite ornament. 1904.ctt. Opera. 38 . a specialist on the architectural usage of late Greek writers. chap. Der NersesCreswell. Abel. Stephen. 77. He was a dome of wood which in 618 was replaced on the cathedral by merely records that they "took away the timbered roof". in- stead of following the Greek which says. 90 Choricius of Gaza. later in the tenth century. 178-191. 90 The significant fact is not that the Etschmiadzin have been covered with a cupola may conical or polygonal roof.. he says it rose with constant an apse should. ed. region.WOODEN DOME not say that it IN THE NEAR EAST one of stone. "Laudatio Marciani. "to dwell in houses with coffered ceilings. In reading his elaborate account. but. but that had a monumental carpentry roof whose domical shape was undoubtedly symbolic and traditional over the sacred dwelling God. harmoniously with the arch. up to the springing of the apsidal arch. above which the is remainder drawn together gradually in breadth. John Kathlikos refers to the timbered dome (Zpa'idharq kempet) of the cathedral 89 Since this evidence for a fifth century wooden dome has been gen- Sepulchre because kempet was a word used for domes with polygonal and conical exteriors. an architect of Antioch. bibl. xxv. and the full text of his translation will this be included in the appendix." n. as Described 92 R. M. 92 Since neither Hamilton nor Abel fully understood Choricius' pretentious and literary architectural phraseology. "rising on high. Glanville Downey. 37-46. It is necessary. Start- ing with its width." Palcstinian Exploration Fund. 1931. had a "puffed-up" wooden dome. Quarterly Statement 1930. Stephen have been misbecause the church is described as a three-aisled basilica. The translation which will be used in study was carefully prepared by Mr. 60. CHURCH (MARTYRIUM?) OF The most S. "Gaza au VI* siecle d'apres le Rh&eur Chorikios. destroyed in 402 A. as hollowness beginning on the pavement itself..D. 1929. XL. W. Macler." Rev. "Two Churches Architecture." ed. i. as were so surprising to find Creswell stating that the had a conical timbered roof like the Marneion and the Holy erally accepted. STEPHEN. it is Armenian cathedral many Roman domes and perhaps it protecting the early wooden domes of the Caucasus of 10. and the translators leading have adhered to the usual conviction that a wooden dome was therefore impossible. FoersterRichtsteig (Teubner)." has "to dwell in domed houses. 85. ^ **Histotre d'Herachus par I'evcque Sebeos. in order to follow Choricius' tion. In the next paragraph. to begin with him at the east end of somewhat involved method of descripthe church where he praises the apse. sian. Hamilton. GAZA (fifth or sixth century) conclusive evidence for the Syrian use of a wooden dome of pine-cone shape is furnished by Choricius of Gaza in his detailed description of the church of 91 S. having visualized his curved shape in the abstract terms of a geometrician's sections. and the other part on the other (side). an apsidal vault (dt^'s) of the same material (i. he asks Having done with the half-circle which was not used in the dome. of the framework).e. when he writes. or later) S. from below and gradually become narrower as they rise up to a sharp point. it is evident that he is not describing ornamental "disks. from the material which Ms craft furnishes him (i. he introduces a bit of Greek mythology. ) he makes clear was Sergius at Gaza which domical and cruciform in plan. the place where they had been cut equally in two) to the band which I just now mentioned was the highest (course of church). what was had his carpenter start out with five theoretical circles. Choricius has of wood over the crossing of the church. it is evident that Choricius was describing in great detail the construction of a wooden dome which consisted of nine sections and whose panels were curved out a pine cone before they came together at the top in a point. Unfortunately. he explains. In describing the "striking show shape" which he saw on the topmost course of the church." as Hamilton translated /cv/cXot. in plan at least. he produces which begin circumlocutions pleasing spectacle. 149) after it was rebuilt with a tri-apsidal east end. he does not Choricius also described a church of 39 . he undertakes to describe the crowning feature of the church. and joining nine of the slices (or sectors of circles) to each other by their and also joining them by their middles tips. so as to fit the hollowing of the surface. wood) is formed on both sides.e. which he hollows out (to the required curve of the pine-cone shape).WOODEN DOME IN THE NEAR EAST mosaic decorations of the apse. in praising this sanctuary. A carpenter cutting circles (or what '. and bending them gently (in a gradual curve). we would call the ribs number. five in (i. Choricius attempted to his technical knowledge of geometric shapes. I understand. I mean (crxTJ/m). In order to to a pine cone. to the church of the Nativity at Bethlehem (Fig. for he writes. The church then was similar. Although his method of describing the theoretical construction of this truncated pine cone becomes somewhat involved by his desire to show off his mechanical knowledge. equal in in a broad fashion number to these (the ribs). dome but by Choricius' reference to "the second feast of the martyr/' (407 AJ>. This part then. calls this a half cone. (each) hollowed out in front. like is divided equally (into two quarter sections) and (one) part of it being placed on one side of the nine (i. was flanked on either side by supporting half-domes of wood which theoretically did have the vertical section of a quarter circle. Geometrical knowledge. the dome).e. which endeavored to say that the central dome it will be noted from the account may have had melon-like gores. and drawing together a most all the tips into one. On one hand the there rests a novel shape highest. the carpenter sets upon them piece-s (or panels) of wood.e. make it clear that he is referring and not a geometric cone. wood). GAZA (THE "EUDOXIANA"? S. In spite of the geometrical affectations and literary of his manner of writing. SERGIUS. cutting each of them equally in two. Having prepared this skeleton framework. Hamilton assumed referred to some ornament. In other words. His first line. That it was a martyrium is indicated not only by the 11. a shape which must have been constructed of wood." col. at the the orator delivered his encomium. "On the interior of the structure. ggff. de Vaux. op.cit." From this account of Choricius. Millet. opxit. southwest of Madaba in Transjordan. R. is adjusted a polygonal prism forming a circle which carries very high up the spherical dome. is partially concealed by the hemisphere of the apse. 9e Doro Levi. bibliqucs. Choricius. The date of the mosaics is late. It is imof the possible to agree with dome Domus Doro Levi's suggestion that the building might be the famous 88 flanked Mameion. was used by the Christian builders of Syria. second to none. 1499. 97 Little is known about this church at Ma'in. cols. sufficiently renowned so that it was depicted which topographical mosaic at Ma'in. composed of four piers.. as was the aurea on the mosaic at Yakto (Fig. "Une mosai'que byzantine a Ma'in. 29). Diet.D. ory destroyed an inscription in the church refers to their restoration in i. pi.. * Diet. have already endeavored to strengthen Leclercq's suggestion that S. "Marc Diacre et la biographic 623. Hamilton and Leclercq consider it to have been a cruciform church with a 12.D. is graphic evidence that the bulbous dome. 1905. 15. They were probably not added until dome was after the Sion Church was built and decorated. dome only over the crossing. Abel. 264 n. The mosaic. xiv/4." and then goes on to say. 36) shows that Mahoymac had an imposing church whose is as religiously characteristic of the city in a dome was "puffed~up. op. Antioch Mosaic Pavements.. built by the Antiochene architect Rufinus and originally dedicated to Holy Easter on the day of the Resurrection in 407 A. ^Cabrol. XLVII. 1909-10. were the same church. xiv. 1910. but the mosaic (Fig. then century dedication. v. M. At the time when the mosaics were executed there was no reason why any Christian artist should endeavor to preserve the memof that and hated center of paganism.D. archeol. "I fairly marvel at the roofing of the church. Sergius was the famous first church of Gaza. both unlikely that the mosaic in the apse of the Virgin and Child flanked by "a pious group" on either side. Abel. de saint Porphyre. 1496. ." Rev.WOODEN DOME it IN THE NEAR EAST dome and makes no mention refer either to the shape or construction of the was dedicated in 532 A. the EuIt it was built. F. but Abel. i. xiv. G. In either event the a striking feature of the church because the sixth century eulogist writes. "Laudatio Marciani. by two porticoes. for 93 641/2 A. 96 CHURCH. which the artist apparently exaggerated as a significant characteristic of the structure. ecole pratique d etudes f Cabrol. i.ciL. eveque de Gaza. Gabriel Millet thought that S." This bulbous dome. 1500. and the New Testament scenes seen by Choricius on "the roof" were contemporary with the early fifth it is cruciform. I. Sergius was a cruciform church with domes over the 95 crossing and four arms." Rev. 227*!. however. bibl. lyfL. Hamilton.. PORT OF GAZA The port o Gaza also had a domical church. 98 " series 4.. 94 If these two structures. its beauty being superior to all others. "L'Asie rnineur. MAHOYMAC OR MAIOUMAS. 93 has been thought that when time when of doxiana. then. 187." Confercnces de Saint-tienne. 105. as Creswell has demonstrated. Krencker. 20. Stephen at Gaza. that the original workmen between 685 and 705 that the shape A. when al-Walid remodeled an existing structure into a the finest churches of Syria. Baalbek. as has been suggested. 101 Creswell.D. at and there is a reference in Michael the Syrian to one of the pagan buildings 101 Heliopolis having been turned into a church of the Virgin in 525 A.. The Christian church. 15. . 1934.D. 41 . Die Wallfahrtskirche des SiRom. i 78. Wiegand (ed. 372-373. which the Arabs admired and desired to rival. The Great Mosque 39. wide and has no indication in was domical. however. 14.). 1923. from a church this reference to what must have been a gilded wooden dome at Ba'albek is is of great significance to the history of domical architecture in Syria.D. was depicted on the Latin seals (Figs. was somewhat less than 16 m. E. Die Kunst der ishmischen Volker. opxit. 102 shell of wood planking and an outer wooden cupola with it is reasonable to assume. . it is that the Sakhra. at Damascus at present has a stone dome over the haikal (Figs. 1915.D. XLIX.D. built within the temenos of the pagan temple. Pococke. the Sakhra had a similar dome consisting of an inner (gilded) lead sheathing. built by "Rumi and and Egypt.WOODEN DOME IS. n. in. that in 903 A." If reliable. significant to find in the twelfth century having been converted from a mosque into the Templum Domini. was "exactly like the present dome." which Coptic craftsmen. resembles the pine-cone shape referred to in the of the Marneion and the church of S. 63. The wooden dome taken to Jerusalem was probably over the hexagonal forecourt of the Great Temple because there is evidence that this court was roofed over with wood sometime during the Christian its plan that it period. 37) and directly influenced and construction of the Dome of the Rock were by the Holy Sepulchre. isgff. or church of the Holy Sepulchre. 86. n. T.D. 40). i. built by Syrian one" (Fig. . ed. It would have had to be about 20 m. 218-227) in combination with the Holy Sepulchre. It not likely that Eu- tychius was referring merely to a it is difficult to domed 100 and yet baldachin. In 705 A. t wd\. 102 Krencker. in diameter the Qubbat-as-Sakhra. Recueil d'archeologie orientate. For reference to church of the Virgin see p. Its somewhat bulbous and pointed form however." BA'ALBEK Eutychius records that the Caliph al-Walid in 691 A. Early Muslim Architecture. The present wooden dome of the Qubbat-as-Sakhra was built to replace a former dome destroyed in 1022 A.. Diez. associate this dome with any known church to fit at Ba'albek. inhabitants of Syria 99 became one of the wonders CresEutychius. Mitt. 38). and especially congregational mosque which would rival the Qumama. THE ISLAMIC WOODEN DOME The account of Eutychius links up the Islamic use of the wooden dome with the Christian tradition in Syria. Since it is known descriptions (Fig. mean Stylites . IN THE NEAR EAST "CHURCH. carried off a golden kubba at Ba'albek and reerected It over the Sakhra at Jerusalem. this mosque. In view of this traditional relationship between the two great domical sanctuaries of Christianity and Islam after at Jerusalem. 89-90. 100 Clermont-Ganneau. Qubbat to this dome. in describing these mosaics. Their first shelters of reeds and wood covered with thatch and mud. or Dome of the Eagle. "Mosa'iques et inscriptions d'El-Mehayet. which was given is indicated by the name.. The eagle. 127. According to the twelfth century account of Ibn the main the "Dome of the dome. The idea of associating an eagle with a kubba went back to the celestial implications of the domical shape on the imperial tombs where the dome was surmounted by an eagle (Figs. Jubays. in fact. Furthermore. 119-126. who about 780 A. and 10 * sun symbol and emblem of immortality. n. "L'Aigle funfraire des SyTapotheose des empereurs. 17-21). The a standard of severe simplicity tombs of their martyrs and I0a mosques were crude Prophet had set them for using the and condemned the Christians and Jews prophets as places of worship.cit. had three wooden domes over 1 was "round like a sphere. Van Berchem kind must have been part of the stock-inarchitectural tradition which was one Christian mosaic from Khirbit Mukhayyat on typically Syrian. 1934. to the sacred conoid stone of Emesa whose heavenly implications were indicated by to the Syrian conception of the eagle as a an eagle (Figs. and its structure is made of planks. when they conquered Syria. to* pL xxiv/b. Cumont.' 42 . bird of the sun and with Creswell. Eagle/ Arab world. 106 107 Syria.D. was in Syria a funerary emblem and at Antioch the protector of the race. xn. Creswell believes - By 1035 A D - the large that this eleventh century rebuilding respected the plan mosque of al-Mahdi. their religion. to heaven. 3416?.. says. the mosaics. 141-144. "This type of dome is. rebuilt an earlier and construction of the mosque which either al- Walid or 'Abdal-Malik had erected like a Christian basilica The Arabs." Rev. with a domical crossing. XLIII. 41. 137).WOODEN DOME of the IN THE NEAR EAST 103 the haikal or transept. iigfL *F. 44) facade of a church. particularly royal souls. by the end of the *Ibid. 251. op. Lemaire. 43). 108 brought little with them from Arabia except their language.cit. 385-401. 42) which were undoubtedly characteristic of the Syrian architectural tradition. riens et Mosqu6e des Omayyades a Damas/' 1931. strengthened with stout ribs of wood/' An indication of the extent to which the Arabs in building these domical mosques were carrying on a Syrian tradition as-Nasr. Early Churches in Palestine. originally of Syria points out that architectural motifs of this trade of Syrian and Palestine/' 105 and M. in the Great Mosque at Damascus. i. Crowfoot. 106 workmen and hence preserved an There is also The weakness the Arabs is of the wooden dome it as historical evidence of its early adoption by the fact that had to be frequently rebuilt. op . P. of the cupola on the Dome Aqsa mosque at Jerusalem is known to have had a dome over what in a Christian church would have been the crossing (Fig. pL xxvi/!.. which were executed by Syrian craftsmen working for al-Walid." Revue de charged carrying souls. "Les Mo&aiques de la Creswell. The egg-shaped wooden Chain presumably preserves the form and construction of the eighth century structure even though it was rebuilt in the thirteenth century. De Lorey. 105 rhistoire des religions. and their ritual. Eustache de Lorey. And yet. bibl. 1910. show various towers and buildings with bulbous and pointed domes (Figs. 107 the Dead Sea which shows domical towers on the (Fig. The first mosque in Syria was a simple structure of reeds and teakwood at Bosra. as a sacred and cosmic shelter. most significant factor in this rapid assimulation of domical architecture was the existence among the Arab tribesmen. "Les Lammens. was a round qobba tent with a domelike 111 These qobba tabernacles. and by the religious importance of the it dome in India. therefore. A careful study. xi. based upon early Arab sources. 1921. Syria. 111 H. that is. undoubtedly had an imposing gilded dome of wood. lamites. Herzfeld. 147). "The Shepherd Tent of the World" which had its origin in the religious use of an ancestral tent of a resembled the tent sanctuaries on Assyrian reliefs (Fig. carried into battle as a kind of palladium. the idea was considered 110 unlikely because the ordinary Arab tent was in no way similar to this type of shelter. 39^ Arabes prelsprocessions religieuses chez les 43 . XLII. Bosra (Fig. xvn. however. 594. preuss. ii. a seat of authority. 149). Weltenmantel und Himmelsbetyles et les zelt. 110 R. whether fixed or portable. or over. Eisler. by the domical audience halls of the Sassanian kings. mosques with similar symbolic and imposing domes. has demonstrated that the customary shrine of the ancient Arabs. prior to their conquest of Syria and Palestine. an audience hall where proclamations were read. Kunst.. of the scene on a relief of the first century B. which inspired the Arabs to rebuild their 109 No single church. Beirut. When Eisler suggested that the Arabs. from the Temple of kind seen in a religious Bel at Palmyra (Fig. d. a martyrium church. could have given rise in so short a time to a domical style of architecture unless the dome was already a common and impressive feature of religious architecture in Syria. they had begun to make the kubba an architectural symbol of their religion. round and domelike appearance.WOODEN DOME IN THE NEAR EAST seventh century. It was the wooden dome on the cathedral of according to Herzfeld. but in the beginning of Islamic architecture The was Syria and Palestine which gave the structural dome to Islam. 1926. 109 were transported on the backs of camels and were often The qobba. 49). and a memorial or venerated tomb for rulers and saints. had the tradition of a domical religious habitation. like the cathedral of Bosra or the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem." Bulletin de Hnstitut franfais d'arche- E. 1920. comparable to that of other primitive cultures. 605. or baetyl. top that was made of red leather. Only a deeply-rooted symbolism of the domical shape in both the popular cultures of Syria and Arabia explains why the Arabs so quickly appropriated the domical structure for much the same purposes as those of both pagans and Christians. As the Arab conquest spread. must have furnished them with both the incentive and the craftsmen to erect their domical mosques and sepulchres. of pre-Islamic sanctuaries. Sanctuaires pr&slamites dans 1' Arabic occidentale. "Le Culte des site Saint-Joseph. this religious interest in the dome was strengthened by the domical baldachins and palaces of the imperial tradition. in common with other Semites. Portable pavilions. the tribal idol. went back in origin to a remote Semitic past when an ancient type of tent was set up by the tribal chieftain either beside. Jahrb. a place of belief in the worship.C." Melanges de I'Unwerologie orientals Lammens. a flourishing Christian city where the cathedral. however. 121. in which they housed and transported their bait. which of a native domical ideology. 39-101. du Caire. which came to 44 . Hence the be used for domes and domical structures. and even among the pre-Islamlc tribesmen there was the custom of equating bait with qobba and hence of thinking of the domical sanctuary as the manifestation of divinity. the Syrian kalube. Islamic kubba. the Roman tegurium. and the Indian vihdra in having been originally a house concept. was like the English word dome.WOODEN DOME IN THE NEAR EAST was also set up over the burial place of ancestors and famous dead. because of to lightness. There was apparently a massive pagan dome walls varying from 2. In spite of the fact that masonry domes were used upon Roman baths and other buildings in Syria. 1 When its the size of is many of the central churches and the thin- Volcanic scoria. and was carried on was on the South Baths at 45 . 9 m. A. most scholars proin Syria.].THE MASONRY DOME AND THE MORTUARY TRADITION IN SYRIA AND PALESTINE Ill THE scoria the almost Ineradicable Impression that Syria and Palestine. on the church of S. The largest vault of volcanic scoria recorded by Butler 2 on the kalube at Umm-iz-Zetum (Fig. John the Baptist at Jerusalem the church of Hagia Sophia at and (Fig. thick (C. dome of eight gores over an elongated octagon. 46). ill.66 m. These walls.D. apart from the unexplained phenomenon of Islamic reason why there has grown up architecture. by 12. the dome with a span of 5. pi. which Butler shows as having been carried up well above the impost of the dome. H.75 m. to 3 m... The dome a protecting roof In the usual of volcanic scoria of unspecified masonry over the square entrance hall of the Roman baths at Gerasa. It is difficult to tell from the ruins what was considered to be the maximum size of domes constructed of this stone and what was the required thickness of supporting walls. Architecture and Other Arts. The masonry domes on the two circular rooms in the baths at Shehba were made of rubble cement. Gerasa. there is no other specific evidence of masonry domes on churches. or volcanic were constructed upon the churches of these countries before the time of Justinian. discovered nothing to prove that domes of brick. which was undoubtedly constructed of the same material. thick (Butler. dating from 561564 A. 189) Edessa which Justinian rebuilt with a masonry dome. stone. convinced that the with vaults of light volcanic ceeded to restore the central churches with pyramidal and conical roofs of wood or scoria.20 m. 122). it was a very fiat n.15 m.With the exception of the brick dome of 6. commonly thought have been used exten- sively. It is no solution to the problem of restoring the large central churches to conclude that it would have been easy to construct large domes in volcanic scoria because the available evidence does not 1 justify this assumption. 23. no evidence that it was used in the construction of Christian domes. depending upon which side of the Orient oder Rom controversy they supported. Bosra (Butler. xxvi). had an average span o 7.90 m. Kraellng [ed. it was 15 m. 15 m. in thickness. and half believing that the dome was in some way connected with the exotic architecture of the Orient. Hence they assumed. Some of its structural advantages for vaulting were offset by the necessity of carefully protecting it from moisture.80 m. 121) had a span of 5. were probably intended to conceal the actual dome by Roman manner. but there is very little evidence of its having been used for large pagan domes and. in diameter. all more or less convinced that the dome was primarily a utilitarian form of masonry vaulting only. City of the Decapolis. on the church of Kasr ibn Wardan (Fig. and were on walls 1. 384. that the domical tradition was an importation either from Byzantium or Iran. while the one at Shakka (Fig. fig. did not influence the development of domical architecture in the Near East as did Asia Minor. in diameter and carried on walls m. Unaware of the old and popular veneration of the domical shape wooden dome was something of a "paradox/' or an Imposbecause of the sibility present absence of timber. Syria. 1938. is that the early explorers and more recent excavators.3 m. 260-263.. as yet. *34). 230). But did they? was one thing for the Syrian builders to erect relatively small domes over low tombs. found that lofty domes of the necessary span would have been impractical it is in volcanic scoria. and Creswell. perfected the spherical pendenmeans of fitting a flat handkerchief dome onto the rectangular spaces of their 2 tombs. from the brick architecture of Mesopotamia and Iran. 239-240. 121-131. 46 . For centuries the native stonecutters had so fully mastered in the cities to the difficulties of intricate stereotomy that in addition to constructing half-domes of the finest dry tive as a masonry they had. and it was a totally different problem in a country suffering from severe earthquakes to raise free-standing domes of great span and height on thin walls and slight columnar supports. Hence. d. and Kasr Ibn 2 Wardan.MASONRY DOME IN SYRIA AND PALESTINE it is ness of their supporting walls are taken into consideration. Crowfoot. The Brick Dome and Strzygowski. was the disseminating center of a brick architectural tradition in Syria. i. by the second century. II. Early Churches in Palestine. and the only two centers of brick construction were the castrum at il-Anderin Wardan of 561/64 A. thought that the central structures should once have been vaulted with stone. itinerant craftsmen Under Roman supervision and probably with the aid of from Italy. 8 His far from objective thesis rested upon the assumption of a sixth century date for the palace at Mschatta and the belief that the buildings of Kasr Ibn derivation/ Wardan were of Mesopotamian rather than Byzantine was of great importance to the history of Near Eastern architecture because the only known brick dome in Syria was on the church of Kasr Ibn The issue of 558/9 A. set up the hypothesis that Antioch. the Christian craftsmen of Syria should have been It fully equipped to erect them in cut stone. 4 Strzygowski. xxv.0. especially the false dome. 1904. chap. in his effort to derive all the elements of Christian architecture. On the other hand readily comprehensible why the early scholars. Kunst. To the extent that the domical shape had come to have a deep mystic and celestial meaning to the Christians. Strzygowslci. volcanic scoria and brick. * Early Muslim Architecture.D. Actually. one-story gateways and baths where the disintegrating thrusts of the vault could be firmly embedded in adequate abutment. we have no evidence of the masonry dome having been used upon the churches of Palestine and Syria before the period of Justinian. baths and gateways. domes of either brick or By the fourth century." Jahrb. who studied the ruins of Syrian architecture without excavating any of the churches. be built. A. however. it would have been religiously undesirable to conceal the domes on the exterior. there was what appeared be convincing archaeological evidence that the Christians had a remarkable heritage of masonry construction. if monumental domes were to upon their private and public baths. as an outpost of the East. by enclosing walls or heavy abutment. like concrete. vn. His thesis therefore collapsed. Kleinasien. preuss. 105. as the Romans did. when there began to be so much Christian building and towns of this then prosperous country. "Mschatta. the Syrian builders had learned to construct domical vaults of volcanic scoria. Although. conoid dome of sun-dried brick. 168. that it had a dome of 8 Churches. 5 Although the dome which up to the tressing tive-like Butler restored upon the church (Fig. 56.. and plans (Fig. Publications of drew the plan 113). within the circular wall. 6. although he about 23 feet in diameter. the bricks being of the same kind seen in the vaults and domes of Kasr Ibn Wardan and the half-dome of the Great Church bricks. n. however. carried upon brick piers of 1. quakes of this B.STONE AND ^CONCRETE" DOME the Eastern origin of brick domical architecture was it left in a theoretical vacuum. Butler wrote. i. 47) with a free-standing. C. region for a few generations. n. 3 at il-Anderin 7 (Fig. came to associate the brick dome with the churches of the region. n. Early 43. without an ambulatory.00 m. 47 . when was clearly recognized that Mschatta had to be dated much later and that il-Anderin and Kasr Ibn Wardan were imperial foundations built in the Roman manner with of Byzantine dimensions. Butler.95 that it must have had "a circle of columns - m 26-54.6 m. Syria. he wrote of 14. 46) has some exterior buthaunch. and with its clerestory wall supported 8 on a circular colonnade would have been practical on the church at Falul. the Syria. free-standing dome with a span of about 7. as is shown in Fig. 45).66 m. at il-Anderin/' which he should have added were constructed of baked is not sufficient grounds for accepting a brick domical tradition in Syria. must have had a brick dome because the debris contained "masses of masonry in brick and mortar. B. The Stone and "Concrete" Dome pagan Small domes of cut stone and light domes of volcanic scoria were common in the architecture of Syria after the Roman domination of the country. dated 526/7. 48). usually concealed in the 5 Roman manner on the exterior (ill. The which are dimensions very different from those which would have been necessary for domical roofs to have been used upon the other central churches of Syria. evidence of this to understand why Butler and others. might have withstood the violent earth- Such evidence. and always con- H. Also he assumed that the round church at Falul (Fig. Ibid. Syria. B. Syria. for such was the structurally method commonly used by the Roman and Early Byzantine masons.." thereby indicating. They were. but debris remains of the palace dome and only a Nothing fragment of the dome over the church. 6 7 Butler. Butler. sun-baked dome which he restored on the church at il-Anderin with a diameter of only 4. "I have looked in vain for ancient brick in the mediaeval and modern architecture of Syria/' 6 nevertheless he restored church No. Early Churches in i. 1929. in discussing the brick construction at Kasr Ibn Wardan and ilAnderin. B. 169. which had a diameter Princeton University Archaeological Expeditions to Syria in 1904/5 and /pop. 48. but it is very doubtful whether a similar. baked bricks it The dome of Kasr Ibn Wardan is instructive because of its shape and the fact that was the result of the introduction of imperial vaulting methods in the sixth century. i. on the limited one site. show that they were of the same dimensions were massive vaults of narrow span. The light. however. 95-96.15 m. however. curve of the it is difficult Looking back. 1919-20. it is more likely that the actual dome continued the penden- safer drum and was even more concealed.. Since the cathedral was also a rnartyrium.MASONRY DOME structed. 23. A. The fact that all excavation and study of the interiors of central churches at Gerasa. De Vogue. wooden dome which was one of the Syrian prototypes for the later domical mosques of Islam. D. than to under the center of the to more church. xvi-xvn. There is no historical justification for restoring this rnartyrium Like the martyria at 14 182) and Resafa church with a pyramidal roof of timbers or for disregarding both the results of the excavations and the evidence for a Syrian wooden dome by presupposing that it might have had a dome of volcanic scoria. as In the baths of IN SYRIA AND PALESTINE structures. Littmann. Rey. it was the sepulchral implications (Fig. Suppl. pis. Churches at Bosra and (British "Crowfoot (Churches at Bosra. 170). When excavated it was found that the church had an inner quatrefoil of piers and columns (Fig. 4. Paper. 13. A. wide. "Mschatta. G. Voyages dans le Houran. modeled upon the tomb possible in of Bizzos and the cupola of the near-by church of S. 30-35. there arose the question of when precedent and the still more serious question of whether such 9 domes were structurally a country of severe earthquakes. von Domaszewi." Jahrb. HI. a quatrefoil. because the debris showed that masonry vaults of volcanic scoria were only used on the small apsidal niches and that a lofty 15 it is more than doubtful dome of about 40-foot span could have been carried on such light interior supports. Stuart. 1921. Crowfoot. 18) re* ported that masses of scoria were found in the debris where the exedrae were. Bacchus and Leontius. Syria. Hira d. und Badiya.. 1 19. 105) accepted the presumption of Archaeological Expeditions to Syria in 1904/5 wooden dome. was one of the earliest types of it Is significant to find that its inner shape. fig. R. preuss. 512/13 A. 281-286. Abb. 4. m. Therefore. 37^. i. Die Provincia Arabia. 1904-09. and Herzfeld.. pi. 63-67. 184). 72-74. Korykos (Fig. thick. Creswell." Seep. 1921. Grabar. 1 80). 1937. 117. Magie and D. 7. Seleucia Pieria of the plan which (Fig. gave importance the eastern sanctuary. archbishop. rose to a height of about 60 feet and was supported on a relatively 10 thin drum with walls only about i m. Herzfeld. pis. had an astonish- ing span of 24 m. Butler's dome. was first restored by De Vogue and Briinnow with a free-standing hemispherical dome of stone and then by Butler with a more lofty conoid one. R. insisted that these inner supports originally carried a 11 when he restored it. 176-194. 12 J. ski. 557. E. XLII. Publications of the Princeton University highly improbable in fact that it had a dome of any kind/' he later (Early Churches in Palestine. Martyrium. was built and completed the holy Church of Sergius. Brad and Gerasa. Greek and Latin Inscrip- roof is discussed on page 118. Antioch (Fig. Syria. and triumphed gloriously. Syrie centrale. no. E. n. 4). 94^. Early Churches in Palestine. "Under beloved and most holy Julianus.D. Scholars at once began to suspect that the interior of the cathedral at Bosra must have had an Inner and smaller ring of supports. . its symbolic dome. 13 E. A recent effort to restore this church with a square tower and pyramidal a and 1909. Butler. martyria. W. 49) with a central square something over 1 2 m. i. Brunnow and A. tions. upon comparatively low and massive the large and important cathedral at Bosra. 11 10 ill. George at Zor'ah. but that none was found in the center of the church. and that there was no evidence of its having 12 13 been roofed with anything except wood. Early Muslim Architecture.. iv. raises the the Antioch and Resafa have revealed no debris of masonry domes question most God- 22.. after having at is Samaria-Sebaste School of Archae- first come to the conclusion that "it ology in Jerusalem.. ir. Kunst. martyrs who received the prize 14 248. as a result of extensive repairs made after 1926. Creswell (Early Muslim Architecture. then the similarity and presumable relations beween its and the metro- politan church at Bosra lead to the conclusion that It is original roof was made of wood. and on the near-by sixth century martyrium (Fig. i. thick. This could not have been the same structure seen by Butler a generation later. 20 Chagra. Rivoira (Lombardic chitecture. and took the position. as it has been. and influenced by the near-by cathedral at Bosra. 411- been later than 1805. Herzfeld (Archaolound Ttgris-Gebiet. 1910. supports m. gische Reise im EuphratAr1911-20. 98). It is. 53) covered with zinc. i8/c. 31 n. dated 542 A. Architecture wood." Butler. Jean Lassus. I.D. Inscriptions de Syrie.^ In fact the whole clerestory is quite different from the one drawn by De Vogiie. George at at De Vogiie.7 He described its pointed dome (Fig. n. n. it was considered to be the first published only extant original church dome in Syria. 61." Atti del III Congresso internazionale di 49 . in 1938.STONE AND whether the dome seen by at CONCRETE DOME of S." 16 His drawing has the interior octagon constructed of carefully locked stones and brought to a 32-sided drum by means of stone squinches at the top of the clerestory. Die F. Syrie centrals. Butler. 84. Wallfahrtskirche des Si- building. 62) recording monument" was "placed of the in "this tioned the antiquity of the masonry dome and suggested that the original dome was built of the pre- holy conquering martyr George. 56) no proof. pointed out that the dome seen by De Vogue* could not have and Other Arts. that the church meon 19 Stylites in Kal'at Sim'dn. When De Vogiie this church. i. 1931. described the dome as "of concrete" and "lined with plaster which was unquestionably ancient. to be rebuilt Once the antiquity of this 19 masonry dome of S. %$i. by in this time. however. 18 Even if these two domes. that its original at Zor'ah. s$fL.15 m. Also. on the other hand. P. use wooden roof was dome-shaped to note the of wooden domes with zinc sheathing on the martyrium church of S. 58) like the present wooden dome on S. n. because of the lack of wood in the Hauran. 134) have ques- magnificent cious 1T how p. of course. "Deux ^glises cruciformes de Hauran/' Bulletin d'etudes orientates de I'lnstitut franfais de Damas.. cited by De Vogiie on relic Palestine. and his exterior photographs (Fig.).D. Wulff (Altchristliche und fryzantinische Kunst. n." Another generation later. 97). i. De Vogue and Butler on the martyrium church George Zor'ah (Fig. 2). 0. That this central-type. the church had a wooden dome (Fig. therefore. Sarre and E. 253) and Watzinger (Denkmdler Palastinas. built in 515 A. 50). always 20 T. inconceivable that a dome which modern times had two or three times in less than three generations could have originally stood for about fourteen hundred years. Krencker published a photograph of the interior in which there is no warping of the octagon and the stone squinches are now beneath the clerestory. "Les monuments chre'tiens de la Syrie septentrionale. domical structure was also a martyrium is established by an inscription (Waddington. 18 Krencker. 51). George at Zor'ah is it questioned. 2498. Elias (Fig. Crowfoot (Early Churches in had a masonry dome. and that it was "contemporary with the primitive construction. as made of stone en blocage and said with a span of 10. 52) give clear Indications 17 of much rebuilding. can be accepted as proof that such free-standing domes of stone or "concrete" were constructed on Syrian churches during the Early Christian period. circular clerestory because Butler's interior photograph has the octagon brought to a drum by the gradual warping of the crude stone courses in the spandrels of the arcade. pi. when Seetzen visited the 413. 15 and Moslim Architecture. 47) and Bosra. and some small masonry domes on Tychia and kalubes to be taken up under the Graeco- Rornan kalube. with the burials in the four shallow arms. 39) 1914-15. and definitely conoid. 247-248. Creswell. pL xun. pi. Early Muslim Architecture. 147-148. It was the theoretical prototype of the later Islamic welt and furnishes solid proof that the free-standing Syrian dome was not hemispherical. fitted 22 together without mortar and set upon a square chamber. There is nothing to support the assertion. verse x. shape and is made of magnificently cut stone. Actually we are left with the fifth century tomb of Bizzos at Ruweha (Fig.. n. It was this dome which influenced Butler in his restoration of the churches at il-Anderin (Fig. Fatio. 61) as the only extant free-standing dome of masonry. 310. like that of certain pagan tombs (Figs. 1947. is cruciform. 78. The tomb. 91. which is located to the south of the east end of the church. like the Roman dome. is the evidence for the masonry dome in Syria and Palestine? Apart from the relatively low domes on Roman baths in Syria. they refute the usual arguments advanced against the use of the wooden dome in a region as barren of wood as southern Syria and the neighborhood of Mesopotamia where domes were formerly thought to have originated. for that matter. is the easiest ducing the traditional domical shape upon the central type of church. 80) in western Palestine. slightly bulging. some cut-stone cupolas on a limited group of Palestinian tombs which will be considered in the next section. buttressed. n. 59). 22 De Vogue. 480. M. Butler. then. because of the lack of timber. Voyage en Syrie oires de FInstitut fran^ais d'archeologie orien- archeologia cristiana. Berchem and A. "there is no wood at all in its roof which is very much constructed entirely of stone/' thereby indicating that stone domes were 21 of an innovation. Sanctuaires Chretiens de Syrie. "Une hymne syriacque sur la cathedrale d'fide&se" (Codex Vaticanus Syriacus 95. that there were masonry domes on such Constantinian churches as the Holy Sepulchre and the Domus aurea. C. fol 49-50). of any large. 204. 113-114. after the "Great Church" at Edessa was completely rebuilt. In fact. following the flood of 524 A. van E. Architecture and Other Arts. In fact they strongly suggest that that modern builders have again discovered and safest material for repro- wood. Dupont-Sommer. n. i. r. so frequently made. but was pointed and somewhat "puffed-up. has a pointed. Its interior (Fig.MASONRY DOME Zor'ah. 50 . 1947. the wonders and symbolism of its dome were described in a Syrian hymn which says. What. 21 (Mm- tale du Caire. sgfL. are IN SYRIA AND PALESTINE modern. there were few domical vaults and no archaeological evidence of a free-standing masonry dome (or. with funds of Justinian. The Domical Mortuary Tradition in Syria The tomb lished mortuary symbolism adopted of Bizzos raises the questions whether the domical shape had an estabby the Christians and whether any connection i. or niches. 1934." resembling the pine-cone shape so specifically referred to in the descriptions of the wooden domes of Syria and Palestine. and partially concealed domical vault) having been constructed on any Syrian church prior to the sixth century.D. even if it has to be imported. Cahiers archeologiques. Xanthoudidos. "Wohnungsbestattung. lization. 84." xiv. Lechler. 1934. L'Antica Etruria marit- tima. Dawn of European CiviChilde. 27 domelike cabin of overlapping 26 logs. The Eastern Libyans. and was common during the second millennium throughout the Mediterranean from Crete to Iberia. by J. pi. H. 38. At an early date in different parts of the ancient present and make permanent the revered shape of a primitive shelter as an eternal home of the dead gave rise to various domical traditions: in India it was preserved in the reliquary stupas of the Buddha. K. or the memory. 203. Mesara. 1921-35. 22. Ebert. as its reproductions in the rock-cut (Fig. 1939. 443445. 28 It 23 was because of is this undying religious veneration for in an ancient house form that While there show that nearly all extensive bibliography to ancient cultures had at 24 South Russia. Ever since the late Stone Age there had been a widespread veneration of the round and dome-shaped tomb as the reproduction of an ancient. 63) tholos This sepulchral house concept. Populonia. Egypt and "Ein neolithischer Grabmit Holzkonstruction in Harenderniolhiigel 1930. B. iv. Frobenius. italischen W. A. O. Expression. Montelius. 528:. 1938. 42. which gave so much content to the domical shape regardless of its construction. 34. 47. 49). 411. M. Holwerda. 62) was at times a careful reproduction of the circular as a wicker hut. Mori and H. chap. A. 24-27. P. 26 and Japan (M. "Das alteuropaische Kupi. Dechellette. 1846-51. Megalithic Tomb Ishibutai." 27 Italie depuis O. Naito. H. 1927). L. O. 1916. W. Egyptian Architecture as Cultural pelgrab. it persisted in round tombs of North Africa and in the round barrows of the Germanic North where the actual burial chamber beneath the tumulus (Fig. A. iv). G. 25 G. Minto. 37. from whom the Romans derived many of their funerary customs and much of their mortuary use of the dome. Fig. Behn. Orient. lined by M. Nan-shan-li (Archaeologia Orientales. E. Italic Hut Urns and Hut Urn Cemeteries. A. Studien tion of the masonry tomb from the nomadic round tent among the Scythians has been out- uber die etruskischen Graber. "Derkleinafrikanische Grabi- one time the custom. Abb. 207. among the Scythians the tomb began as a burial in the domelike tents of the living this instinctive desire to world which were then imitated in the buried wooden sepulchres and finally translated into 23 24 masonry vaults. 34." Art Quarterly. E. Hausurnen. Naturund Urgeschichte des Menschen. pi.. and Prae. Ying(Arch. vm." Prae.. J. n. Bryan. 1925. Hamada. Droop. n. L. S. 1912. Akerstrom. 85 en. Smith. The Vaulted Tombs of m). van Giffen. "Hausgrab. the Mediterranean." v.MORTUARY TRADITION existed between its IN SYRIA conoid shape and the similar conelike domes of wood which were symbols of a heavenly abode on Christian martyria. xiv. 1909. "The Evolution of Prehistoric Architecture. ancestral and god-given shelter. the clearest evidence for the importance of the round and domelike hut in bau. 65). 28 i. 1943. 368ff.. 4-16. 11. Manuel mada. 1937. Shimada and K. 1924. The d'archeologie prehistorique celtique et gatto- influence of the prehistoric round house upon the funerary and religious traditions of the Celts has been traced romaine. Reallexicon der Vor~ geschichte. Canina. 1933. Bates. Die Rundbauten.. Zeit. 1914. 64) and corbeled (Fig. 215. of burials in the house before they developed the tradition of constructing special. 76117. by A. 25 or was it made is more permanent shown by tombs. ci. 1924. Hoernes. was continued by the Etruscans (Fig. Rostovtzeffi (Iranians and Greeks 51 . ch'eng-tzu Ha- The Palace of Minos. Evans. Allcroft (The Circle and the Cross. while the evolu- 1906.. Zeit. 1943." Prae. Altmann. 1934. 1910. Bauart der Einzelgraber. "Neue Kuppelgraber aus der Veluwe. 51." Praehistorische Zeitschrift. the early mortuary traditions are the hut urns of northern Europe. 1909. 1895V. trans. eternal homes for the dead in imitation of the ancestral dwellings of the living. 1922. 374-379. B. 51. S. J. 1922. Zeit. Civilisation primitive en I' introduction des metaux. F. 1928. . C. pi. a number of other tholos tombs of this and an ancestral home as is de- type have been discovered in Thrace. undoubtedly acquired both a celestial and cosmic significance. A. 1945. 67) from the Saar Tene period. It reads: "Then picted in the Bulgarian when thou hast put off the grievous burden of mortal limbs. "The Bee-hive Tombs of Mezek. who to the also quotes an oracular utterance made diani. shapes like those described At an early upon the Syrian churches and later continued upon the Islamic mosques. use of a dome-shaped house of the dead in There was a widespread and persistent many regions. Very similar to the decorations of the tholos are the bands of chariots driven by Nikes. which wander to enter the body of man" (Eufr.MASONRY DOME IN SYRIA AND PALESTINE somewhat the rock-cut tombs in various parts of the Mediterranean preserve the bulbous and pointed shapes of wicker and thatched cabins. 167. dating from the fourth century B. XLVIII. A. from the Danube to Iberia its and Ireland. ali in with funereal repasts on Hellenistic tomb M. 1927. Histoire de I' art dans 1'antiquite. XLV. 105-122. a which. constructed by corbeling. although of chariots late." Antiquity. M. fig. dome of a Bulgarian tholos The heavenly character of the banquet revealed by the bands of decoration. Emperor Julian idea preserves the same Thradan Tomb. they contributed to those classical ideas regarding the omphalos. date in the laborious process of transforming a transient hut into an eternal stone whether rock cut or dwelling for the dead. 111/5. 226E). A. figurative. 1937. 63). "A Greek Silver Phithe Metropolitan Museum. 26). because conoid dome is so similar to the 32 Syrian tomb of Bizzos (Fig. the fiery car shall bear thee The chariot as a vehicle for transmitting whirlwinds through the midst of the eddying to Olympus. A. 29 Porcius Cato wrote. were present in the Hellenistic and Roman heroa which were erected to the memory of dead heroes. Zeus. Frova. 350) admits the possibility. figs. pi. These primitive beliefs." A. which probably indicate an apotheosis and reflect the influence of early Italian grave symbolism. the tomb of Dionysus and the abode of departed spirits. 7* an<* P^ IV/4 5- were commonly represented in combination 52 . Ver"Original Hellenistic Paintings in 1915. B. in which the carefully carved conoid shape of the corbeled interiors it is thought were studded with rosettes as stars. the lower one presenting the funerary at which the dead wears the crown of immortality and the upper one depict31 ing three celestial chariots.A. n. but carrying such symbolic figures of immortality as Herakles and Dionysos. Filov. vu. 300-305. 2. phialai (G. 29 A similar relationship was more fully developed by the third century B. 61) and the Islamic weli. and thou shall come into that ancestral home of heavenly light. Wace (British School at Athens. the domical shape of the round tomb. the 'sky' above our heads. "The mundus name from G. XLIX. Les Steles funeraires en forme de maison. 19. Cook. vi. 372).]. 1945.C. Richter. 1-13. Annual. 31 fig." Arti i. which saw in its conoid shape the dwelling of a legendary king.A. 637. other examples pi.. Some such belief in the symbolic relation between an ancestral dwelling and a heavenly abode was presumably intended by the builders of the tholos tombs of Mycenae (Fig.J." A. xxv. the one at Mezek (B. napis. 1882-191 1. and they also survived in the gets its Roman conceptions of the mundus. Hist. Other references cited by Mrs. Linckenheld. 1150. associated with a traditional round house. 30. 402-415. S2 E. Strong (Apotheosis and After Life. xi. when the beehive tomb tomb at is Kazanlak (Fig. 30 to the chariot are 1941. "Le Pitture di Kazanlak. J. Perrot and C.. whence thou didst souls to an eternal sphere was of great antiquity. 2) tholos. 66) 30 was carved and decorated. The most striking example Basin during the late La is a house grave-stele (Fig. Chipiez.C. pattern of ideas which. see Chap.. 14. In the sepulchre. Western concepts regarding the mortuary significance of the domical shelter was added another. 37 See p. which was prominent in the Roman beliefs regarding the afterlife is 34 symbol are well illustrated in Karl Dome of Heaven/' Art BuiIctin. celestial decorations. The ceiling. when the cosmic tent of Alexander the Great was adopted as an imperial symbol and heavenly covering over the divine being and cosmic ruler. 144. for example. 52. 190. and its history as a manae Fragmenta. That the mundus was an underground. Representations of this tent pattern on the 53 . was also taken over into mortuary imagery as a symbol of a heavenly dome. 1945. Notes on Cases Law. which was part of the catacombs of S. or tent shelter. 1907. was a customary symbol In ceme34 teries and funereal gardens to provide a shelter for the soul in an idyllic hereafter. which a "carpet" sometimes called and "fan" pattern. 109. H. Sebastiano. 332. Zeus.cit. Cato. Hadrian's villa. or aedicula. 36 F. 35 n n. The round and the Great with its emperors In their role of a presumably domelike tent of Alexander Roman which was the immediate prototype of the baldachin went back in the Orient to the "heavenly" imperial (Figs. audience tents of Achaenienid and Indian rulers. 68). a prehistoric tomb. 1943. As far as Rome was concerned. the real impact of these Eastern Ideas came. 431. and Renaissance domes. 146). This pagan tomb painting will later help to the Christians used the word skene to designate the martyrium of S. Untergang Pompejis bis ans Ende des dritten P. xxvn. Les Jardins romains. This conception of the universe as a tent form in which the Son of Heaven an idea that was not new to the appeared. 25). all the cosmic meanings associated with the domical baldachin began to have a profound Christianity began to think of 33 of Civil Cook. op. the velum. gave a new Impetus to domical symbolism at throughout the Empire. domical and tholoid structure. 1934. etc. probably during the reign of Nero. of M. pi.. Clodius Hermes (Fig. After the construction of the Golden House of Nero. aurea. from the time when martyrs as the successors of the classical heroes and to visualize its Heavenly Ruler in the formal terms of a Roman imperator. during the late these traditionally To antique period. the dome became an essential is element in imperial palace architecture. the tent is painted on the celestial baldachin.MORTUARY TRADITION Indeed its IN SYRIA 33 shape resembles the sky. Grammaticae Ro- ceilings of the Domus Pompeian celestial frescoes. Jahrhunderts. Funaioli. or tent motif. 429-442. in. Romische Wandmalerei vom Lehmann's "The discussed by Cook. 35 Christian. In this scene of apotheosis the heroic figure of the dead. is depicted rising heavenward through the opening In the top of a 36 domelike tent with explain why four fringed lobes. Wirth. 1-27. classical world when Alexander took it over." By Hellenistic and Roman times this inherently mystic association of round and domical shelters with departed spirits had become so general that a domical tholos (Fig. 50. 37 In fact. its Babylas at Antioch as an ideal dwelling in the its afterlife. in the midst of a crowd of onlookers. Also. where the kosmokrator dined and gave audiences beneath a revolving and Rome and astronomically decorated cupola of wood. became a celestial symbol upon imperial domes and other types of vaults and continued to remain a traditional decoration upon Roman. contributed to the growing Interest In the domical shape. Eastern. Grimal. because he introduced into the ordinary interlace of wickerwork a band of scale ornament. perhaps as early as the end of the third century.D. vi-vm. as a babe. when so much religious oratories built over the relics of began to adopt for these simple martyria the Roman types of tombs and memorials along with their easily assimilated domical ideology. 130-144. Vita Gregorii and Vita Sergii. also the lowly abode of the Good Shepherd. dependent (Figs. according to De Rossi. and cyburiam. and on it. the Christians were also deeply influenced by the great domes which happiness.) in the Vita Symmachi (498-514 A. During the Pro to-Christian and Early Christian enthusiasm was centered in mortuary chapels and saintly heroes. 1892. tigurium. came to attach so much significance to the domical shape as a sepulchral symbol. Because of their preoccupation with a death. taken from the tiles which freto its quently protected the domes of imperial tombs. near Cagliari. made evident by a two trees. in the frescoes of a Sardinian tomb. the Vita Honorii. the artist was aware of the imperial meanings which could be attached domical shape. 17-21). where the symbolic scene of Jonah cast overboard is and devoured by the 38 sea monster who represented the evils of mortal existence depicted. they frequently called a tegurium. 70).MASONRY DOME influence IN SYRIA AND PALESTINE upon a Christian imagery which was endeavoring to express the invisible life after by means of the visible. By the fourth century. carried by the his Lamb of God and transported to an ideal tegurium paradise. tiburinum. 23) happiness. 39 Du Cange says. which usually had a domical canopy like the baldachin. the Christians naturally continued the antique habit of visualizing an ideal abode for the dead as a rustic which the gods had given to man in a golden age when all was peace and tegurium they were able to develop a more monumental architecture. "Cubicoli sepolcrali cristiani. when the Roman emperors had adopted as the crowning feature of their mausolea and stamped upon the imperial coins as the cosmic feature of their aeternae memoriae It should become increasingly evident why the Christians. (Fig. and hence similar is to the tomb the of Lazarus Christ (Fig. 22). 17-21). For specific . 10). etc. signifies Jerusalem. 18." was frequently designated tegurium (with its Bollettino di archaeologia cristiana. In the process of formulating their differentiate very clearly new art the Christians made little effort to between the various types of ritualistic shelters which they borrowed from the pagans. pis. That the mortuary shelter of Jonah was imagined as located in a garden scene of paradise." What came to be the ciborium various spellings: tiburium. and the Sepulchre of one an olive tree of peace and (Fig. The religious implications of the is theme culminate on the end wall where the soul of Jonah. the Dove of Peace.). and the other palm which. tugurium. 89 Although the ciborium S8 became the all De Rossi. as they vvere upon imperial forms and antique habits of thought. The ciborium. in. Even in rendering the appearance of the symbolic tegurium. the Christians periods. "Tegurium quod ed ciborium vocatur. This process can be seen. instead of the celestial is The eagle of the imperial mausolea (Figs. memorials and aediculae (Figs. which is both mausoleum and his eternal home in a heavenly which is domical tegurium of rustic construction is clearly a shepherd's hut. Andrew at Rome as a ciborium 21-23) was both a In the sixth century square. at Ephesus. 83) as a monumental ciborium. tentorium. of the dead. fig. pi. 77." figurative tegurium. d. 14. 1924. Beiblatt. H. 504. Der christliche and Cabrol. Italy figs. Vorlaufiger Bericht iiber die neath a domical ciborium. form martyrium and rebuilt in the sixth century by Justinian with domes over the crossing and arms (Grabar. Braun. Between the fourth and sixth centuries. with the result that throughout the Demetrios this at Saloniki it is (Fig. Templo. "cibo- manorum was bolic that "de sepulchris" in the illustrated Agrimensorum Ropresumably by the rium. Diet.. supratentorium. Martyrium.G. /nsL. with a dome. which would then explain as the domical crossing of a cruciform church. but only specifically used for the ciborium from the twelfth century on. identity with Lazarus on the gold-glass (Fig. The variety of symassociated with this ritualistic body or relics of martyrs. op. 42 72-74. but evidence that the and fifth century martyrium had a domical covering.. Soteriou. and mappula (Braun. original chapel 55 . n. as was the martyrium of S. Lauer. a symbolic replica of the tomb and heavenly reason dwelling of Christ. John at Ephesus (Fig. divum. Arnason. which in the East was also thought of as the tomb and throne of Christ. As late as the fifteenth century Symeon of Thessalonica (De sacro Aufgrabungen in Ephesos/' Jahresh. umbella quam coelum dicunt. 154. Miniature mere e profane dell' anno 1023. in. figs. i. xcvin) in much the same way arch. first During the quatrefoil and trefoil tomb plans.MORTUARY TRADITION ritualistic IN SYRIA covering over the altar. "Early Christian Silver of North Gaul/' Art Bulletin. A. H. 341) says upMpwv symbolizes the tomb of Christ. Altar. John assimilation of pagan ideas in this process of creating a new architecture accounts for the fact that a starry dome (Figs. which the Christians had taken over from Roman sepulchral architecture. coelum. xx. presumably made of wood. 73) over a tomb was visible The references see J. "de sepulchris" was pictured as a domical ciborium (A. xin. n. 229!:. 47). "La 'Capsella* de Brivio. were enlarged into monumental martyria and churches. Man. is indi- cated by the names given to it: conopaeum. the domical tomb of and its covering. "XVI. Piot. polygonal. 23) and on the fourth century silver casket of Brivio in the Louvre (P. 357. illustranti enciclopedia medioevale di Rabana Mauro. oratories and early martyria were domical and central structures with circular. 1$$*: Migne. and 1926..*&<-? 1929. 239-241.. Gregory of Tours described the covering over the altar in the rotunda of S. Keil. rer. 270). 15881!. 69) was made domical tomb crypt of 41 a like sepulchral tegurium. Braun. 42 why it was later rebuilt centuries of Christianity not all the reliquary chapels. CLV." cols. 13). caelatura. 215!. 1931. pL xix.. 1938. i. monumental and ciborium-like chapel over the relics of S. opxit. If the basic thesis of this study is sound. col. it was first used as a sepulchral shelter over the relics and remains Middle Ages it retained both its sepulchral and heavenly symbolism/ Because the content went with the form and purpose of a religious shelter. The first structure at Ephesus was a tegurium and ciborium. J. the domical tombtypes.. 41 G. oster. n. 190) and in Byzantine art the funeral of a saint usually shows the body beSS. 189-191. *A/>x. Amelli. John. For necessary to restore the original martyrium of S. 1896.G.cit. 71. however. largely because of the growing popularity of the Cult of Martyrs. square. cited by sepulchri (M. the stone reliquary built beneath the altar and in the center of the cruciform S. which in the fifth century was enlarged by four arms into a cruci- Merov. In 1023 AJX when the encyclopedia of Rabanus Maurus was illustrated. P. and not with its method of construction. 40 Because of the early use of the ciborium as a ritualistic and symbolic covering over the Holy Sepulchre meanings (Fig. xxvn. it should show that the masonry dome which Justinian had erected over the crossing and original tomb chapel was not the result of the introduction of domical roofing from Byzantium.. 26-31. martyrium Babylas Antioch-Kaoussie early in the fifth century *7 Krautheimer. 50*?. Paul. Basil S Augustine. 27-33. Leontius (Lassus. An indication of when this relationship was recognized in Syria is the fact that a baptistery was added onto the cruciform of S. illustrates the tians growing appeal of domical symbolism. 43 and it was this type of baptistery which. by the baptism' of Severus of Antioch in the martyrium of S.cit. remained standard in 44 the Syria throughout in Early Christian period. as in the baptistery of the m Anastasis rather than the basilica. PJL. golden harts stood around the edge of the font for the same reason that animals were pictured in the manuscripts about the tempietto over the sacred waters and that harts and trees were combined with a woodsman's hut to denote in paradise the martyrium at Seleucia Pieria (Fig. 44 See p. 'Nymphaaen. ences to the writings of S.und Octagon-Bauten. terbury. Grabar. 104.). 94). Something of the mystic nature and appeal of this domical ideology is seen in the way the concept of the dome was carried over from the tomb to the baptistery. however. S. Iconography Krautheimer.. "Introduction to an of Mediaeval Architecture/ " Insti- Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld tutes . In the Lateran baptistery. op. i. Sanciuaires Chretiens de the use of the martyrium established at Nisibis 79). but the prevalence of the practice is shown by its prohibition in 578 by the Council of Auxerre W. XLI. not only was the house of purification. not only have tombs been found many baptisteries. Styger. Martyrium i (ibid. Because the Chrishad been in the habit of using their burial places as baptisteries and their baptisto the font house. usually with a small apse. 41 Hence.. (F. and baptistery Anans very conclusive (Krautheimer. Hilarius of Poitiers. vm. 38). the Pseudo- Unger. 22. * 2.. 114). Uber die christlichen Rund. as a which they then visualized as a symbolic. Augustine.MASONRY DOME proof that IN SYRIA AND PALESTINE all who were purified and faithful unto death were assured of an ideal and home more everlasting than anything enjoyed by a Roman heavenly emperor in his cosmic Domus Dei. At the same time this artistic symbolism was given deeper content by the Church Fathers who had established a mystic equation which made baptism a reexperience of the death and resurrection of Christ. 9 as a baptistery is (Grabar. and the relationship is shown by the fact that the baptistery at Jerusalem was connected with the Syrie.cit. which was perhaps the first to be constructed like a martyrium with a celestial dome. 446). 228). v. or martyrium.. and Anselm of Can- 56 . Baptisterien. Leo Magnus. 1933. transformed into a domical and heavenly dwelling. 202. cosmic shelter in a sylvan paradise where animals drank at the Fountain of Life. "II Restauro del battistero ariano di Ravenna. 43 off. At first the baptistery was an ordinary rectangular room. like tlie house of the dead. 1866. 28)." Studien zur at Ravenna Kunst des Ostens. cols. teries as martyria. 46 they transferred the heavenly tegurium imagery of the tomb. 45 This radical change. During the fourth century Italy. which probably began with either the Lateran baptistery or the baptistery of the fifth Holy Sepulchre and then spread in the course of the century. The evidence for this relation of tomb is and by Prudentius (Peristephanon Migne.. iff. at (G. the Christians began to construct their baptisteries like domical mausolea and martyria. Gerola. Mausoleen. 1942. i. but In 43 R. op. in Africa "Krautheimer. and because of the growing interest in domical symbolism. with a few exceptions. P." Architectura. v. Martyrium. by means of this relation between the baptistery and the tomb of Christ. LX. 385 n." Banner Jahrb. 203. opxiL. 446. or chapel. with refer- 1923. tomb monument of a domical shape is the monolithic is a curious grave stele standing above the under53 chamber. 7 1. n. free-standing. L. From earliest times the natives of Syria and Palestine buried their dead in natural grottoes. Lagrange (Etudes A. *9 2 7 1 L bibliography.. says that the pyramidal towers of Syria were either tombs or heroa. In tracing the evolution of domical architccture it is impossible to overlook this fact. R. Macalister. which served as places of worship for the underground burials. P. they continued B.C.cit. S.. legendary heroes and M> even S ur divinities. libations and sacrifices. formen des Bauens im alien Orient. Martyrium. les and M. 52 religions semitiquesf 1903. Andrae. which C. 205-210. 229-237) uncovered on square tombs at Ur. as out underground burials. E. 51 In the a result of outside influences largely from the Hellenistic-Roman culture. which was so common in both India and the Mediterranean. more common pyramidal top. - timbered roofs. 302-326. R. however. like rustic cabins and tents. Chipiez. and shows that in many instances they were religious monuments. 77! Watzinger. Handcock. which as as common to the Syrian memorials as the 57 . 151-152.) who gives an excellent W.. Lods. was not native to Syria. but it is now attributed to a period perhaps as late as that of Herod the Great. P. La Croyance a la vie future et le culte des morts. there is no evidence of domical tombs in Syria. IT. Benzinger. It is possible that structures with pyramidal erected above tops before the introduction of these monumental tombs there had been transient ritualistic shelters. 394!. Woolley (Ur Excavations. which strengthened the conception of the to carve tomb first as a house of the dead. ground Formerly it was thought to have been erected by the Phoenicians. that the round and dome-shaped tomb. r. The pyramid was a common form of memorial and grave monument in Syria and Palestine from the Hellenistic period down to Roman times. in Mesopotamia. fig. While it retained something of the sun symbolism which characterized it as 54 crudely shaped rubble domes. 50 the ben-ben of ancient Egypt." Palas. 13. the earliest brick tombs were tunnel-vaulted imitations of the ancestral 50 rectangular reed shelters with hoop roofs. in. C. 1906. 6 QJ7 2 51 Hebraische Archaologie. 392. or more. The first extant. like the domical baptistery. Certainly before the first century B. 49 Instead. Denk. which roof. meanings. conical cylinder at 'Amrith (Fig.MORTUARY TRADITION IN SYRIA basilica.. A. meaning "soul" or "person. there began to appear a great variety of sepulchral stone monuments towers. Mission de Phenicie. 1864. 95. 48 49 and the "tomb of Zacharias" with the Grabar. like classical tholoi. "the Byzantine architecture. 206) says they were frequently used as grave stele and called naphchd. was completely absent from the sepulchral traditions of Mesopotamia and Iran until the Islamic conquest. S. 256E. 1934. A Century of Excavation in Palestine (1925). The one. Vallois hellenique et hellenistique a 1944. and even after there had evolved an elaborate ritual of offerings.74* Although it is easy to see why scholars should have thought that the pyramid form. Watzinger. century classical tempiettos and rectangular 52 the tomb chambers. The Archaeology of the Holy Land.C. 54 Regardless " p errot an<j Histoire. i. op. left no tradition and were probably constructed to protect their flat. 74). pi. for neither in Syria nor farther east in Mesopotamia and ancient Persia were there any round tombs whose domical shape preserved the memory of an ancient house. where the martyrium church supplanted the baptistery was absorbed by the cupola church/' 48 The domical mortuary tradition. i. Das Gotteshaus und die Ur1930. 1846. consecrated to the cult of emperors. J. like the caves and pit dwellings of their ancestors. a variety of uses and it had acquired (UArchitecture Delos. Renan. 1916. along with the Nabatean tomb towers. the "tomb of Absalom*' with its concave. . 148- 152. K. opxit. 55 American Schools of Oriental Research. 79. Memoirs. Glueck. "The Domed Tomb Department Dalman. Quart. 55 is tomb chamber (Fig. 3). such as the "Ferdus er-Rum" (Fig.. there are a number of rock-cut tombs. 228. should have been used upon Christian martyria. R. when the Christians began to build martyria. have been located in western Palestine at Kades (Fig. Palestine. Beisan. 190208. fig. VIH. m. symtra- 9 (plan). The Survey pi. fig. in [Annual of the holism and established a pyramidal roof dition. which are almost wholly concealed to the interior square on the exterior. i. Another similar tomb with pendentives. near Jerusalem. 101.MASONRY DOME of its IN SYRIA AND PALESTINE date. Jerusalem/ Palestine Ex1900. of and opp. something over had a cut-stone dome on penden- Watzinger. a recent photograph (N.. Memoirs. dated 193-21 1 A. C. "Remains of Tombs St. 220-223. 1869-70. 99 n. 1908-10. Creswell. fitted to a square chamber without squinches or pendentives. C. W. Apart from this sculptured stele. Creswell.cit. 1924. Reisner.. 78). which is assigned to the late second or early third century. which is eighteen feet in diameter. no. in span. there is no evidence that the Christians took over its 172-174." Quarof Antiquities in Palfig. have had interior which are believed to domes. whose fine masonry resembles the Roman construction of the Antonine period at Ba'albek. are the same as the cupola in the Fisher and D. Beth-Sean (Survey of Western Palestine. occurs at 'Am- man. 69.cit. Taf. near 'Amman. was discovered at Sebastya (Fig. Abb. 382. Early Muslim Architecture. was walls about five feet thick The other domical tombs of and completely concealed on the exterior. 44. of the tombs. 147. and their domes.cit. 1938. G. S. G. 43-45.. Quarterly Statement. andria (Bull.. Alex. Wilson..cit. Survey Western Palestine. "Uber ein Felsen grab im Hinnomtale bei Jerusalem.. in Pales- tine. projected a little above the a flamelike finial. occur in Palestine and indicate a Roman influence coming in from Egypt. tives. op. deutschen Paldstina-Vereins. Conder. are fitted by carefully executed spherical pendentives. Harvard Excavations i. O. n. Conder. i. Explorations in Eastern Palestine. 80). LXII. which have fiat domical roofs decorated with lotus rosettes over the reception hall. 64!!. 76) covered with a shallow dome which A similar square without either a squinch or pendentive at the corners. figs. A. Creswell. at Samaria.cit. first century B. N. p. 99. T. 6. . 3. 58 . 315. Teiasir. Khurbet Zanutu and Es-Semu'a." Pal Expl Fund. Macalister. Of these the tomb at Qusayr an-Nuwayis (Fig. 102). Soc. as dome was to the Roman ones. Arch. Watzinger. S. 75). 1881-83.C. Abb. 57 op. all the other domical tombs between the and the fourth century A. 58 roof and had ploration Fund. Hamat Sebastya. 364. 58 Inasmuch op. Hellenistische Bautem in Latiurn. 1889. 225fL. 1939. Eastern Palestine. R. Lyon. 100. 175. opxit. op. op.. "The Rock-cut Tombs 1 in Widy er-Rababi. 57) shows that fiat its dome R. A. 1901. has perhaps the earliest known cut-stone dome with pendentives. fig. R. 1939. These shallow rock-cut cupolas. n. but constructed of finely cut masonry. Watzinger. op. Other square tombs with cruciform interiors. 56 The dome of supported on this undated pagan tomb.D. 215. At Tall Hinnom. or main room. and ilton. Watzinger. 4. terly of the 386. n... Watzinger. was a stone version of a qobba tent which the ancient Arabs frequently erected over the tombs of their ancestors. 79). 313-314." Zeitschrift des 63. Delbrueck. estine. 56 C.. have cruciform plans within a square tower.cit. 1907-12. H. 59 Gabbari tomb of the Roman period at Alex- of At Kades (Conder and Kitchener.D. the central square. which is evidence that the masons of this region were well ac- 57 58 quainted with domical construction. 34 are covered with tunnel [view]) the four arms vaults 3 308. xvm-xix]. 8 [plan]. it unless it is not comprehensible enough to contribute much to domical history. This one extant Christian the hundreds of subsequent Arab weli Joseph and Rachel (Fig. 81) it having had a free-standing dome. of for again there is why this type of religious monument became so popular. 3) it is 99. 577. therefore. 59 Grabar. 99 the square interior had a vault which has M w Ibid. Bagawat (Fig. and not a tomb. had one. 100) as to whether the crossing w De ler. 82 Es-Semu'a (Survey. 82) are the remains of a large octagonal structure which was undoubt61 edly covered with a heavy masonry dome. supposed to have in. it is so similar in plan and construction to what is known of the mausoleum of Gonstantine at Constantinople that it shows how even tomb at Hass in Syria. cruciform plan had a groin vault or ButVogiie. The appearance in Egypt tomb could not have been the prototype of and domical oratories. 99 n. Martyrium.. 413. 410. as in Syria. At Hierapolis (Fig. i07ff. dome upon the late fifth century tomb and to account for its similarity to the Islamic weli. it is still Moreover. n. 87) oratories covered with brick many square mortuary chapels and 64 domes undoubtand edly contributed to the growing popularity of the domical Islamic East. fallen. The of the sepulchral evidence. 86) and Kharga (Fig. at Khurbet Zanuta (Survey. 62 Were be difficult to there Near East were adaptations of the sepulchral architecture of no other evidence of domical traditions in these regions it would understand how in the Christian period Syria and Palestine. as Grabar says. 313. like the tombs of Sarah. /6ii. 3) there is no extant evidence of dome. 84). i. Although it was probably a martyrium of the fifth century. tomb in the Christian While the appearance of the Egyptian chapels is all part of the develop- ment of domical interests. 357-358. there of its is some doubt (Survey. 522. 72. 245. % cupola. 82-85. n. could have assumed an important role in transforming the domical tomb into a martyrium. no evidence that the dome was at Teiasir of any significance in the sepulchral architecture of Pharaonic Egypt. after having borrowed the mortuary dome from the West. but at n. was in partial ruins. This conclusion. pi. and why Syrian churchmen. 61) roofed basilica. 102. Architecture and Other Arts. w See p. indicates very strongly that before the Peace in Palestine Church the domical tomb first and Syria was of Hellenistic and Roman derivation. there is still the question in Egypt.MORTUARY TRADITION the tower IN SYRIA (Fig. taken in conjunction with the similarity of the Holy Sepulchre and the martyrHierapolis to the imperial mausolea. Syrie Centrale. conoid of Bizzos (Fig. 246-247. 83 should have been influential in bringing about the change which led to the Byzantine adoption of the domical martyrium church in place of the gablenecessary to explain the free-standing. sustains Grabar's assertions that all the early martyria in the Rome. Watzinger. probably when ium at introduced into Palestine by way of Egypt. m. and Butler published as seems more likely that it 60 had only a concealed dome over the central square of its cruciform interior. Watzinger. during the fourth and of so fifth centuries at Bawit. . which became so common in Syria and which both Christians and Arabs looked upon with such reverence. Watzinger. which De Vogue on the northeastern border of Syria the imperial type of mausoleum was adapted to Christian use as a martyrium. in accounting for both the Christian and Islamic adoption of the mortuary dome was the pre-Islamic Arab tradition of a domical religious shelter. but also Syria had a primitive type of domical shelter. Both were presumably called by the same name because of their curved and cuplike shape. 92. 60 . Not only did the Christians of Syria and Palestine inherit an old religious belief in the symbolic implications of the domical shape.MASONRY DOME What symbolism o the IN SYRIA AND PALESTINE Syria so receptive to the mortuary accounts for the tomb of Bizzos and made dome was her own native domical traditions. the tribesmen had a primitive type of domelike tent. which they used as a portable 65 sanctuary and erected over the graves of ancestors and famous dead. known as a qobba. The fact that their ancient as form of tabernacle and tomb shelter was called a qobba. Lammens. less easy to A second important Arabs were already established in parts of Syria and Palestine. which was the same shelter had the same origin. The first step. were already conditioned to the religious significance of the domical shape. influenced the mystic thinking model for the Islamic weli. when many factor. qubab. whose shape had been translated into pise. like Syrians. demonstrate. which was there to serve as a model at the time tomb it the Christians were taking over the late antique beliefs in a domical as a divine and ancestral type of tegurium. Hence. then. does not mean that both types of primitive The Syrian qubab was primarily a rustic hut of reeds. "Le Cuke des betyles et les les Arabes pris- lamites/' Bulletin de I'Institut fran$ais d'archeologie orientale du Caire. while the Arab qobba was originally a leather tent which was not imitated symbolically in masonry until after the Arabs had adopted the architectural traditions of Syria and Egypt. Both also serve to show how complex were the origins of domical beliefs 65 which in so many cultures went back to an ancestral form of dwelling. branches and thatch. processions religieuses chez H. xvn. which will be taken up in the next chapter. Prior to the Islamic Conquest. brick and stone. in reconstructing is when the domical ideology of Syria to start with the history of the qubab hut and see why of came to serve as the model for the as a Syrian churchmen and served tomb of Bizzos. 1920. they. says. who has helped me in preparing this note. building. the unscientific Arabic lexicographers intimate that it came from the Arabic root qbb with the meaning of "collect. 1914-16. god-given dwelling such as the Romans saw in their tegurium. which were in the conservative and superstitious Imagination of various communities. Lane (Arabic-English Lexicon. By Christian times in the eclectic civilization of Syria all of the domical beliefs were readily assimilated and attached as mystic overtones of meaning to the imagery already present In the culture. a dome or cupola of stone or bricks. life even before Christian thought and monastic took on so many characteristics of Hindu mysticism.DOMICAL FORMS AND THEIR IDEOLOGY IV ITdeeply imbedded HAS already become evident that there were many different religious beliefs. a divine stone." Philologus. are taken from Aramaic. cosmic egg and pine cone. A. 190)." According to G. were contributing factors beliefs of India. fomix coeli. a domelike or tentlike covering (of a woman's camelvehicle). with the local veneration for the Roman dome conceptions of the mortuary symbol. or gather together. The Ancestral Shelter: Qubab Hut and Kalube Syrian shelter of round and domical shape is known as a qubab. a tus describing the burial was made of reeds. what is raised* early 3 The building covered with a dome or cupola. Die aramain Syriac 61 . ^ Many pagan communities as of Syria shipped heavenly divinities a house concept. W.* Inasmuch as many technical expressions for construction. 1 the Arabs in the qobba and the Hebrews in the tent. a celestial covering and royal baldachin. Full bibliography: "Mapalia. **The meaning of Arabic qubba Is best represented and Aramaic qubbeta. by the Roman period it was frequently depicted upon sarcophE. Miles. 8 It is still peculiar to certain parts of Syria and can be traced back certainly to the eighth century The The maphalia. however. associated with the domical shape and the primitive round shelter. any round structure. an inner tabernacle and a cosmic house readily combined with Hellenregarding the tholos and omphalos. the Libyans in the maphalia. 4 tentorium. the Arabic qubba is considered as an Aramaic loan word (S. In her own heritage Syria had an Indigenous type of primitive shelter which was considered to be an ancestral. Hence the istic ideas conoid baetyls and Palestine had for centuries worwhose form was probably derived from conoid shape as an ancestral hut. Because of the location of Syria at the head of the trade routes to the it Is also East. had mortuary associations as early as Herodo1 (iv. which was a nomadic dwelling and shepherd's hut among the Libyans. of Moses. palatlum cupola ornatum. etc. Jr. as a probable that the older domical the West and went back 2 which so closely paralleled those In In origin to similar house concepts. in- tertwined with asphodels. 2 H. agi. the extremities of a thing/' Professor Wolf Leslau. and with the other symbolic beliefs. 1863-93) as: "around tent or pavilion. a small round tent of a particular kind. such as those of the celestial helmet. altaris. Lester Cooke. who in rites says the maphalia for the purpose of entering thereinto. LXXIII. is preparing a study of domical beliefs in India.302-317. Miiller-Graupa. Fraenkel. the Indians in the vihara. etc. or tabernacle. E. and underlying shelter concept of qubba is indicated by the various meanings of the word which are given by E. 62 . Instead. 1925. should be noted that the direct trade route from Nineveh to the directly through the districts of Lebanon passed Horns and Harna where settlements numerous today (Fig. 288). one along the eastern highlands of North Syria and the other at the headwaters of the Euphrates Valley in the northwestern highland zone of Assyria. L. 1911-12. even to the fourth millennium. perhaps. 42ff. Rose. 5 Both groups. C. because the relief was primarily devoted to depicting a scene of Assyrian prowess in transporting overland a carved first. Mallowan and Die Kunst Indiens. 1935. because of the distances involved and. n. 92): the more primitive Syrian form having a "beehive. The modern domed the tomb of Bizzos. it represents a foreign village. espedaily "the vault of heaven" and the implica- und Nordwest Mesopotamiens/' E. 73. L. 4 historic Assyria. 1927. 91) presumably preserves the B. Ranse. again illustrate the early symbolic significance of the Archw. 7 domical shape. 1738:. second. vin. in the eighth century B. Speleers. located on the outer and culturally retarded borders of regions that were formerly wooded.DOMICAL FORMS AND THEIR IDEOLOGY and. For a long time appearance of these Syrian qubab dwellings furnished graphic proof of the existNineveh it was thought that this one relief from ence of domical structures in Mesopotamian architecture. Havell." These Aramaic meanings. To see the origin of the Syrian type of huts this piece of The on shelter. At all events the scene with its mountains covered with olive trees and evergreens could not have been native to the flat plain of the Mesopotamian valley. shape set directly upon the ground. lecture of India. The well-known Assyrian relief from the palace of Sennacherib at Koyunjiq (Fig. where the Assyrians obtained much it of their stone and their finest timber. 43. 1886. "Die Gubab-Hiitten Nordsyriens Orientalisches tion of a covering over the altar. Pre- 2a See pp. In Assyrian times the only reason craftsmen should have included a small village in a scene of royal why Mesopotamian power was that such domical villages were recognized as characteristic of the distant of similar houses are mountainous and wooded land of Syria. The Ancient and Mediaeval ArchiE. 1915. probably in the foothills of the Lebanese mountains. 3 2 > % J. it is the Arpachiyah sherd and then with the only necessary to compare the profile of a group of modern qubabs with modern survivals of the prehistoric Egyptian (Fig. Leiden. huts are of two types (Figs. 88). B. 93). 95. E. stone statue. and the Arab weli All the qubab villages are at present concentrated into two widely separate regions. 90) from Arpachiyah in northwestern Assyria. round house from Nubia where the traditional huts of the Shilluks are 5 ischen fremden worter in Arabischen. M. 4 Without denying the close similarity of the buildings on the relief to Indian religious structures. 65.. Furthermore. are survivals in their use of the domical shape of a primitive round reed and wattle hut such as is depicted on the fourth millennium sherd (Fig. It has also been suggested that the domical buildings on this relief are Indian shrines which the Mesopotamian world undoubtedly knew. any direct relationship seems most unlikely.C. and the later form having a dome raised upon a rectangular chamber just as it Is upon the Assyrian relief." Syria." or conoid. 6 painted pottery are combined with trees in a scene whose 7 religious implications will be considered later. "Les Tepes hittites en Syrie du Nord. p. E.C. Diez. Frankfort. Prehistoric As- were concealed under flat. .C. These stone replicas of the qubab fig.. Antiquaries Journal. Henrich. not clear whether the larger ones were covered with pise or thatch. Apparently the myth regarding the esopotamian origin of the masonry dome M region.. and northern Assyria are somehuts of Syria ered with intersecting half-domes of laminated bricks (H. Jour. at the center. The circular structures uncovered at Arbut it is pachiyah had diameters up to 7 m.C. is which have been found in southern Cappadocia and Syria. some partially buried granaries were covered with brick domes.THE ANCESTRAL SHELTER grouped as a religious shrine. S.5 m. of only 1. 237). 1925. As an adaptation presumably of the earliest round house. both dating from the Kassite period about 1400 B. Another There slight evidence that the earliest dwellings in Mesopotamia were circular reed huts. circular well and rectangular shaft at Tell B. Fara. -80). which indicates only that the for a few utilitarian purWoolley suggested that the central chamber of the Nin-gal temple and the Dublalmah sanctuary at Ur. Lloyd sen. Jacob- The Gimilsin Temple and the Palace of have been found in Cappadocia and Syria.. indicating they existed. presumably because they and T. might have had millennium B. It has already been pointed out by Banse that the qubab house could not have materials in Syria originated in the brick architecture of are never found in the alluvial plain of the Tigris Mesopotamia because these domical villages and Euphrates. Apart from one crude rubble dome found by Woolley upon a burial tomb at Ur. Schilf und Lehm. 3.) At Ur the excavators thought 1 867 when Victor Place mistook the structural Assyrian representations of tents for half -domes and restored the palace at Khorsa- started in bad with 9 fine Islamic its fiat domes rising for no rea- son out of roof. Taf. in the district between Kodja-dagh and Kurddagh. although he admitted that "material proof vii. is lacking" (Antiq. Abb. or shrines. 389. 1934). brick dome was used when the houses and temples of Mesopotamia poses. occur as either survivals or intrusions 9 ings of this very ancient Assyrian town. timbered roofs A (Woolley. but if it was admitted that these domes. 89). pise.C. 10 and Rose. brick structures with flat.. Because of desiccation the primitive dwellings of pliable and northern Mesopotamia were translated at an early date into more permanent pise. Ur Excavations. moulded on baskets. 1927. 1940. In fact. brick and small stone construction. 1930. 408). E. 25-31). (Andrae. there is no evidence to sustain the belief that the dome originated in the brick architecture of this domes. dating about 2150 were both cov- Perrot and Chipiez. tombs and temples. had neither structural nor expressive value because they must have been fake domes of mud. times called Hittite.. the ordinary dwellings lar made of pliable materials were rectangu- and had hoop roofs (Andrae. 787. 1933. were becoming rectangular. Histoire de l'art f rv. where rectangular the fourth millennium s . because only one had enough of its of its they had uncovered indications of mud in the fragments of bituminous lining domes which clay walls standing to show the curve dome. which curiously would have had a clearance adhered to the corners of four square compartments of a cistern (Woolley. op. there are no indications of domes having been used upon houses. and at a very early date had acquired have been carved laboriously in solid rock. 60-72. 61. Asmar. among the rectangular brick buildThat they once existed over wide areas of is mountainous and wooded regions sufficient religious significance to in Asia Minor. v.cit. which but he does not specify whether the carbon was found in the tholes or in the rectangular vestibule (Mallowan syria. In spite of this evidence. shown round by the so-called "cones of rock" (Fig. 37 1). timbered roofs. 37 iff. cut hut 8 and hollowed out in imitation of 10 villages. Heinrich.. 1931. Das Gotteshaus und die Urformen des Bauens im alien Orient. xm. fiat-roofed houses of brick were common from where Further con- firmation of their origin in materials other than brick has been furnished by the excavations of prehistoric Arpachiyah a few round and domical pise houses. but before the fourth the Rulers at Tell Asmar. In describing these structures Mallowan notes the occasional traces of carbonized wood in the "that some timber was used". n. from the description. dating from the fourth millennium. Nuzi. 1935. 13 thrust of a dome" and hence must have been One open or i. Is. which was in the neighborhood of Arpachiyah. of similar round huts in Sardinia. the qubab huts of Syria are stone. S." ibid. The also been persistence of the domical tradition has A. Stillwell [ed.]. of which Schlumberger discovered northwest of Palmyra. Schlumberger. overlooking the probability of its having had at this time a curved roof of thatch. which are known to have originated In thatch. 1937-39. suggests very strongly the survival of a venerated round-house tradition of dowel holes Commemoration" of the martyrium: on the exterior face of the semi- circular exedra indicate that these reliefs were revetments on the vertical side of the raised platform and belong to the second period of construction. of flexible materials. Tobler. the excavator. pise materials. 22). which was a kind of kalube made of pliable continued to be used by the woodsmen and shepherds of North Syria. The 11 relief preserves the is for the cabin made Syrian type of rustic shelter (Fig. A. which have been uncovered in ancient Mesopotamia.DOMICAL FORMS AND THEIR IDEOLOGY and primitive type of shelter is the fact that the surproof that they were an upland vivals of this round-house tradition translated Into brick construction. "Neue Ausgrabungen in der syrischen Wiiste nordwestliche von Pal- myra. Starr. 12 D. 12 The sanctuaries In these villages were domical like The outline of one of these cult houses. it and the importance of the conoid shape on Christian monuments. with domes of sun-dried brick. 27).D. This structure. J. pi. letin of the "On Re- Some Recent Finds from Tepe Gawra. At the same time it must be assumed that the prototype of these brick. says it was "too slight to have resisted the architecture of the south (E. LXXI. brick and pise replicas of the ancient round and domelike shelters of straw. very similar to the rectangular domical house on the Assyrian relief from Nineveh." Archdologischer Anzeiger. was first made of pis and later rebuilt in brick. 64 . The discovery of a curvilinear structure the debris of the sculptured fragments found in around the central platform or "Place of from the early Tell-el-'Obeid period and a larger "round house" from Stratum xvn at Tepe Gawra. 12. shown by the villages of the second and third centuries where the houses consisted the houses. which was in the sixth century fied the north which had already begun to be modiby the multiple-room and fiat-roofed brick i94* (R. Because Its walls were vertical and thin. square chambers of stone covered. Antiock-on-the-Orontes> in. have been found only In the northernmost part of the valley. Archaeological evidence has thus established the existence of a domical house and shrine tradition in Syria. LXII. "Progress of the Joint Expedition to Mesopotamia." BuiAmerican Schools of Oriental search. Speiser. 595633. reeds and wattle which at one time were common throughout the wooded regions later date to of North Syria. 94). North America and other parts of the world. 1936. India. The persistence of this type of rustic shelter helps to explain some of the domical shrines of pagan Syria Moreover. ancient Gaul. flat-roofed (R. no. 1938.. 9). suggests an explanation for one of the Christian reliefs discovered in the 18 Martyrium at Seleucia Pieria. A. and stone qubab huts. preserved on a graffito. then. 480. the only other strictround ly building so far discovered is at Nuzi which was not far from Arpachiyah on the northern border of Mesopotamia. the tomb of Bizzos and the well or mortuary kubba of the Arabs. bound together and bent over to form its appearance of this Apart from granaries. bamboo and other pliable materials and then at a much have been translated Into stone construction. like the qubab huts. 11 On the analogy. Ireland. "FeL Temp. Hence the subject of the shepherd's hut was taken over by Christian sarcophagus carvers in Rome." Numismatic Chronicle. The appeal of this theme. fols. 374. but by the sixth century when it is only the shape and construction Syrian. emerging from 65 . Foucher. in." 14 This Roman Idealiza- ancestral tegurium (Fig. designed to commemo- Mardan (A. Early Christian periods drew upon the EClogues and saw in the 'lowly hut" a symbol of the past is illustrated by the coins of Constantins II xvn/ 15-25). was common to the religious traditions of many parts of the ancient world. 182-202. fig. itself a celestial symbol. figs. 293!!. pi. by tomb painters In to stand erect in his Sardinia (Fig. was largely inspired for the Christians by the Eclogues of Virgil where the was a symbol of the peaceful and Ideal life "in our rude fields and lowly cots" where the woods ring with happiness. v. 8t. (H. Ovid. was Identified with the spreading banyan. which went back to the early beginnings of religious art in various countries. 1905. and probably older in Syria and Asia Minor than this relief It was carved for a Christian martyrium was In Greece and Rome." became for the Christians an expression of their own longing for a celestial abode and a symbolic representation of their own lost paradise. L'Art i. 142) were represented as primitive. The fact that it is combined with the sacred tree and hart shows that it was intended to represent a symbolic kalube. The memory of a god's hut in his sacred grove was too old and common in the ancient world to be attributed to any one source. Fasti (Loeb). 191). 100) in the Syro-Palestinian area. of the rustic shelter which is The tradition of a primitive habitation as an ideal abode in combination with a sacred tree lar in and wild animals had become so popu- Roman art and Virgil and Ovid. shepherd. 16 Also both the sanctu- ary of temple (Figs. This idea of an ancient rustic dwelling of a divinity in combination with a sacred tree. The scene on the fourth millennium pictograph from Arpachiyah combination with sacred trees. p. n. its 14 domical shape acquired Vergilii its by which the ancient shelter with symbolic importance on the religious architecture of process a rustic tegurium with a tree behind it The Romanus.D." and "kindly Daphnis loves peace.. 15 198-202. 90) On presumably depicts divine huts in formal the early Buddhistic reliefs (Fig. extent to which the late antique and Mattingly. 6. n. had literature that the Christians. 6of. iSjfL 1S and Cons tans. The Eclogues (Loeb). when a small hut sufficed to lodge Quirinus." 15 and when "Jupiter had hardly room cramped shrine. or grove. 98) similar round and domelike huts were the they lived a holy and ascetic sanctified abode of the Gotama and his disciples when life in the Deer Forest of Benares.. codicis Vaticanus 3867. 45. while the golden dome of the Buddha Gaya. 190. series 5. 138. other examples. Reparatio. 44.THE ANCESTRAL SHELTER pointed and domelike roof. rate the eleventh centenary of Rome in 348 A. 1933. as In Ovid's praise of the old good days "when Rome was new. on which a soldier holds by the hand a little greco-bouddhique du Gandhdra> 189. largely come to think of such a scene as through the Influence of symbolizing the heavenly home of the martyred dead in a sylvan paradise. xm. thatched dwellings in combination with sacred trees. 16. (Fig. tree where the gods dwelt. the Indian fire Buddha and or amalaka. 70) and by ivory carvers (Fig. 96) tion of a golden past and veneration of an ancestral shelter. or woodsman. Relief at i. "the wolf plans no ambush for the flocks. 22-27. mann. 95) on the walls of the Jewish 23 of 6 A D at Synagogue 5>45'25 Doura-Europos. pl. ^Wulff. Egyptian ^Architecture. 18 Following the precedent of Hellenistic funereal gardens (Fig.. no. 106/2). a hind entered the sacred hut and by ampulla (Fig. Kaufmann. 22 E." Germania. - round and domelike. it tegurium. a traditional type of sanctuary and a East the ancient Idea of a sacred tree In combination with reliquary. . offered Itself as a disciple of the holy man. 24. 1402. 143. 1919. la on R. 57. " 2* xm/2. 153). 9. as can be seen in the representation of the martyrium of S. is existed in the religious traditions of Syria a similar idea of to an ancient (Fig. Strzygowski. Les Peintures de synagogue de Doura-Europos. 20 shape is again illustrated by an ampulla of conoid shape (Fig. His hut. op. . Abb. which God had given shown by the scene of the Sacrifice of Isaac man in a remote and happier not a tent. Taf. Unlike the customary representations of Abraham's Sacrifice. Grabar. fig. p xiL) no 1403> pl LXIX Rauf_ . 99) is the abode of the According to the legend. according to Du Buisson. was translated into wood carpentry and after stone construction made later. Egyptian type That there habitation. 25). At the same time it was similar in to the stone naos or shape sculptured (Fig. du Mesnil du Buisson. in. 27.cit. Martyrium.DOMICAL FORMS AND THEIR IDEOLOGY India was essentially the same as what Is suggested to account for the evolution of domical ideas in Syria: the vihara. 71-74. Hellenistische und koptische Kunst. Abb. 14) and the tomb of Lazarus (Fig. pl. 23). Altchristliche und mittelalterliche . 39. . stone as a religious dwelling. 1902. 1939. was a symbolic martyrium. Wulff. i. was reproduced in 17 had been developed or introduced from Hellenized Bactria. or woodsman's hut. 1910. from Egypt on which the thatched cabin holy martyr Athenogenes. Sepulchre (Figs. xxxii. Bildwerke. the divine and ideal character of their martyria was indicated by the trees which went with a martyr's abode. 20. like the kalube on the relief from the martyrium at Seleucia Pieria.Jsfear a religious habitation was taken over by the Christians in order to show the sacredness of holy places. (Fig. Ikonographie der Menas-ampullen. In Palestine and the. 153) which 21 shows the same saint standing beside his domical martyrium. past. 1913. inner sanctuary. 8. domical tholos. Baldwin Smith. reproduced a very ancient 22 of hut shrine. which the gods had first and in which the Buddha had lived. See p. c. 3. 143-144). Ibid. op. 121. the relief from Seleucia (O. 99-145. were frequently presented as a 19 in a paradisus or funereal garden. then. Pagenstecher. 24 It symbolizes the is 17 the domical structure in the background the artist might have seen 18 ** 20 Foucher. an ampulla from Thebes in the Berlin Museum shows thatched construction similar to that Pieria LXIX. 4. 1909. 24.. M. or memoria This veneration for a rustic cabin of domical has been seen. "Zu den Germanenhiitten der Markussaule. but a Syrian qubab hut such as frequently along the eastern borders of Syria and hence believed to have been an ancestral shelter in the land of Abraham. in turn. 31) Athenogenes on an ampulla from Alexandria (Fig. m. John the Baptist at Alexandria and that of S. of a Ptolemaic temple which. That this lowly hut ideal dwelling of God in the afterlife is indicated another was visualized as an 101).al. Die griechischedgyptische Sammlung von Sieglin. Dresden ampulla (R. For the same reasons both the Holy 10. fig. a dwelling is included in the scene. i. n." Rheinische Neuja. W. M." Provinzialfig. ancient was expressed by Philo- when he wrote.. Nevertheless. near DouraEuropos. Trier. and Morgenstern on the primireligious tent (The Ark.hrblatter. 43. it is not necessary to decide whether it depicts a Roman tegurium. "Einige spatromische Glasgefasse aus dem Treverergebiet. found at Salihiveh. a Semitic qobba. C. xxvii-xxvni. in the scene of the Sacrifice of Isaac on an incised glass medallion (Fig.THE SACRED KALUBE temple of Yahweh. 26 mens on Wilmowsky. Kriiger. it is have been. 84. Jahresbericht. "Die Anfange des Christen- in the scene of the sacrifice of Isaac is a qobba 67 . qubab B. an ancient Syrian kalube like a modern qubab. it is related that Abraham was instructed to build a sacred dwelling for collapsing until he had undertaken dwelling was meant to denote a Yahweh which he was unable to keep from to sacrifice his son. although they were all interrelated in the general heritage of ideas which contributed so much to the mystic symbolism of Syria and Palestine. The Sacred Kalube and sacred shelter The stratus 25 idea of a kalube as a simple. composed at Bagdad in first part of tenth century (ed. 119-120. i. E. and had seen the symbolic house of Yahweh on the frescoes or the kalube on (Fig. Taf. Taf. Neuss. have them presumably symbolizing the house of God in a scene of personal sacrifice. 1928. Diet. 84in 86). the Regarding specific origin of the dwelling of Yahweh on the Doura fresco. 25 n. 39-101) tive Hebrew museum xv/i. the one which God first brought from heaven in order to honor had been purified by the Deluge. 1935. As a result of the studies of Lamthe pre-Islamic cult tent (Bulletin de I'Institut frangais d'archeologie orientale. 123. 2o6ff. For once on a time this god Apollo dwelt in quite a humble Ibid. and in the later Arab Chronicle of Tabari. 1873. In an early text. 25 Hence the dome-shaped symbolic ancestral shelter. Handbuch der christlichen Archaologie. there is also Whatever the exact derivation of these shelters curious to find them may only upon these two representations of the Sacrifice in the two where there was an old and established domical regions tradition. Cabrol. it should be realized to what extent all classes who had inherited any belief in the sacredness of an ancestral shelter. 97) of inferior altar. 2. xvii. 32. 5427 i. 40. 149) Jewish the Christian relief at Seleucia.. ii Ephod must be assumed that the dwelling of Yahweh 1920. 28 a domical structure behind the workmanship from Trier. Zotenberg. Kaufmann. J. Chronicle of Tabari. or a Jewish ohel such as Eisler endeavored to show was the cosmic and ritualistic "Shepherd's Tent of the World" to and and which he believed the ancient Hebrews derived from Mesopotamia. % tums im Rheinlande. 1867. Revue des etudes juives. Abb. Archaologishe Funds See p. 1933. were accustomed to associate the conoid shape of the huts with the celestial House of God. Trier. the and the "Tent of Meeting" 1945). It is Adam and then took away until after the earth unfortunately impossible to accept Du Buisson's interpretation of the Doura scene without some qualifications because. 1922. H. 3. 19." All these beliefs in a cosmic house as an ancestral shelter were much too common in the late antique period to be traced back to any one local type of dwelling. for the Jews also had the tradition of a primitive habitation which had been given to man by God. xcix. 362?. xiv/n. Cat. p. tombs. 244. 107) has its domical form was a divine was a numismatic convention for representing the curved canopy of the ciborium which was the inner sanctuary divinities. beneath a celestial The This than is most clearly shown by the pagan is its enclosing temple. Here the disks of the domical and occurs so frequently over and gods goddesses was a sky symbol (Cook. in. Laodicea ad mare (Fig. or after the temples had been introduced from adjacent of the classic had been rebuilt with the magnificent porticoes and gabled facades style. 144. nos. 68 . Mus.. Alexandrini xxxix/ii32. 227-255) disregards the roof and heavenly abode shape and Identifies It with the Ilwan house. which Herzfeld says was a Hellenistic convention. tribal tents and portable canopies. 146). x. Galatia. The arcti which here appears above the altars of tari) } 1901. The celestial god on a coin o coins 29 presented as an eagle in his domical shrine. pi. and a little hut [KaXv/Srj] was constructed for him to which the bees are said to have contributed their honeycomb and wax. but most of them were either domical or had a cupola beneath a protecting conical roof. the royal baldachin and presented their Heavenly Imperator 103. 2 * In the pagan communities of Syria there were various types of humble habitation. others were pyramidal. 30 Sagaiassos (F. adopted (Fig. were fully conditioned to a religions reverence for the domical shape as a manifestation of a divine presence.DOMICAL FORMS AND THEIR IDEOLOGY habitation. Herzfeld. it must be realized. 143) above a Sassanian deity on a coin executed under strong as 1 classical Influence. G. 1922. Loeb). 1920* pi. 24). such as arboreal huts. hut at the same time it the DIoskouroi canopy. on which the stars and moon denote their 30 similar tent appears heavenly character. which had survived since primitive regions. 23. 114) enthroned. p. Kleinasi- the arched form a border of stars. baldachins and festival shrines. Philip sen. n. are over the god Hormizd. and a few had a hoop roof. n. 365!). By usage the shape and purpose of these traditional cult shelters acquired such powerful meaning in the religious thought community that the Christians. These revered shelters. (British The is celestial character of of the the dom- canopy sometimes emphasized by giving Museum Catalogue of Coins. In his discussion of Kalubai Oelmann (Banner . when they came to enshrine their own altars. continued to be used for the actual dwelling and festivals of the gods even times. Some of these honored tabernacles were conical In shape. showing that Another type of inner shrine on a coin of Pisidia (Fig. Imhoof-BIumer. as the traditional dwelling. (Coll. 29 Laodicea ad mare.t 127. or jewel-like disks. Iran in the Ancient East. the sacred ciborium Is a domical tent. and the birds their feathers. 115) and his Queenly Mother (Fig. or ritualistic ciborium divinity. Lycia etc. while over a pair of altars in Pisidia (Fig. 319. rather frequently depicted. or cosmic tent. Coins. so is on which the actual tabernacle. as the coins show. Zeus. cusps. vi. xxxi/7). like Roman and Byzantine rulers. Cappadocia and Syria. naturally appropriated the pagan forms for their ciborla. no. Dat- atische Miinzen. Both the shape and symbolism were taken over into the architecture and art in much the same way that the Christians^ who had been of every accustomed to seeing the official representative of the State beneath a ciborium (Figs. 262. 32 fringes 2& and a reticulated fabric pattern. peoples of Syria and the Near East. ^Numi 32 Augg. pi.. inner a of local tabernacle. 406. 1941. 102) A a tabernacle of Canopus (Fig. relics and thrones. fig. canopy. 104). Brit. 05) on coins of Alexandria 31 and also occurs as a heavenly baldachin (Fig. ical Life of Apollonius (ed. balustrade. 33 Of Mahoymac (Fig.. 1 1 8) 554/5 A. no. Mus. the Mus. no. xxxiv/g. "Some Graeco-Phoenician Shrines. 63. Coins. 1 10) 36 at Area were portable tabernacles with dome-shaped tents. Mus. n. u. Mus. 437. uments d'etudes orientales de llnstitut fran6 ?ais de Damas). To the thousands who saw this baldachin at Pcrgamum above the renowned altar of the supreme sky god. * Inventaire archeologique (DocJ. decorapi. 37 In each city these Tychia appear to have followed a local tradition. 284. 656. pi. Caesarea ad Libanum. Trebonianus Callus (Brit. Damascus. Coins." or ''Palestinian-Coptic/' school and used as a ritualistic shelter. 39 Murano book stars.THE SACRED KALUBE these tent shelters in Syria and Asia Minor the most important 34 was the gigantic baldachin over the Altar of Zeus (Fig. no. pL xin/7. Cat. Gordianus 37 (Imhoof- Antioch.. Mysia. which also occurs over a celestial eagle on a tabernacle (Fig. xxxi. Kleinasiatische Milnzen. 36) (Fig. no. Coins. Cat. its domical shape undoubtedly had a celestial meaning. 95. 152. Cook. from Ruweha 40 and the rustic shelter upon the crudely carved lintel of pictured as the tomb of Christ on the are (Fig. All these presumably native forms of domical covering shelter (Fig. xxx/i4). 1 1 1) has an out-curving flange which could only have resulted from its curved roof having been constructed on a framework of pliable materials. as has been suggested. Mus. 1 1 6). pi. Galatia. no. iv/gi). pi. Phoenicia. this Hellenistic altar and the Parthian structure suggest that the other open-air altars and fire temples of Syria and Persia must have had similar fire ritualistic coverings such as is indicated by my tentative restoration of the temple of Ba'al 35 Shamln (Figs. 26. 1911. Dornna (Brit. 88 229. another version of the Tyche shrine at Damascus (Fig. 362. 39 Laodicea ad mare. Furthermore. Phoenicia. etc. for the domical kalube of the Tyche of Damascus (Fig. 109.D. xn/20). it is also 1 1 cover (Fig. 108) at Tyre and of a veiled goddess (Fig. 1 15) and over the Enthroned Virgin and Child symbolism is (Fig. It occurs as a baldachin above the Enthroned Christ as the Heavenly Ruler on the Syria. 124) at Si*. Cat. Zeus. xxvi/5). or who handled the Roman coins. tilla tion beneath the ciborium may represent a Atti del III Congresso international^ di archeologia cristiana. while at Antioch the covering of the famous Tyche of the city (Fig. 34 sian (Brit. Lassus. pi. pi. 123. 6. Galatia. xxm/*. The coins show it as a puffed-up and bulbous shape resembling the dome on the church of all tentorium. 287. 113) at Laodicea ad mare in North was taken over by the Christian ivory carvers of the "Syro-Palestinian. 1 1 2) has the same type of roof (ibid. In Syria the shrines of Tyche (Fig. 315. Cat. Blumer. opxiL.. (Brit. 119) on a basalt quite different from the schematic and semicircular Rabula Gospels 33 Antioch in Pisidia. 479. 10). i. J. Pergamum. 119 n. Elagabalus Cat. xxxv/g). pi. Septimius Severus (Brit. 2 for bibliography). Hill. igsS'S * 121-122. pi. no. no. 25. 228) at and the Parthian sanctuary on the arch of Septimius Severus Rome. 1 14) on another ivory panel where used as its celestial clearly indicated by the incised a symbolic and divine martyrium for the 5 tomb of Christ (Fig* heavenly shelter over Daniel in the Lions Den (Fig. 35 Cat iv/23). 62. C. i. 38 This type of rustic shrine with a flanged dome. Coins. 106) at Pergamum. 1934. Coins. xxx/7. (Brit. no. pi. 283.." Journal of Hellenic Studies. fig. Trebonianus Callus and Voluetc. 260. etc. Coins. xxxiv/g). 69 . Galatia. Hill. Caracalla and Plau- Tyre. 36 Mus. 109) was again presumably a portable ciborium with a domical covering. H. pi. Closely related to this ritualistic kalube with its flanged dome of double curvature is the baldachin 7) and as a above the Enthroned Mother of God (Fig. Later tomb of at the dome did the as he vault. was adjusted to the square plan by means was which The dome. it may have been it a nymphaeum.cit. 5.D. 5. op. 70) and the tholos (Fig. pi. Romische Tempel in Syrien. three-quarter cut stone with a span of 8. dates from the second or third cen- sacred well in the forecourt of the great temple dome of tury and had a shallow. is a concave cone. in diameter. Baalbek. 1923. near Damascus. devoted to the Cult of the Caesars Tychaion. and the dedicated to some local Tyche. Zschietzschmann. into stone is naturally limited by the ruined and roofless architecture. 17-19. 120). (D. fig. or to the A. Krencker and W. Baalbek has an interesting dome (Wiegand. 69-71). or the Cult of the Caesars. 18) suggests that the building is a kiosk. 41 which as a ciborium in combination with the tree and cross was intended to denote a symbolic sepulchre. which had a horseshoe apse of cut stone. 280). The Monumental Kaiube of Masonry stone temples at first In the evolution o the ancient styles of architecture.. with a 121) covered dome of volcanic of overlapping stone squinches at the corners. 63-64). but the interior of the stone roof. 6/4. It has been suggested that the round temple at Ba'albek. very much is of Lysicrates. roof of this monopteral well house. a dise. which resembles the tempietto over the Fountain of Life in Christian art. 2s6fL.80 m. 42 see p 2^ 43 The known as the t 3938. or sacred remains of Syrian tentorium.DOMICAL FORMS AND THEIR IDEOLOGY lintel from Querate. which was the haunches and conheavily buttressed at cealed under a conical extension of the gable roof (T. as the result of a desire to translate a traditional cult The evidence for this transformation of the domical shape from a rustic hut. dec- Baalbek temple was the sanctuary at Rahle. 1921. which is referred to in the inscription Although there is only one domical building 43 and as a kalube. orated with a tentlike pattern and surmounted by a pine cone. of Syria was under strong classical influence architecture stone and mortuary religious some of the native kalubes were monuduring the period of Roman domination. divinity.90 m. 95-96. nearly three-quarters of a circle and with a span of 4. Wiegand. gests that was an audience or kalube. n. 90-109. 165-166. it with a Roman Howard Butler hemispherical of the original reported that the remains dome were its corner to the height of a meter and clearly showed that standing in one curve "was not a semiWhile admitting that sughall. took form house of impermanent construcWhile most of the tion into a more imposing and everlasting monument of masonry. Lassus (Inventaire. 43. pis. where the domical shape is concealed in the Roman fashion under a protecting roof. or a ciborium symbolizing the temple of Jerusalem. Temple of The at circular aedicula of six columns over the Venus. Ta. scoriae had collapsed Vogue 4* Bizzos. there must have been many similar cult houses dedicated to some local daemon of an emperor. the exterior i. . Very similar to the Abb. of 282 The kalube dome and flanked on the facade by projecting walls (Fig. Krencker (p. at Umm-iz-Zetum has a square liwan-like central hall (Fig. mentalized and their domical roofs reproduced in either cut-stone or volcanic scoriae. C. as did the tegurium in 42 martyrium and an ideal dwelling in parathe scene of Jonah (Fig. 23) in the Raising of Lazarus. like the choragic monument cut to a domical shape. 70 Syrie centrale. De Vogu. This relatively small that he restored so the saw De when time the at building. sanctuary at Rahle were for that reason reproduced the domical shape in sculptured stone masonry. 94-96).92 m. Abb. 46 and Other Arts.. Magie and Stuart. in. but Rey calls it an unfin- ler. 396.D. this according to the inscription. .93 m. Syria. 3. pagan sacred structure was turned into a mortuary chapel. in the seventh year was built the sacred kalube of the community of the village. Syr. much more 50 to the worship of a divine setting. dedicated. For centuries the divine and celestial meanings to the peoples of Syria and Palestine had attached domical shape of their tabernacles. Architecture 142. 357f. suggesting that it might have been a kalube. 397!. 2. 43) tells of finding in- dications of a Christian altar under the cupola and of an inscription (Waddington. A similar cult house at Shakka as a (Fig. George and De Vogue. . but neither De Vogue nor Butler mention the material of the fallen dome which they saw in the debris.. A. *8 De Vogii6 (op.. At the same time they were accustomed to see In the baldachin. emperor and that the domical baldachin was a form of royal published the third century palace at Shakka. Littmann. 143.cit. by 1 0. J. But- describes a Mascle (Le Djebel Druze. no.) kalub. successfully. 383. Zetum Since the inscription at Umm-izindicated that some of the domical shrines in Syria were at least in part devoted doubtful.cit.. which has been described is as a kalube of plan with a cupola. Greek and Latin Inscriptions in Syria. Butler. 133) restored as an apsidal pavilion.) Bishop Tiberinus dedicated (about the building as a martyrium to and Dussand. figs. 8. n. 13. which he said was covered with a coupole barlongue constructed of a melange De Vogue. 48 George and his martyred companions.. recognized the probability of the religious or ceremonial use of the domical hall. 418. op. when he de blocage et de daveaux appareilles^ D. A. The sacred character of the buildwall which read: Good Fortune! the sacred kalube and Good . 48 At Chabba trefoil in the same region the building. which he described as a kalube in "excellent preservation" and restored with a conoid dome. Architecture and Other Arts. 2158) on the lintel of door which says that in the 263rd year of the era of Shakka 368 A. 47 De Vogue. Another building of the same type was discovered by Butler at il-Haiyat (Fig. his *9 companions.20 m.. It Is probably the do not Vogii same structure which has been called a nymphaeum and which Butler (Architecture and Other Arts. 49. to S. C Butler.D. Inscr. 125). with stone squinches like the corner supports at Umm-Iz-Zetum.. no. 6/1. ished temple S1 S. The Conoid Baetyls and the Ancestral House Concept make as a Like turns unto like. 150 765/12. pi. 122) was restored by both De Vogue and Butler 8. with its curved canopy enriched with gold and precious stones. opxiL. It is significant to the development of domical architecture in Syria that about 360 A. 1 domical kalube. ing is established by the inscriptions on the front The community of the village and of the god built Fortune! For the preservation and victory of our lord Marcus Aurelius Probus Augustus. Manifestation of Divinity to its appeal to those habits of thought which were already a part of the cultural environment. 71 .CONOID BAETYLS circle/' 45 Therefore it probably had a conoid shape. royal 45 and even a new religion had H. 5m. Dunand and De mention it. wide. fig. 361. . 63!!. 47 De Vogue described the central hall as a cubical chamber. 1936. 126 etc. 563. 739)56 S. Fig. 529-531. op. 310- x 1886." Annuaire de la sodete jranfaise de numismatique et d'archeologie. Fig. pi. Lods (trans. A. Cumont. Galatia. m. Frohner. vn. 1932. culte des morts dans I'antiquite Israelite. Another and even more important and an ideal spiritual sepulchral dome as domical a the formation of Christian factor in mysticism was the long-established veneration of the Syrian masses for a conoid shape. 128). 891. B. La Croyance a la vie future et le w Emesa. 198-208). The Religion of Ancient Palestine in the ligions semitiques. The quotation is from I. or kalube. perhaps. In origin the parasol was a portable shelter of domical shape which in the East had long been the symbolic covering of a divine and royal being. les re- 259-265. F. 1828. xxvii/i3). Sed lapis est maximus. Emesa. 53 Baity los (Cook.JA. or modern Horns. Cat. On the coins this stone is depicted as if it were the divinity within his columnar temple (Fig. 11. Architectura numismatica. Mus.. n. Uranius Antoninus. Zeus. Combining the evidence from the various representations. etc. 1930. xxvm/2. Bethel (Cook. Zeus.. "Baetylia. "Les Monnaies d'Uranius Antoninus. 72-75. (Brit. Benzinger. or Jupiter Sol. M A. Cook. when heavenly covering above a god-like and universal so many were already converted to Christianity. Fauly- Wissowa. 24. ab is shown by the description of imo rotundus et sensim fastigiatus. 201. A. Cat. "Der Gott Bethel." Coins. Doctrina numorum veterum. ra. Fig. Lods. J. no. Cook. 1930. 126. 16. That the form The of El-Gabel was considered to be like a pine cone Herodianus. Caracalla. 900-907. no. 127 etc. *8 Revue de 322. be an animate and active god were frequently called by the Greek among the Hebrews they were known as bethel. Eissfeldt. that their shape had once house concept. v. fig. in. no. 7/10). 201.. 159. O." Archiv fur Religionswissenschajt. Coins. F. 19. "Sol Elagabalus. 2219-2222. 250. Donaldson. m. Real-Encyclopadie. 72 . G.cit. Daremberg and SagHo. %. J. xxvm. Hooke) Israel. 1881. Lagrange. B. the conoid stone was set (Fig. 127). I'histoire des religions. xxvii/ia. was worshipped in the form of a conoid baetyl. ra. (Brit. pi. 1-30. S. Cook. ra.cit. sometimes by a heavenly star above the sacred stone. 126) and surrounded by a chancel rail nature of the divinity was made manifest by the eagle of the 56 55 sky god. F. By the second and third centuries the most sacred baetyls of Syria had a conoid shape. vii. Coins. The massebah divinity of ancient Syria and Palestine was both the living presence of a and the spiritual abode of the dead. Lenormant. who wrote. M. Galatia. (Brit. in. and on many of the coins by the parasols (Figs. Cat. H. 1906.. 901. Mus. 57 Moore. 239. op. B. R. 128) which shaded the stone as if it were an actual celestial 57 personage. Eckhel. 193. 128 Mus. Galatia. Pauly-Wissowa. which meant "House been associated with a primiimplied. no. op. Etudes sur 887*!. A.DOMICAL FORMS AND THEIR IDEOLOGY a symbolic seat of authority ruler. which for centuries their ancestors had worshipped as the form of sacred stones and hence as the embodiment of the supernatural. and a By the fourth century.cit... Light of Archaeology. God" and tive The most famous east of center of the cult was at Emesa.-E. 1903. 241. pi. 52 At the same time that those stones which were believed to word of baitylos. A. 1903. 239. no.. for their martyria the Roman conception o a they were also beginning to adopt abode. 748. Dictionnaire des Antiquites.. Caracalla. presumably derived from the ancient domical hut. pi." A. Cook. W. upon a rectangular base (Fig. In his temple at Emesa the 54 sky god El-Gabel. color ei niger} feruntque delapsum coelo 52 A. Zeus. which was Antioch in the region of the conoid qubab settlements and near Ruweha where the Christian tomb of Bizzos had a similar conoid shape. velut conus. 15. Cook. Cook. or omphalos-like shape (Fig. pL xin/7. Arabia. 4. Cat Coins.CONOID BAETYLS This animistic worship of a conoid shape was not limited to the region around Emesa. such as the stone at Emesa. 160. like a pallato 59 S. 7). suggests that the conception of divinities in this shape went back to a remote past when amorphous could only be visualized in the form of their sacred dwellings/ The antiquity of the theme and its possible relation to the domical symbolism of India is shown by deities a coin of Eucratides II (175 B. conoid.. Mus. opxiL. G. * 60 xxxm/g. Galatia. 111/44. 61 In the Hauran the ancient god of the Nabateans was Dushara. While there was at Petra another "omphalos-like" stone enshrined in a niche. but in the intercolumniation of the temple with the heavenly star and crescent in the gable. 755. pi. B. nos. as Zeus Kasius. pi. B. The Religion of Ancient Pal157. (Brit. Arabia." 62 He was depicted on the coins of Adraa altar. 8. op. It was common to worship meteorites. etc. for on a sacred mountain near Antioch there was a somewhat similar stone of tholoid. 430. pis. A. 15. 59 Further south at Tyre there was a pair of conoid baetyls (Fig. figs.. Cat. g&jS. therefore. Cook. 64 S5 S.. was enshrined in an aedicula. i. Following the early is worship of crude fetishes there convincing evidence from both primitive and re- tarded cultures to show the important part played by the primitive dwelling in helping men to formulate comprehensive images of both the supernatural and the universal.C.) which is almost identical with the coin of Tyre. Phoenicia. xxxn/g and xxxm/3. CaL Coins. Ibid. 1922. ill. Cat. who was called the "Lord of the House. but not all sacred stones could have been aerolites. S. A. were regarded as celestial divinities. and when they carried their qobba into battle. 426. Zeus. in. XCH. The of bait (baetyl) and qobba (its pre-Islamic Arabs apparently equated the meaning domical tent sanctuary). Gordianus III 281. 63 (Fig. 3/5. pi. Coins. Tyre. Cook. Hill. A. 62 (pi xxxin/7) having the stone. platform or this raised baetyl suggest a ladder giving access to strengthen the assumption that the shape of these stones went back to a house concept. 130) whose combination with a sacred tree recalls the domical shelters on the fourth millennium sherd from Arpachiyah (Fig. Religion of Ancient Palestine. 73 . 160.. 2. xxxm/r.. Brit. 65 a fact which again might be explained house as the by the early adoption in of the local divinities.cit. 61 Cambridge History of India. there is no question but many of these conoid and rectangular stones. A. there is still the question of how they acquired their specific conoid or rectangular shape. op. Zeus..9075. pi estine in the Light of Archaeology. like those of Elagabalus A. this region of the rectangular flat-roofed abode Contrary explain that as it is to the all baetyls as opinion of those modern scholars and Roman writers who stones which had fallen from heaven. 18. A. Cook. 756. 64 most of the That the rungs in front o a heavenly zone would seem to Nabatean sacred stones were rectangular. sky gods manifesting themselves in house forms. F. 15. Mus. Coins. Gallienus (Brit. The habit of visualizing a spiritual power in the form of his earthly dwelling continued be customary in Palestine and Syria at both the popular and symbolic levels. 63 Adraa. Mus. Cook. there are variants from the reign of Hadrian to the second century (Brit. pi.cit. 160. Cook. 90) and. not in the aedicula. 909. and quite apart from how they had come from heaven. xcvi. 131) and Bosra as a domical stone raised upon a chamber. no. Cook. xxxi 11/14. S. 129) which. Mus. 111. as the fruit of the ancient tree-of-life. 68. 39).DOMICAL FORMS AND THEIR IDEOLOGY dium. difficult to Johannes and com- mentary. 6. with a pine cone was of shapes that Mesarites uses 6 Mouxpoirra? to describe a domical chamber in the imperial palace which he calls a "Persian" work (N. Stephen Mesopotamian had acquired during the antique period a mortuary symbolism involving the idea of life after death. 68 The habit of associating a pointed and somewhat swollen type of domical form. x. Heisenberg. 1907. In order to reconstruct what the ordinary and credulous antique man in Syria thought about the domical shape at the time when Christianity was evolving a mystic language of architecture. 60-61) could think of no more accurate the Christians attached a special symbolism to the conoid dome. way of defining a pine cone than to call it 0A*>i&fc. n. rather than like a "beehive" or "pain de sucre. divine helmet. the *6 *7 See p." is That it had become customary Komnenos. Ecclesia est sacrarium Dei. The pine cone. Robert. de I'art. as the Hebrews did in their ark. Maxiwho wrote. as long as the domical shape had a real content for him. machruta. Histoire figs. it did not matter in the least whether bejeweled canopy of a baldachin. Certainly the mystic Christian writers made it clear to what extent the Syrian mind was his earthly dwelling. et inambulat. such as the parts of buildings. 201. Other Sacred and Celestial Aspects of the Domical Shape There were other ideas regarding the value and meanings of the domical shape which were Christian adaptations of prevailing habits of thought. also 74 . templum sanctum. While ed. domus and terrenum caelum inqua supercaelestis 67 orationis. 1905. 44. which was used by the Assyrians like baldachins as the finial posts that carried their ritualistic on the and dome- (Perrot and Chipiez. a sacred 68 stone or omphalos. 205. 66 it. in. they saw in presence of a god. parasol. Mesarites. 31). Die Palastrevolution des great antiquity. the Hebrew masses undoubtedly conpresented the house concept tinued to identify Yahweh with his abode. and in the sixth century Choricius compared in some detail the wooden dome on the church of S. it must be recalled that he still believed in the animate being and supernatural powers of inanimate objects. 309). for had not their fathers been instructed to erect a tent in order that "I might dwell among them"? As late as the Second Revolt the coins (Fig. F. it is evident that the pine cone. it is prove to what extent indicated by the fact that Theophrastus (Historia plantarum. 9. the active and supporting have been the figurative means by which the priests Regardless of how elevated may of a revealed god. Hence. a cosmic egg. 83. pine cone. at Gaza to a pine cone (see p. for pine Chretien. Max- ime. to visualize the domical tholos as a pine cone. Petrides. 151). 72." 25-26 (S. In the fourth century Gregory described the pointed and puffed-up dome which he proposed to build upon his martyrium at Nyssa as *o>wcc&f? (see p. 67. Revue de I 'orient teenth century at Constantinople the Arabic and Persian word machrut. also fully accustomed to associate an is invisible god with This form of architectural revelation re- vealed by the Syrian mus the Confessor hymn in praise of the domical church at Edessa and by S. By the thir- "Hystorica mistica ecclesie catholice fol. which cone was so commonly associated with ical all dom- had originally taken shape on primitive huts of pliable materials. Thymele. 70). 202. or a massive vault it was the curved veil of a ciborium. conventus plebiSj corpus Christi Deus inhabitat E. like the image of Greek and they saw their ark presented on Roman gods standing in their temples. was used by the Christians as a Fountain of Life in a symbolic house of God and if there was a symbolic relation between the domical baptistery (see p..) and. of the conoid. Zeus. 95-96. als Strzygowski ("Der Pinienzapfen 1903. Baalbek. d. beliefs shape to another. Cook. Religionswiss. Kantharos. 145). num. If. in the forecourt of the great temple. are shown by its use as a finial on grave tumuli in Asia Minor (Perrot and Chipiez. iff. K. 5) ment xviu." Journal of Hellenic Studies. Elusive as such evidence is. Pythongrab und Draclienkampf. 983. the co- Banner noid form had mortuary implications. intern. xxxi. which in the Byzantine period was used as a fountain in the atrium. Saglio. 48iff. Wiegand. Courby. domical shape had been enriched in Syria. Elderkin. 1927. 1 9%> 7off. Roscher." Rom. which was also considered to be an ideal and cosmic dwelling of God. xxix. 166-193.-E. Homolle. altar. there was a circular tempietto ques representations egyptiennes/* Revue des etudes grecques." pi. SuppL v. xix. xxxn. T. In fact the complexity of beliefs already associated with the omphaloid shape helps to explain how the Christians could see such a variety of meanings in a mere similarity of shape. 205-251.) and its significance as an emblem of resurrection and fertility by its frequent occurrence on Etruscan grave stele and Roman tomb monuments (B. pi.. was intended to be a pine cone. "Ressemblance de Fomphalos delphique avec quel- symbolism. G. Harrison. 841. 111/5. J. though related. Ge$. i. occurs above the sacrificial horns at the top of the posts which support the domical baldachin over an altar in a Roman fresco (Fig. 1913. 1189. Abb..OTHER SACRED AND CELESTIAL ASPECTS above a tomb. acceptance of the Greek and Roman ideas regarding the omphalos gave new overtones of meaning to the domical shape even after it had been approprisimilarity in appearance ated by the Christians. or tholoid. 338-358. 123. *9 A.." Rom. As a develop- mortuary implications in antiquity. zeit. d'arch. it is sufficient to indicate that the Christians carried on a pagan phique. strengthened and 69 therefore. 1057. 1899. 48 ff. F.. suggests that the large finial possible resurrecon the mor- "L'Omphalos del- tuary tegurium of the Trivulzio ivory (Fig. 9). with its Greek and Roman heritage. the house steles (Fig.. inscr. v. Huelsen ("Porticus Divorum und Serapeum. "Studien zu den Grabdenkmalern der romischen KaiserJahrb.. or audience hall... 185-206) showed that the pine cone. 1915. Mitt. 257fE. as a round hut with a cupola. by the and concept between the native baetyls and the classical This omphalos. Ac. "Omphalos. Daremberg and Abh. 197-200. B. symbolized Christ as the life-giving waters. sacks. /. which were combined with those of the similar phallus. and to transfer meanings from one similar THE OMPHALOS The significance. 69-71).." Arch. Schroder. At Baalbek. 1920-21. symbolizing the tomb of Christ.. Ideologically it was natural for him to combine these different. 1911. G. During the Early Christian period this funerary use of the pine cone. xvin. Its over the sacred well which had an interior dome and a pine cone finial (T. 1. Linckenheld. 1193.* rv. pine-cone shape had for the pagans. by Horgne in the Sarre Basin (E. N. C. J. four. Wasserspeier. "Delphika. 67) of La perhaps. 112. 1903. n. R. then the conoid dome of Syria and Palestine must have come to have much the same life-giving significance as the which may have de- rived their conoid shape from the sepulchral monuments of Italy. 7. Les Steles funeraires en forme de maison. Svoronos. 75 . rv/4. of this symbolism. Karo. 1914. xm. Schwendemann. 301-316." Comptesrendus. 1924. 104) and the tomb of Christ. xx. 1919. 17-57) has pointed out the relation between the Roman use of the pine cone and the fact that a large bronze pine cone beneath a baldachin served as a fountain in the paradisus of S. therefore. Diet. Peter's. Mitt. Those aspects of the omphalos concept which most directly influenced the growth and popularity of domical ideology among the Christians were: (a) its sepulchral symbolism and the tradition that the omphalos at Delphi. Pauly-Wissowa. with its idea of new life and tion. 108-109. E. gS. in defining the mystical meaning of pro Calvariae monte. tomb of more meaning to the Adam. 127). marking the place of Christ's death in the 76 . in ecclesiam coTO 71 Grabar. while the Holy Sepulchre marked the kirche. (c) its relation to a belief in resur- as the (d) its acceptance as of a divinity. It has already been suggested that the Holy Sepulchre. and speaking manifestation (e) its significance the central point of an earthly and spiritual domain. n. was actually an omphalos. this seems another way of saying what S. the transformation of the tegurium departed dead. the ciborium over the altar and perhaps the Holy complex.DOMICAL FORMS AND THEIR IDEOLOGY transformation was the tomb of a legendary god or king. the middle o the fourth century it somewhat complicated 7-14) develops theory that the troublesome word hemisphairiont used by Eusebius in describing the basilica." T4 75 defines the mystical meaning of "cibo- Piganiol ("Z/Hemisphairion et Fomphalos des Lieux Saints. there does not appear to have been any one monument which was considered to be the omphalos.. where after the seventh century the omphalos was presumably located after it had become a several parts of the sacred liturgical station. 73 same way that the pagans had thought of their tholoid (tomb) symbols. when he num. or omphalos (Vincent and Abel. Grabeskirche und ApostelI. n. 106. In fact. If there was a domical shrine on Mount Calvary prior to the seventh century. ubi sepultus est: sed quoniam in proclivis sive est "ciborium/' wrote. "Ciborium prope enim erat locus et brevitate designator crucifixo et sepultura et resurrectio Christi. gave (Fig. including Golgotha." After the construction of sanctuaries over the most holy places of Christianity at Jerusalem. the Christians at Jerusalem preserved and used a pagan omphalos of the cult of Adonis 71 with its beliefs in resurrection. I. 188 n. 4). it is easy to understand how they came to associate the ideas of an omphalos with the domical tomb of Christ. to be only place of his resurrection. the was customary for the Christian writers to refer to Golgotha as "the center of the earth. as all the evidence 74 suggests. as it then it is readily understood how its omphaloid shape baetyl (Fig. 12. 38. the ciborium over the and the Mount of Calvary. 5. i. apse. 224**. considered to be an omphalos in much the each were figuratively Sepulchre itself. "the omphalos of the earth. there is no evidence to indicate that there was either a stone or ciborium to mark the center of the paradisus. was thought 70 it is impossible to agree with Heisenberg and believe that While heavenly kingdom. From See p. It altar had been customary at least since the time of Ezekiel to think of Jerusalem as the 72 center of the world. 167). which closely paralleled tomb and then into a martyrium." Cahiers archeologiques. A. Jerusalem. or ciborium. (b) the Idea of the gradual and then into a shrine with of the omphalos from a prehistoric shelter into a tomb rites for the into a Christian rection. Maximin does Ezek. like Diocletian's domical mausoleum at of as a kind of omphalos situated at the center of an earthly and Spalato. ubi crucifixus est Christus: sub divo. Heisenberg. 218-219." the umbilicum terrae. Instead. Vincent and Abel. 72 r* 215!! 5. Martyrinm. resembling did both a tholos tomb and conoid was also the ancestral prevailing beliefs that it 75 Christ and the holy center of the earth. Maximinus who. a manifestation of apparent and an echo of a pagan past are clearly Certainly a reflection of this kind of imagery in the words of S. 1945. Textes et monuments relates aux mjsteres de 494. 78 had been taken over into the cosmogony of the popular Orphic cult which was preoccu- 79 pied with the afterlife. Egypt. The Satapatha-Brahmana. Glossar. J. Revue de I' orient chretien. In the Orphic theogony the conception of the universe as the upper and lower halves of a vast egg. F. 1023. xi. 81 i. but by Roman times were essential to the heavenly symbolism of the two cults that had the greatest influence upon Christian imagery. 308. it is to be noted that an egg-shaped baetyl in its rustic shrine upon an engraved gem (Fig. which were heaven and earth. 12. Palace of Minos. Mithra. n. The the East. the lower. silver half being the earth and the upper. 1033. op Jit. and West and recalls the sacred stones of Syria. where the ovoid 82 and earth. figures 1899. Zeus.. ChapoutMer. LXIV. $. Persia which not only figured so prominently in the early and Greece. B. golden half resembling the gilded 80 domes of Buddhistic and Christian sanctuaries. Cook. Eggeling. it follows that the East Christian's mystical interest in a gilded conoid dome as a celestial form must have been directly Influenced by the pagan ideas of a cosmic religions of India. THE COSMIC EGG Since a conoid shape is also ovoid. Eisler. 1044. " Du Cange. References to egg in Persia: F. a god in the egg have little bearing upon the formation of domical ideology. Religionswiss. 410. was identified with their helmet-like piloi. f 410 n. the egg itself 81 was an emblem of resurrection and the belief in the universe as two halves of an egg had been taken over into the Cult of the Dioskouri. x. 1035. 1921-55. Sacred Books of the East. 1955. I. op. Braim.OTHER SACRED AND CELESTIAL ASPECTS 76 aptatur. Upanishads. 5$off. M. 411. F. n. made possible for the later Greek theologians to refer to the central point under the dome of a church as an omphalos." Also the same processes of thought.. as symbolizing heaven of the celestial helmet.g 80 Cook. Graec. 1879.dt. Les Dioscures &u service 4 . Sacred Books of d'unc deem. Evans. Although the actual origins of the beliefs regarding a primordial egg and egg." 2. Zeus. 1905. A. shape. Weltenmantel und Himmelszelt. 319. i. which in the Byzantine East led men it to think of a domical church as a tomb and celestial manifestation of God. n. and hence of the cosmic egg. 1908. Max Miiller. n. being the heavens. recalls the Vedic beliefs of India which visualized the Divine One as residing in a primordial egg split into two parts. THE CELESTIAL HELMET The one in the Near East which can symbolic domical concept of great antiquity and Christian with Palestine connected be most definitely writings Is the idea of a 76 J. At the same time that this conception of a golden half egg was so prevalent in the late antique period. Eisler." Arch. Nilssoo.. 79 A. 163. 310. was this How directly symbolism in the next section. 77 . accepted by the Christians will become apparent 3. as dispensers of immortality. 274. g2 Chapouthier. Die christliche Altar. 78 Med. f. P. 132) from Minoan Crete suggests the very early importance of such concepts in the The appeal to the Christians of the ovoid shape and of the earlier beliefs in a golden egg came long after these beliefs had been combined with the mortuary cult of the Dioskouri. % 55. u. "Das Ei im Totenkult der Alten. 1900. Cumont. R. the position that had a cupola). 87 Therefore. *6 series 6. twin helmets of the Dioskouri appear on Roman coins (Fig. "Le Cuke d'Helene a Samarie. Les Dioscures au d'une ddesse. Thymele. The popularity of these ancient heroes. xxvni/54. 64. archeol. 187 (symbolizing heavens).. v. Cat. pis. and surmounted by a star. the celestial pileus gave a deeper and more spiritual meaning to the conoid shape. A. 1937. Alexandrini (Coll. estine in the Light of Archaeology. The tianity domical shape lasting appeal of this particular and its direct link with Chrispiloi came when its sky symbolism was combined with that of the 86 and the cosmic egg in the Cult of the Dioskouri. 89 273. 91 Vincent. has been diswhere the cult is known to have flour- Also closely related to these Palestinian beliefs in a celestial helmet was the Hebrew symbolism which associated the domelike miter of their high priest with the 92 heavens. pi. Chapouthier. 3058.. XLV.cit. 97. 16. The Religion of Ancient Pal- was made in imitation of tent of Xerxes "The Tent of Xerxes and the Greek Theatre.). 90 S. which Plutarch is m Plutarch. Robert. Luschan. 23. it who takes xni/6. Ausgrabungen Send- s* Ibid. Cook. 221-226. 67. The piloi occur on the coins of other cities. came from their having become the intermediaries between and the dispensers of immortality. Brit. schirli. xm. 1 34) 89 while in Palestine the heavenly helmet surmounted by a star as early as Augustus. Palestine. Although it was also derived from the Cult of the Dioskouri and it related to the belief in a cosmic egg. Hcations in Classical Archaeology. which had spread throughout the Empire and was strongly established in Palestine." Rev. perhaps. F. W. Dattari). i [1929-44]. Mus. ix. 1923. the "divine helmet" occurs on the 83 relief of King Kalamis of royal and. Isis. divergence of opinion regarding the domical shape of the Odeon. G. The conoid occurs the 1 (Fig.. Cook. Over and above the 83 lasting effect of all such beliefs in upon the popular imagination. 176 ("hemispheric lid").. m. **Ibid. bibL. F. 35) The piloi. 193. Crowfoot." University of California Pub(O. 582. and C. 78 . Numi 306! Augg. was especially popular. themselves born in an egg. Jewish Antiquities (Loeb). n. Broneer. From Hittite times the helmet had been a where Hittite culture was finally absorbed into the civilization of Syria symbol and at and as a sign the Near East. 35. at and it was Cratinas who is said have compared the cupola of the Odeon Athens to the helmet which Pericles always wore in public. pi. op. 328. 258. Eisler. xxm/i4.. bound with reliefs 91 the wreath of immortality covered on ished. iv. consisting of two halves. xxiv/i. service Pal ExpL Fund. but at Alexandria the Cult of the Dioskouri. 220. 1935. Hill. ii 385f. There says Pericles (Loeb ed. 15. Josephus. of Coins. when their conoid bonnets. xxxiv/gS.. 84 %. Quart. 1911. from Samaria (Fig. the men aspired and the lower 88 half being the earth upper hemisphere being the radiant heavens to which plunged in darkness from which men desired to escape. LXVII. Zens. visualized to By the classical period the sky was frequently 84 and described 85 as a hat or domical helmet. 1936. 377. apparently had its origin in several different celestial cultural traditions. Rev. i.DOMICAL FORMS AND THEIR IDEOLOGY celestial helmet. 677. Sinjerli. F. which was combined with that of pi. became the common symbol of the cult and were identified with the cosmic egg and the similar conception of the world as a globe men and gods. Picard. or helmets. cosmic power. 136). 90 on coins of Palestine during the reign of Herod. J. surmounted by stars. 92 St. 43. The author of the Syrian hymn est "Et sa coupole elevee. n. The Dioscuri in the Christian Legends. Therefore. A. Not all the different types of cosmic dwellings.THE COSMIC HOUSE everything connected with the Dioskouri was of interest to the Christians. Weltenmantel und Himmekzdt. Hence blue ceilings with stars had become traditional in of the universe. R. 342-346.7 51. perhaps." but also calls the dome. and coffers decorated with stars continued Egyptian tombs and Babylonian palaces. makes one suspect that the Byzantine Emperor had derived much of his passionate interest in domical churches from the same Syrian and Palestinian sources as had presumably given the Silentiary his mystical interest in a dome as a "beautiful helmet" F. &s 6. Because of the religious nature of this cosmological thinking. Nevertheless. op. By transcend the mortuary. R. W. Church cf Santa Sophia. From the time when men began as to visualize the unknown in terms of the known and attached so much value to mimesis. Constantinople. Swainson. sgfL. ciboria and baldachins has appeared an instinctive and popular belief in an ancestral shelter as a cosmic house. Lethaby and H. 96 Eisler. 79 . the great helmet. embraces the church. baptisteries. E. J. or symbol. 94 du culte des u\ Cook. tomb and sanctuary a replica. se partie superieure repose solidernent sur sa partie inferieure. martyria. 1908. voici qu'elle in praise of Hagia Sophia at Edessa wrote." 95 This emphasis upon the celestial helmet in two poems written in praise of two Hagia Sophias.C. 45. were hut of ancient Mesopotamia and the rectangular festival round and dome-shaped. 225-248) in reviewing the evidence for a ceiling of heaven in the East perhaps A. Les Origines saints. 1947. 1. many cultures had come 96 to think of the house." Cahiers verse cheologiques. "rising into the immeasurable air. Dupont-Sommer. 42. The 1894. divine and royal symbolism already associated with the dome. to be used in Greek and Roman temples. is the poem in praise of Hagia Sophia at Constantinople where Paul the Silentiary not only uses the phrase "beautiful helmet. like the radiant heavens. The Cosmic House Underlying the development of the Christian interest in domical tombs. considers to be Westover-emphasizes what he era influences. which were both rebuilt by Justinian. the symbolism of their heavenly pileus with its cosmological meaning and may its mystical explanation of an immortal life after death explain the Christian references to the helmet in the descriptions of domical churches.cit. semblable a sa 94 casque. and persistence of the various beliefs in the celestial ancestral types of cosmic houses 93 ris. it was the prevalence symbolism of domical coverings were most which on responsible for the growing cosmic imagery had come to this times Christian popularity of the domical shape. n. HarChapouthier.Soper ("The 'Dome o Heaven' In Asia. 1903. most associate the heavens with the ceilings of antique civilizations were accustomed to their most revered shelters. which bending over. Lucius." Art Bulletin. xxix. "One Hymne syriar~ aque sur la cathedrale d'desse. comparable au cieux des cieux. As gods of the tomb and intermediaries between heaven and earth the two pagan heroes were 93 precursors of the martyrs. Zew. 187." More significant. 32. like the hoop-roofed tent o Ion at Delphi. kalube and tegurium. Acharya. "Origin and Mutation in Foucher.B J. which depicts the turban relic of the Buddha enshrined in the heaven of India. huts of the native Dravidian culture. omphalos. an early treatise on types of houses in Indian architecture. Coomaraswamy. the Dravida. for example. idem. a cuplike and life-giving lotus flower.C. Hence. The mystical nature of the early primitive form Indian beliefs regarding the primitive domical shelter as a cosmic and symbolic the different has been explained by A. by the circular shape. while the other. VH. Puranas and Sutras have not as yet been ligious architecture to have been in Vedic cosmogeny two distinct studied. 242." RJ. Indian Architecture According to the Gandkdra. L'Art 456. if it did means of that instinctive not influence. 1-56. beside the palace of the gods. 138) on the balustrade post AmaravatL 9 Once pentry golden the shape of the dwelling of the Divine One was translated into wood carand the cosmic significance of its roof was architecturally emphasized. was derived from the by the conquering Aryans. process of imagery huts a manifestation of all the the Indians saw in the curved roof of their primitive with a domelike shape. INDIAN TRADITION Among round the sanctity of a primitive the cultures whose prehistoric ideas regarding domical of architecture. or the Varenna. of du Indian and Eastern Architecture. helmet. dating from the first century B. baetyl. as is was taken over as the venerated form of the early Buddhistic of the stupa at illustrated (Fig.. P. Simpson. By which inspired men to attach different beliefs to similar shapes. distinguished by its rectangular shape. and the significance of Indian traditions is preserved in the Manasara. xvi. The one which conceived into India of heaven. dating from the twelfth year apparent In a section of the Sudama fla The literalness with which A. Indian and In- Manamm-Sil 43. which was similar to the Italian the Syrian kalube. Coomaraswamy. Although the scattered references to the cosmic house and the beginnings of re- in the Brahmanas. they saw a divine parasol. by onal and hexagonal shapes. greco-bouddhique 228. as can be seen. K. I. the Vesara. 92-104. that shrine. "Coomaraswamy. as ''four-cornered" was presumably brought which was circular. History donesian Art. The Architecture of the Manasara (English 8S trans. K. 130. 0f pasastra. Transactions.). other celestial ideas which they had come to associate of Syria were able to combine in in the same way that both the pagans and Christians their conception of the dome ideas of a pine cone. in the curved outlines of their cosmic house a skene. the growth of domical concepts in the West. W. India Influenced the development hut most directly had a cosmic house tradition which in origin and ideology closely paralleled. fig. is the shape of the venerated hut form was preserved cave (Fig. "Symbolism of the Dome/' Indian Historical Quarterly. 141). 159). which describes the three types of houses and modes of archithe octagtecture as the Nagada. the dome became the most dominant feature. fig. 1938. 97 It was the round tegurium and shape with Its domelike roof of thatch. . of the sacred banyan and amalaka trees bowl and the essential an profile upturned which were also the heavenly dwelling of the gods. xvm. golden and star-covered egg. on a relief from Bharhut (Fig.DOMICAL FORMS AND THEIR IDEOLOGY 1. lotus. there systematically traditions of a world shelter appears as the dwelling of the gods. K. 1874. 390) how the "Great Tent" of the Khan. I.^ heavenly tent.7. as the place of appearance of a divine King of Kings. Transact ions. and the other. and other mediaeval travelers. influential in the also The Achaemenid kings of Persia. and of another tent he (ed. Clavijo. 102 1 Hesychlus. 1928) describes the in great pavilion of Timur as "four square Its ceiling "made lances and three high shape. Simpson. ovpovov. "was large IDS Marco Polo (ed. vii. of such was probably a cultural importation of cosmological ideas which accounts for the starlike rosettes that presumably decorated the vaults of the Mycenaean tholos tombs (Fig. i. their "royal tents and courts of round awnings were called Heavens/ The general shape and appearance of these royal tents of Persia were presumably similar to the great domical tents of the Mongol Khans. "Origin and Mutation in Indian and Eastern Architecture. fig. THE ASIATIC TRADITION AND THE IMPERIAL BALDACHIN The great difficulty in reconstructing the development of the early cultural and minglingIn Greece it beliefs in a cosmic house comes from the inevitable dissemination beliefs. These traditions show the complicated nature and origin of domical ideologies.cit.) of the actual overhang and curves of a thatched roof. 148) used by the Chinese It Emperor Klenllng In 1793. writes. In domical. in the celling of the cupola of the tent . although they lived for the most part In palaces built of brick and Western travelers in the Middle Ages. Yule. 252. and Cla- 81 . vijo op. Le Strange. at one time or another. In describing the habitations of the Monboth Friar John and Friar William (M. and at a later date explains the cosmic tent of Ion at Delphi with its tions of a cosmic heavenly embroideries.THE COSMIC HOUSE Asoka's reign.. gols. These nomads of Asia had always lived. which so Impressed the stone. 2. one. 18. as so many of them do today. who were to give the classical world Its conception of a divine and universal ruler. where (ed. 118. went back to the audisilver gilt. All. the audience tent of the Achaemenid kings. the Semitic qobba. enough to cover a thousand people". 5. 1928. According to 1102 Hesychlus. was a cosmic tent wfaidj. came from the East.A.. Yule). Komroff.. It Is of great size H. he spent so much of his time. Contemporaries of Marco Polo.B." RJ. held their audiences and festivals In a cosmic tent.C. Marco Polo ence "Heavens' of the Achaemenid kings." circular to form a dome" which was supported on twelve posts (p. which the pre-Islamlc Arabs had Inherited. $. were most development of domical Ideas In the Near East. were careful to reproduce (260 B. "high up. 101 Two of these Asiatic traditions. Coomaraswamy. 238). 100 The stonecutters. 59) tell how they were domical structures made "upon a round frame of wickers interlaced compactly" and covered "with white felt/' tells 101 G. like those described by Marco Polo. that was taken over by Alexander the Great after his conquest was this early Asiatic tradition of a 100 W.. In carving out of solid rock the circular and domical inner sanctuary of this cave near Buddha Gaya. is seen the figure of an eagle In and Its wings are which would suggest that it open" (241-242). and hence were not essentially different from the vast audience tent (Fig. 594 11. By the classical period several different tradiand sacred tent were already established around the eastern shores of the Mediterranean. kabitka tents. In fact it was the "Tent-Dwellers" of Central Asia with their traditions of a round and domelike cosmic tent who account for the widespread popularity of the domical shape. 63). according with in the West. Life of Apollonius of Tyana.. ceiling. io$ff." nificent tent made with fifty gilded posts of a sky canopy above an enthroned ruler. 262!. Zeus. domical there were in Parthia such the indicated further is building (Fig. The motif and mingled of the canopy illustrates the at different historical levels. 21-22). %. ("The Dome of 100) and K. 1942. Thron des Khosro. and the influences of this Sassanian conception of a monumental baldachin. this structed in the form of a dome like the heavens. 128). figs. L. op. 68nenpalast. 2-24. or audience tent. Lehmann. xxvui. it fully established only occurs on Persian ("Der The rea and its byA. 1935. 1W and divine baldachin was to Herzfeld. Domus 29. The bulbous and tentlike domical form of 25. 144. was the Persian con- Furthermore.cit. "the ceiling with sapphire stone. relation to the throne room of Khosro Its II.. H. such a Parthian structure can be seen in the Severus sculptures of the arch of Septimius Serta Eitremiana. traditions other been While there may have and Byzantine the world tent of Alexander that the Roman it was presumably from the jeweled and golden baldachin emperors derived as a in (Figs. Mitt. Lehmann lofi Philostratus. 146) it which they god into imperial palace archiwhich introduced the dome with its celestial symbolism later domical throne room of Rhosro II. Therefore. L'Orange. was essentially an astronomically decorated dome of wood which for in it the Kosmokrator sat beneath 104 world/' and night like the "went around day perpetually it supreme made their state appearances beneath a domical cosmic tent. which carried a sky of rich workmanship. or world house. 22.D. ideas have been upon Byzantine and mediaeval 82 Weltenmantd und Himmelszelt.. and that was used in the tomb of M. m)." Art Bulletin. P. Oslo. Clodius Hermes Even as early as the first century A. opMt. 228) by was enthroned as a whom 106 monarch divinity. 1920. xiv. n.. much the as same the tecture.) 5 preuss. i. 27. by Sassanian times the royal the result that. Lehmann. 68). 28. 1945. i. which was built by craftsmen of the Roman that reEmpire and also had a celestial dome volved above the head of the universal ruler. Herzfeld d. Eisler. Abb.." the universal which in throne cosmic and rooms. and they appear golden." and to build his being. and L'Orange (ibid. fig. covered and in its heights are the stone being intensely blue and of the color of the sky .AI6idi ("Insignien Ischen Kaiser/' Rom. was presumably because of the various celestial implications of the cosmic tent that the decoration 105 Romans it as a customary domical adopted the "awning pattern" (Fig.. way which so many domical ideas spread In spite of its Asiatic origin and continued in use in the East." Serta Eitremiana. Heaven. der Son- cosmic significance of the Dom us auheavenly dome have been discussed und Tracht der rom- discussed by E. 75. Cook.. 25. P. 614. among his conquest the sculptures on the arch of Septimius Severus that record of the Parthians. a deified and universal monarch.. Pompeian aurea. i). L'Orange ("Domus aurea .)." "sun a of form the in aurea Domus palace. 1942.DOMICAL FORMS AND THEIR IDEOLOGY "The Son of Heaven had a magof Persia In the words of Plutarch (Alexander. (H. enthroned ception of as the incarnation of the sun the to himself to empire which inspired Nero present His "Golden House. . in images of the gods The fact that they believed. Kunst. the domical baldachin had become such a common Philostratus claimed to have seen in the attribute of royalty in the Near East that of which was conParthian Empire a Judgment Hall." Jahrb. Hadrian's Villa. among has been proved that the pre-Islamic Arabs. it has survived down to modern times among the Bedouins as the tribes. had the ancient tradition of a sacred domelike tent of leather." Bulletin de I'lnstitut franfais d'arche- Seyrig. 143) which were designed under strong Hellenistic influences. occidentale avant I'Hegire. 101-179. it the portable dwelling of the divine baetyls. each clan. where ideas of a cosmic house of God were of great antiquity. 406. and was frequently erected over the graves of ancestors and great men. Although no longer containing any idols. and perhaps all Semites. Melanges de I'Universite Saint-Joseph. of the sacred tent in Palestine. 1920. accompanying them into battle and leading them on their migrations. Morgenstern. 319. 39-101. "Le Cuke des be*tyles et les processions religieuses chez les Arabes preislamites. This book.THE COSMIC HOUSE coins (Fig. 1934* *59ff. Iran in the Ancient East. The Ark. 83 . thority/' 'otfe of 307 fig. 24-27* 176-179. called the qobba. 101 On the other hand. Herzfeld. xvm. controversial and com- plicated by contradictory evidence. While the evolution of the Hebrew ark and tabernacle as a domelike tent and representation of the universe is confused. 1944. It was all. assume that the scene of Buddha enthroned beneath a heavenly 140) on a relief of Gandhara came from either Hellenistic or Iranian to in While the Gandhara canopy may well reflect a mingling of domical traditions. is an excellent study xvii. which was Erst published in the Hebrew Union College Annual. with a full bibliography. "Les Sanctuaires pre* Islamites dans TArabie occidentale/' U the "Tent of Meeting" 1945. with a domed top has continued to be the palladium of the clan and an emblem of au110 The primitive qobba was also the prototype of the "kubbe" of Islam. 1942-43. 1928. which was always transported upon the back of a camel and then set up alongside the chieftain's tent. on a second or third century relief from the temple of Bel at Palmyra which was on the outskirts of Syria where there had always been nomadic 109 Arab of a Whereas in primitive times the qobba always housed the two baetyls clan or tribe. The best Sassanian coins were done by xi.pi. the Indian baldachin carefully preserves both the native ideas of thatch upon a cosmic hut and of leaves spreading from the branches of a heavenly tree. 108 The only well-preserved representation of this tent sanctuary. j Greek craftsmen. At the same time they have contributed certain facts concerning the primitive signifi- cance of the tent acquired so First of much the Semites which help us to understand why the dome symbolic importance for both Christians and Mohammedans. until we know more about the beginnings of domical ideas in India. which the peacocks appear to be substituted for the Western eagles.XDC 110 309 J. recent studies have clarified many essential steps. xvn. its "tentlike shape. 147). contacts. 3. became an emblem of clan authority. the Ephod and Arable ologie orientale. 1926. xv. PRE-ISLAMIC AND HEBREW TRADITION Something of the similarity and intermingling of cultural beliefs regarding an ancestral and cosmic shelter which have been apparent in the Western conception of the Hellenistic baldachin and in the Eastern origins of the Buddhistic canopy again appear in the domical traditions of Palestine. 108 H. Lammens. or ark. it would be unwise baldachin (Fig. served as a kind of palladium. "Antiquites syriennes/' Syria. occurs (Fig. In the third scene. 1-17).DOMICAL FORMS AND THEIR IDEOLOGY which immediate successors continued to carry with them. "Efod und Terafim. 112 193* 113 Morgenstern.cit.xviu. Following the destruction of the temple by the Babylonians in 586 B. Les Peintures de la Synagogue de Doura-Europos. G.. while in the scene of the Removal of the Ark from the Temple of the Philistines.. 1939. op. 84 .. LVI. "Ephod and Ariel/' ibid. "as a sign of authority" and a revered symbol of Islam. 2i5ff. reliefs. it Aaron and appears to combine the early tradition of domelike qobba with the paneled doors of a box-container. the ark (Fig. xxxni. E.cit. n.. "In the is middle of the house of the primordial creation a great tree with large branches bent under the weight of fruit/' which was the supporting tree-of-life. G. 115 In the scene of and Morgens tern's theory. xiv. and to the Sohar. which may have been intended to represent stars. op. where the Philistines. 114 Weltenmantel und Himmelszelt. is carried captured by on poles. 150). that the authors of the Priestly Code (and.cit. 44ff. After their return from captivity." Biblical Archaeologist. 605. p. 185- Morgenstern. 1944. 114-131 (or Hebrew Union College Annual. Sellin. After the Hebrews had returned to Judea the nature of the ark was again reinterpreted and. 112 at Shiloh that became the ark of the federated tribes of Israel.C. x > *947* 45^68. 64-65 (216-217). however. "Aaron and the Tabernacle/ pis.. and the resultant disappearance of the ark. which were closely Mohammed and his related in form and ephod of Ephraim and it was probably the religious use to the pre-Islamic qobba. M. 1936. which shape. 78-80 (230-231). references to Assyrian tent sanctuary. by a Babylonian conception of a cosmic tent and by the 113 It has been sugPersian ideas of a universal ruler enthroned in his audience tent. xxvi/j. p. 1939. 4 (156). Eisler. the original conception of the portable tent emblem was transformed into a boxlike container in which the two tablets of the law were deposited in place of the primitive pair of baetyls. du Mesnil du Buisson. H.. it fusing. "The Tabernacle. uniting heaven and earth. 116 Here Morgenstern. has a round and domelike it is symbolic nature as a divine manifestation and heavenly form appeared to be indicated by the wreaths about it and the spots of decoration. "Re116 1 115 moval from Temple of Philistines/* pL xxxiv. "Capture by Philistines/' pis. 604. Exile that the Jews derived their idea of gested by Eisler that it was in the days of the the tabernacle as a cosmic replica of the universe from the Babylonian "Shepherd Tent 149) of the World/' which he believes maybe seen in the round.. both 111 in battle and on the march. xxv. Cross. they were influenced. May.cit. 595. 114 ritualistic tent (Fig." Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society. xxvi/i. H. it is a portable tent on wheels with a conical top and the Tabernacle it the paneled doors of a cabinet. where they lost the first tradition of the ark. 1934. Before the Exile the Hebrew clans had tent sanctuaries. those who carne after them) had only a vague and unreliable tradition of what the ark should be. ephods.. May. although an effort was made continued to be regarded as a container with doors for the "Tablets of Testimony/' From this point on the evidence becomes conto reinstate it as a sacred object. "The Ark a Miniature Temple/" American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures. op. its 111 more nearly resembling a primitive qobba or ephod. perhaps. Other articles on the ephod and ark are: F. Jr. R. op. LII. might be added. on Assyrian According to his translation of the Sohar. Morgenstern. seems to be substantiated by the different representations of the ark in the scenes in the Synagogue at Doura-Europos. when the sanctuary. Unfortunately none of the accounts of this tabernacle of Moses. at the same time that the description of a continuous surface without a domical shape. says the ark was made of 'stout timber" and had a golden cover "united to it by golden * pivots. vi). the protuberances implies dimensions indicate a rectangular shape. from the Hebrew evi- dence traditions of is the fact that the peoples of Palestine had from ancient times the a domelike sanctuary. 4. Jewish Antiquities. with A little later in the its four posts. 117 In Yahweh was thought as to its shape. 66. the other their gods in ancestral shelters peoples of Syria and Asia 11T Minor were worshipping (17-47). Philo (Loeb. became the "Tent of Meeting. The primitive tabernacle in the wilder- which had presumably come to have cosmic significance because it emanated from God himself and was the "dwelling place" of a universal Yahweh in the midst of his people. with no protuberances anywhere to mar the perfect adjustment/' reminds one of the ark at Doura (Fig. 151) of the Second Revolt (66-70 A. 134-136. the holy temple of God is. Also. there the Jews were accustomed to think of their and then in his Life of Moses he tells how the parts of the tabernacle symbolize the structure of the universe. 151-161 Philo (Loeb. there upon a general way an ancient qobba.dt. because of what appears to have been marked eclecticism in later is no agreement as to whether the holy of holies depicted the Jewish coins (Fig. m Hi. seated upon his throne. 88. it was another tent ancient qobba which assumed ness. which was a tent hung and covered with veils. tells 120 as "like the heavens devoted to God". was essentially a kind of qobba.THE COSMIC HOUSE In the period following the Exile and at a time in terms of a universal god. tabernacle as a cosmic house. rv). vn)." 118 may be interpreted from the coins. however. 121 What emerges." His statement regarding the shape of this cover.D. Philo in The Special Laws writes. 120 Josephus (Loeb. Regardless of how the shape of the ark is no doubt that by the first century A. "The highest. like a qobba or heavenly hemisphere. Beyond the theory of Morgenstern that this miskan. or holy of holies. give any indication as to whether its holy of holies had a domical covering. and in the truest sense. as we must believe.) is merely a Torah shrine or the holy ark presented as a domical tent sanctuary and hence resembling in Hebrew traditions. the ark. on the other hand. a cosmic tent and of the domical shape as a manifestation of God." to which was called the miskan and 'ohel be enthroned like a world ruler. 118 119 Morgenstern. Ibid. a pagan tabernacle and a Christian ciborium. 119 first century. there is little evidence and scholarly agreement it mo'ed. "so even was the surface at every point. the whole universe. Josephus. and he also discusses its symbolism and how even the dress of the high priest represents the essential parts of the universe. i. 85 . 123-187. Josephus describes the tabernacle of Moses as "an imitation of universal nature" and its holy of holies. in... op.D. i5o). n. EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE TRADITION At the same time that the Hebrew writers were continuing to think of both the universe and the sanctuary of God in terms of a cosmic and ancient dwelling. perhaps a tribal Hebrews were thinking ephod and new importance. were apparently not consistent. were confronted with a serious difficulty to present to their when they endeavored congregations a comprehensible cosmogeny and estabmen's minds a divine prototype for the earthly church on the authority of Isaiah and the Hebrew belief that the tabernacle. (Fig. contradictions and inconsistencies in the no authority for the exact shape of either the cosmic tent. when the a mystical conception of the architectural churchmen were formulating House of God symbol and manifestation of divine presence. chamber (/ca^apco/) and stretched men. 136) and inside a tentlike ciborium (Fig. as the tomb of Lazarus (Fig. house or Even the Jews. kalube. 104). 70). or tent of Moses. they had microcosmos. to see a heavenly meanordinary man in Syria. and were. Already it has become evident how traditional beliefs in an ancestral shelter a tegurium. between the fourth and seventh centuries. who had an ancient cultural tradition of a sacred and ancestral tent of domelike shape.DOMICAL FORMS AND THEIR IDEOLOGY which had similar cosmic implications. thereby. and on others was made evident by if stars on a helmet (Fig. cultivating the imagery which was to bring about the adoption of the domical church in the Near as a East. Most theologians means of making the necessity of reaffirming the validity of these beliefs as a seem more real and of combatting the costnogeny of the Ptolemaic system which undermined the authority of the Scriptures and lessened the importance of heaven. LXVI. 102). to such late antique accustomed to visualize an earthly kosmokrator as enthroned beneath his celestial baldachin. after their return W . around the second century meaning on a conoid form it been illustrated by the coins. Also. The degree to which it was customary for the after Christ. because it could not be forgotten. Because of the vagueness. was an actual scriptural accounts. Many of them accepted with great literalness the ideas running the future through the book of Isaiah. there was the specific implication of a vaulted covering in the words of the Prophet. The lish in theologians. Christian thought was which were still present in the felt profoundly influenced by the beliefs in a cosmic house Hebrew tradition and preserved in the Old Testament. and skene as a as a replica of God's dwelling. it "He that established heaven as a vaulted (Isaiah. Even the tent baldachin over the altar of Zeus (Fig. or combined with a divine baetyl (Fig. the Semitic tradition of the qobba and a "Shepherd Tent of the World. 27). standing (Fig. 'The heaven is my throne and the earth is my footstool: where is the house ye build unto me'* (Isaiah. 22). i). 94). where God is presented as the builder of the world. XL. combined with the cosmic significance of the imperial baldachin. is it was thought of as the dwelling of the ruler of Olympus. For the most part they based their imaginative structure of the universe upon the state- ment. On some coins this ing in the domical shape has already was revealed by the eagle enshrined within a tabernacle (Fig. 106) was not exactly a cosmic house. 23) and as a martyr's sanctuary 99). as the home of Good Shepherd (Fig. it readily realized how this religious imagery. however. underlay the Christian symbolism of a domical hut the representation of paradise (Fig. Hence. 137). out as a tent to dwell in" Furthermore." formed a domical heritage that Christianity had to recognize and develop. "Cosmografia hemisphere"is also 'Who David. 287. geo. ence to heaven as a vaulted chamber (mpapav) to mean it was hemispherical is proved by M. went back In chamber. Boll d.. 330. qobba tent. the persistence of these ideas accounts for the one tunnel-vaulted chamber and its heavenly blue tiles yellow. V. Nevertheless. which paralleled the classical ideas of a celestial skene. J. op. Diet.R. 534. Pontificia 1903. Influenced by other cosmic traditions and the reference of Isaiah to a 'Vaulted or three-storied house whose lofty roof. 25. says the idea of a the words of 60-72. many Early Christian writers accepted the Hebrew belief. vn. 601-633. in Sargon's palace at Khorsabad. pi. Die physiche Erdkunde im christlichen Mittelalter. Marinelli. the Nestorian his treatise upon 122 des peres de 1'kglise. it Is Is evident from the contradictions In his text that he was confused by what he had been told. The Dawn of Mod- ern Geography. 1950. xx. 21-22) discusses heaven as a 87 . cit. vm. njfL. 1867. Victor Place. soc. 127 according to his own statement he prepared the tabernacle as "a type and copy of the whole world** "from the divine scripture and from the living voice" of Patrlcius.THE COSMIC HOUSE and appearance of the ark and Inner tabernacle. and hence the first Idea of a tunnel vault. Beazley. 123 Beazley. 1897. vol. when the author of the now the fullest account of the Christian belief Cosmos Indicopleustes wrote what In the world as a cosmic house. Ninive E." Dumbarton Oaks Papers. who his Exposition on in Heaven" "Concerning the Orthodox Faith (Nicene and Post-Nicene in his chapter of Antioch to text speaks of working with Stephen and indicates Cosmas' indebtedness Theodoras of Mopsuestia who was bora and trained at Antioch. O. classica e patristica/' del Nuovi Accademia Lincei. op. suggested by stretchest out the heavens like a curtain. without captivity. what he had read in the Bible and what was part of the general pattern of Ideas in his day. sometimes thought of their own cosmic tent with a hoop roof. 1889. i. W. Das Gotteshaus and die Urformen des Bauens im Allen Orient. Some of them. Fathers.cit. McCrindle. Bofitto. 124 Presumably this Babylonian tradition of a rectangular house with a hoop roof continued to have In the East much the same logical reasons cosmic and heavenly significance as did the round and domical shelter In other cultures. Padri della Chiesa. 1834. et VAssyrie. 126 ." origin to the beginnings of Mesopotamian architecture when the keel-shaped roof was taken over into brick construction from the prehistoric reed huts and used for ideo- on early tombs and temples.' by which word he clearly means a tent. 123 The idea of a hoop roof. In regard to the shape from being 122 specific as to its shape. Leclercq in Cabrol. 330. series 2. G. Christian Topography. 1899. series 3. Kreti schmer. "The Alexandrian Origin of the Christian Topography of Cosmas Indicopleustes. and referred to the world as a tent. 1897. Letronne. Ssoff. K. 1946. Winstedt.. i. dome and "La Geog- rafia e gr. Letronne. C. 7ftff. in. 1882. ital. 125 Later. ix. P. starlike rosettes on the frontal arch was over the royal throne room. Anastos." 124 Andrae. 125 Memorie della primitive. was either semicylindrlcal or domical in shape. 126 Although writing at Alexandria. By the sixth century." pictured the universe as a two the "sky of skies" and the "vault of heaven. "Des opinions cosmographiques Revue des deux mondes. Its where the vault with and not the bedchamber Place thought. the same beliefs may r explain w hy the Jews." n. 2758. The on John of Damascus. even though this Idea conflicted with their own In the harem as tradition of the sanctuary as a domical. That many theologians took Isaiah's refer- raphy of 12T The Christian TopogCosmos Indicopleustes 1909. after their return from captivity. In fact. op. 1947.DOMICAL FORMS AND THEIR IDEOLOGY known by the Syrians as Mar Abas. he goes to the spacious roof over a bath and "with the arena-like (mXfjia) as a heaven space below.) and Winstedt (Introduction) list the churchmen who refer to the world as a domical house. who had 128 lived in Chaldaea and was "elevated to the lofty episcopal throne of all Persia/' Cosmas' conception of both the world and the tabernacle as a rectangular house with a tunnel vault came.ciL. op. line 8.. 9 p. having referred to the first XovrpQv fjLeydXr)). gives the Impression of being only a vague and unconvincing combination of images derived from 128 129 Isaiah. Migne. and On Genesis (Migne. 181. P. Weltenmantel und Himmeltzelt. 433. from Nestorian sources.cit... one visible. Eisler.. formulated in terms of a domical heaven of heaven rising above the nearer. p. John Philoponus. Fig. Indicate that he was also accustomed to think of the heavens and the cosmic house (&$ $0X09 domical. 829.cit. of course. Winstedt. 88 . we know that a number of prominent Syrian churchmen pictured the universe as a domical house. was a question of how of theologians. LXXXVIII. held much whole theory originally came from Mesopotamia Is indicated by the hoop roof and Cosmas' references to the cosmic mountain Inside the rectangular world house. the other inBabylas was built. 2756?.G. however.cit. 132 Of these the most important was Diodorus of Tarsus. F.G. Cahiers archtologiques. 129 That when as taken In combination with the inconsistencies In his account of the tabernacle.. which it has been seen were it The Importance which was authority for the shape of the cosmic house. 352. Eisler. n. (Migne. 626-632. xxxm. Eisler. in relation to a n. one the other above: the later serves as the roof of the universe. tentlike covering of the earth. Not only does he in one place describe the sky as a cupola but. Grabar. 130.. on to compare 131 It vaulted chamber. however. 130 Several of his phrases and figures of speech. P. in the form of a tent or arch/* Verbally this architectural conception of the universe. n. op. n. faced with the necessity of presenting a clear part of the popular heritage in Syria. view of all the celestial implications of the domical shape." in Photius. therefore. cm. On Creation. Bibliotheca. also Beazley. the fourth century theologian of Antioch whose teachings were so largely responsible for the Nestorian heresy. 1S3 Winstedt. below. Even from what little is preserved In their writings. 76. It Is evident that many of them and their con- gregations must have been thinking of the dome when they were talking about the vault of heaven.cit. LVI. iv. 132 domical church in which McCrindle. 223 1562-1580). 24. In home. 625.. "i 9130 131 Eisler.cit. n.. op.. book Migne. who was one of the most influential religious teachers living at Antioch shortly before the martyrium of S. "Against Fate.G. 878). for even Theodorus of Mopsuestia." being attached to domical concepts in the Near East is. P. 58. Once it is visualized. 623. cod. op. 625. no more proved by this confusion In Cosmas' imagery than it is disproved by his own belief which came from Nestorian sources. "Two heavens there are. op. former as the covering of our earth not round or spherical (like the but former). Beazley (pp. the this same views. 380. 6. op. Since there was no scriptural the majority image of the celestial could best describe the cosmic tent and heavenly vault in their sermons. Fragment.cit. 133 He wrote. the visible.G. and. said. Severianus of Gabala. 135 See Chap. Grabar. such mystical interest in the domical shape was formulated in Syria.THE COSMIC HOUSE the congregation stood when they were listening to sermons on God's creation. "God made the higher heaven . Since both Severianus and Diodorus were trained at Antioch there arises the presumption that much of this cosmic imagery took shape at Antioch in specific relation to the lofty wooden domes. Sect. it is evident that both he and his audience were familiar with domical churches and accustomed to associate them with the universe.. p. "Suppose a dome to be placed over the church/* the way in which Severianus carefully orients this dome in his sermon. John Chrysostom and Theoderet should have referred to the body of Bishop Meletius and the relics of S. if this and the martyria. their writings.G. Babylas. no. as "tent mates/' 185 Furthermore.D. If the reader. he made by the circular impost of the dome and the four the universe. age considered to be the four sides of the earth (see p. arches. another Syrian churchman. we can more clearly account for the domical cosmogeny of the Syrian hymn which was written in praise of Hagia Sophia at Edessa/ se The original church at Edessa. op. Severianus. will look up will see in the pendentives. "Une Hymne syri- 41-67. as in a house of two stories/' Curiously enough this particular quotation comes from the book of Cosmas. decorated with as S. 154). 1947. book x. At the beginning of the fifth century. 335. A. 109-110. such as that on Hagia Sophia (Fig.. In is a subsequent by Cosmas. buried together in the domical crossing of the martyrium. Orations on Creation. 424. C-i6. it becomes perceptually rarily conditioned real this by and comprehensible. indicate that they did present their cosmogeny to the people by means of domical architecture. with his mind tempomystic imagery which presented the church as a replica of into a dome. 39-31. v. While it is impossible to argue from this view into a sixth century dome that Syrian churchmen. stars. . formulated their architectural cosmogeny at Antioch with similar domical churches in mind. (Migne. influenced by Diodorus. 23.. op. pp..cit. begun in 313 A." Cahiers archeolagiques. n. 447-456). 186 moignage (Tune hymne syriaque sur FarcMtecture de la cathedrale d'desse au vie si&de et sur la symboliqne de F&Iifke dirtlen" t&id. again quoted on the shape of the world house. who illustrating the earth's move- ment From in relation to the sun. . "Le Td- P. . Babylas.. this which which appears suspended from above because of the halo of light that shines in from the clerestory windows. which rose over the Domus aurea This presumption would then help to explain why both S. says. that they are not in agreement passage. who was undoubtedly .cit. 89 . who quotes him at great length "as a witness to confirm my work" without realizing . and then through the opening in the top of this apparent covering he will see beyond a heavenly dome. like Diodorus. was enlarged in 3^7/8 and at 134 Winstedt. LVI. higher than this visible 1" heaven. 90) a curved shape that resembles a four-sided tent pegged down at the corners. 340. McCrindle. and presumably at Antioch. Severianus of Gabala. Btipont-Sommer. 11. as if he were pointing to the four sides. aqtie sur la cathedrale d'fidesse. nevertheless. ' IT. There Is also the strong suggestion that his conception of the earthly house of and unconsciously.DOMICAL FORMS AND THEIR IDEOLOGY some time before 345/6 became known as Hagla Sophia. to the erection of the therefore. "The Essence which resides in the Holy Temple. Goussen. It was rebuilt by Bishop Amidonlus with imperial funds furnished by Justinian. and ornamented with mosaics Its of gold. undoubtedly influenced by the Jewish tradition While the author was. It starts out by comparing the construction of the church by Ainldonius and his two builders. his Ideas of the relation of the world and the church all go back to the writings and beliefs of those fourth century Syrian theologians who were connected with the Church of Antloch. of a cosmic tent and also by the Mystagogia of S. 164-183. it says." It is also apparent In the description of the five doors representing the five Virgins. xxxvm ' icm " 117-136. Orims Christianus. and "the nine steps leading up to the Throne of Christ denoting the Bine Orders of Angels/* It is also to is There be noted that in the reference to the construction of the dome. as Grabar has pointed out. Diet. The Importance in of Its it of a mystical architectural Imagery make very evident that its have been long established and generally accepted in Syria. no wood at all in its roof. Bauxnstar*. 2063. Influenced by the traditional Syro-Paiestlnian habit of associating a conoid house form with the manifestation of a living and ever-present god. Maximus and the Areopagitica of the Pseudo-Dionysus. H. a Syrian hymn which was probably written In the seventh century. God was How fully way of the Christians had accepted the beliefs In a cosmic house is shown in which the Sougitha presents the domical church at Edessa both as the as a replica of the universe. It was this church which is praised In the Sougitha. while four supporting arches are "the four sides of the World. In liche Baiitea in Edessa. On a church and sanctity of Hagla Sophia at Edessa it is impossible to believe that the sixth century builders would have made such a drastic change as the addition of 2 of the age fact." it says. Oabrol. iv.* Le Muston. Vwjustinianisdhc kurcfa- dome. Son and Holy Ghost.D. 90 . The only Innovation to impress the writer was Its being "entirely " lw A." Is made evident by the references to "Its marble similar to the not Image made by the hand of man/' to the columns as representing the tribes of Israel. "Uber eine 'sugitha' auf die Kathed von Edessa. by the image God and resides in the Holy something truly admirable that its smallness should be similar to the vast World. like the firmament. The dome. there is no indication in the hymn that the dome itself was considered an Innovation. 1 " After It had been seriously damaged by the great flood of 524 A. with brilliant stars. indirectly. symbolism and the dogmatic assurance Ideas of a domical cosmic house of God must Hebrew tabernacle of Moses. Asaph and Addai. rale 1904." it is Temple and in effect." This sense of a celestial presence In all the parts of the building. for the "Essence. which it considers to be the most remarkable and exalted part of the church Is described as "comparable to the Heaven of Heaven. which is constructed entirely of stone. the three facades recalling the Trinity and to the light coining from the three windows of the choir as revealing to us "the Mystery of the Trinity of the Father. the columns standing for the Apostles. 1945. like those 138 as the hymn lofty indicates and Grabar has it square shape surmounted by a monumental ciborium and holy of holies. "The of Heaven. the painted dome in the house of Caecilius the gilded rosettes as stars on Pantheon dome (Cook. was not peculiar n. archeologiques. and Syria it has been recently shown that the iconography in the mosaics of Galla Placidia was 140 we may reasonably suspect that the presumably taken from a Palestinian source. similar to the John at Ephesus (Fig. 61). "Le Jugement dernier au mausolee Jucundus Dome Pompeii (K. similar to the one that had inspired Philostratus in his account of a royal Parthian baldachin and related to the beliefs that had led to the 139 of an astral dome at Rome. like the its pointed out. xxvn. Lehmann. Their use in tombs and martyria is also indicated by the representation of the Holy Sepulchre on a Palestinian reliquary from the Sancta Sanctorum. Much more could be added to this partial outline of the early history of is domical ideas. 71). but the importance of this starry symbolism is shown the by emphasis which the Syrian writers place upon the stars as the lamps carried by angels (lampadophores) who inhabit the heavenly dome. dome from starry spread Syria and Palestine. 327. from the reference to there having been "no wood at all in its roof/' we assume that the may pre-Justinian church had a wooden cosmic dome If on the Syrian martyria. then cupola made a kind of tury martyrium of relics of S. however. the church was a theophanic martyriuin. use of stars on Roman domes. is further proof of how literally the Christians The had adopted earlier concepts. 1945. 59). S. 37-50. its authority to the earliest beliefs regarding ler. Seston. adoption especially those in the Near East. Inasmuch as the two Italian examples are in the Ravennate region where there were such close contacts with and Palestine. but in the Christian mind and the inner content which saw in the architectural parts of the for 138 House of God. 83) and. Martyrium. 73).THE COSMIC HOUSE constructed of stone. the stellata domus Jovis (Eisat de Galla Placidia a Ravenne. 21. not in the results of excavations which have revealed so of the little in regard to the Syrian use it wooden dome. for that matter. have been destroyed. description in the Sougitha of "the brilliant stars. 58." Art Bulletin. 91 . 14) the fifth century mausoleum of Galla Placidia (Fig. Architectural mysticism. If further evidence. Most Early Christian domes. it must be found. the vault mosaics of (Fig." Therefore. which decorated the vault of Hagia Sophia. figs. tomb of Bizzos at Ruweha Once these martyria it the Syro-Palestinian beliefs in a cosmic house. tyria at and tombs are visualized against becomes more evident why the maras Antioch and Seleucia Pieria must have had a dome an architectural mani- festation of the convictions of the leaders in the Church at Antioch. 44$. and the martyrium of the same century at Casaranello (Fig. 619 The 6)." Cahiers i. going back an ancestral shelter." like the firmament. square crossing of the fourth cenBabylas at Antioch. 14 W. Zeus.). the original mortuary sanctuary over the (Fig. necessary to demonstrate why the Antiochene martyria had wooden domes. in. gilded like the traditional heavenly zone of Mesopotamian cosmologies and adorned with stars on the interior. Grabar. such as on the vault on the Stabian baths and on 139 Weltenmantel und Himmelszlt n. I. " "the vault of heaven/' the construction of the roof with cedars of Lebanon and the 142 specific location of the altar in the middle of the church suggest that this fourth century church at Tyre was not a basilica. The domical evidence. "more wonderful than wonders and their divine models. n). necessary to such architectural symbolism. addressed bishop of the Tynans. conforms with Grabars conclusions that the martyrium-type church finally triumphed in the Byzantine East largely because of the prestige of the as martyria of Syria and Palestine and the influence of such mystic. His "Panegyric on the building of churches. as a clear. statement that. then much of the mortuary. divine and cosmic ideology. forming again this spiritual image vaults of upon earth of those vaults beyond the of Heaven all (ovpavia>v ctyriStw)/' Although commentators and translators Eusebius have his assumed that he was describing a basilica church. the cosmic house of God and the Holy Church which was itself "the edifice the Son of God created in his own image. salvation*!. his parallel and the costly cedars of Lebanon that are placed above/' he drew between the actual building. all." to apply both to the divine prototype and the temple is The same was also true of his words. P* 1 38 - 92 . What is already however. that "this magnificent temple of God most high" answers "in its nature to the pattern of that which is better. Ecclesiastical History (Loeb. the dome. Much more before it is certain study of the sources of Christian thought in this period how many of the ideas in regard to the domical Is necessary symbolism of the dome at first period to make spread from Antioch and inspired the Near East during the Byzantine the cosmic dome the crowning feature of the church. bright and full of light. is that it was ideas and not any structural and utilitarian interest in means of covering space. "Such the great temple which the Word. as he says. x. the rational prototypes of these things Because of the beliefs of the day. which had made the dome the transcending feature of the martyrium. however. iv. 2-72." Therefore. 3 when he came "to the royal house/' "the dazzling appearance of the workmanship/ "the loftiness that reacfaeth heaven." 1 * 1 and delivered at the dedication of the church at Tyre. both within and without. which impelled Justinian and the subsequent builders of Byzantine architecture to attach so much importance *See to the building of domical churches and palaces. but a cruciform structure of the martyrium type with aisles in the four arms and with a cosmic dome over the crossing. everything in account and especially his emphasis upon "the loftiness that reacheth to heaven. "He hath builded the great and royal house composed of was understood by everyone itself. as the It was part of the Christian heritage and to Paulinus. was written with the basic conviction. 141 Eusebius.DOMICAL FORMS AND THEIR IDEOLOGY to the Syrian author of the Sougitha. even as the visible answereth to the invisible." his are the archetypes. the is ap- parent as early fourth century in the Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius. Syrian theologians the Pseudo-Dionysus and S. Maximus. If this were so. the great Creator of the universe. hath builded throughout the whole world beneath the sun." for. must have originally emanated from Syria. "The church It is the God of heaven dwells and moves. because it bears the figure of the world/' Whether derived from of a domical cosmic house classical or Christian sources. the Pa- Constantinople. even Michelangelo. as the House of God. A. The pontiff represents Christ. therefore. 1742. EccL et mystica con- 145 Vasari. the things which (earthly) paradise itself. the on the earth. the visible heaven. the sanctuary is the symbol of the higher and supra-celestial spheres. the exterior. Paul says. inal when he refers to the orig- Duomo at Florence it which Arnolfo di Cambio planned to build with a domical "universal church. as S. The Architecture of A. and the place of his rest. Eastern Liturgies. chap. "The temple. the vault. insisted upon having the whole arm of San Lorenzo. At the same time they were undoubtedly aware of the domical ideas. environmental and utilitarian theories regarding the origin of the dome..." 145 crossing. It is likewise this that the altar represents. Vasari. wrote. to explain it was the ancient tradition which helps why Medici Chapel. The Renaissance dome. Hist. because of their admiration for Roman architecture. where. the Holy Place and the Atrium. but they have with them temple. the sepulchre heaven upon earth. the this visible world. xcvm. According to the most recent interpretation of this be an abbreviated image of mortuary chapel. This was represented also by the Tabernacle. or. represents the crucifixion. cols. in his treatise On the Holy Temple.. becomes evident how necessary it is for the history of architecture to be freed from the purely racial. 384-385). is the image of the whole world. 126. *]. the ground. wrote. 'The whole Chapel was intended to it 143 a domical memorial. Here.THE COSMIC HOUSE All the way through the Byzantine period the theologians continued to regard the church as a replica of heaven upon earth and to see In the dome S. with notes by Inigo Jones). The heavenly hierarchies are to be found hither and thither. 146 to all the Gods. xx. Pere S." he figure to shew the Unity. rvf chap. for God is a Trinity. Salaville. there is was the Holy of Holies. Paltadio (trans. a form of great imaginative significance to man. after Jupiter. such as that of the cosmic house. infinite Essence. the throne of the immortal God. that it is for God is everywhere and above all It is to point to this divided into three parts. speaks of as a Although Palladio professed to admire the circular plan and domical temple because "it is. it was consecrated explains the shape of the Pantheon. i. xi. the Uniformity "either because. 144 Translation by Salaville. Milanesi ed. and the lower regions and the earth in respect of beings which live according to reason ""* life and have no higher Once it the long history of pagan and Christian domical ideas begins to take shape." 143 As late as the fifteenth century Symeon of Thessalonica. templatio (F. the place where and the resurrection of Christ. it is said. Germanos. 123. the most proper and Justice of God. which were part of their Christian heritage. triarch of Germanos. opxit. 1938. are priests who take their place. 28. ** 6 iv. in which. 551.G. in designing the though it blocked S. and were impelled architects acquired much of their aesthetic interest in the all to rank the round and domical temple above other types of buildings. Early in the eighth century. Palladio. divided into three parts. 93 . as others would have it. and likewise by Solomon's temple. The Medici Chapel (Michelangelo. Peter with a magnificent free-standing cupola. which Bernini compared 147 to the tiara of the Pope." under- the celestial sphere. with its AND 7 THEIR IDEOLOGY above the other. with the tombs. 63. 1948.DOMICAL FORMS the universe. 94 . The intermediate zone. The zone of the 147 lunettes and of the cupola was intended to represent necessary to believe that the celestial and cosmic time when it symbolism was in men's minds when the Church of Rome. the realm of Hades. C." It is also took to rebuild the old basilica of S. at the very was most desirous of manifesting its greatness as "the Church of the World. was intended to incarnate the terrestrial sphere. in). with its rational architecture. The lowest spheres hierarchically ranged one zone. de Tolnay. is the dwelling place of the departed souls. when it did occur. some reconsideration should be given to the prevailing belief that the great majority of churches were basilicas and that the domical martyrium. to present in broad outline the main antique sources of domical symbolism and to show why the Christians. Martha. at least half central-type structures. This impression goes back to the publiBefore this review is De Vogue and Butler. who were limited to reporting what they saw in the unexcavated ruins of the more provincial towns and who. and so became what Lassus calls "martyrium-basilicas/* made. and are in its excavations in the larger cities have proved that the central-type martyrium was not In fact. by means of the wooden dome. Babylas at Antioch-Kaoussie). Jean Lassus. In order to show that the two buildings conformed to an established tradition and that the dome was an essential feature upon the martyria of these regions. polygonal. their choice and use of specific forms. the one of S. the martyria of S. they will be discussed in circular. cations of uncommon. Sanctuaires chretiens de Syrief 1947^ i6sff. came to attach so much significance to the domical form of their martyria.V - THE DOMICAL CHURCHES: MARTYRIA THE modern shape of roofs on the central churches of Syria was in no way a matter of structural expedience. the three that the Domus aurea and the two martyria under discussion were port. This involves drawing a sharp distinction between the martyrium proper and the ordinary churches which. Babylas and Seleucia Pieria and the churches of the Virgin and S. previous chapters importance of the wooden dome." known as 95 . were not conditioned by the same kind of utilitarian and aesthetic interests as govern have endeavored to prove the structural design. 3 In addition to the domical Great Church. like domes. or by means of added ora2 tories. quatrefoil (Seleucia Pieria). square. was an intrusion. for relics. and of these. trefoil and rectangular which are either known to have been domical or whose plans indicate a domical 1 superstructure. By itself this background is not enough to demonstrate that the two martyria of Antioch. It is still necessary to present the two martyria in relation to the gradual evolution of church architecture in the Near East and to realize that Syria and Palestine. Babylas at Kaoussie and the other at Seleucia Pieria. there were the "Cemetery Church. had a domical tradition which was an influential factor in the development of the domical styles of both Byzantium and Islam. Because the Christians saw inner meanings in all the elements of architecture. Martyrium. of the two score or more churches known to have been at Antioch suburbs or its now best known were martyria. in their effort to create a mystic The language of architectural expression. Since their time. did not consider the possibilities of the wooden dome. cruciform relation to the various types of martyria (S. because of the growing popularity of the Cult of Martyrs. made provisions in their side-chambers. in reconstructing the churches. presumably domical/ 1 2 O the three churches known In the Grabar. gilded domes of wood. which are discussed as central-type churches. must have had soaring. and the martyria of S. R. which the Christians took over and combined with the sepulchral symbolism of the Romans and the domical ideas the fourth century the Christians had two distinct types of sanctuary: one the rectangular basilica dedicated to the service of Christ. it is no longer evolution of domical architecture in the Near East. Greece and the Balkans. the martyrium of S. Gregoire and Kugener. while the cruciform Eudoxiana should have been domical. as domical. i. Regardless of where and how domical construction originated. and to treat the Arab use of the wooden dome an unprecedented phenomenon. there had to be a this widespread and radical change in religious architecture. Marc Diacre. 122 n. this incentive could not have powerful ideological incentive to account for from any structural interest in the difficult and dangerous technique of masonry vaulting. or which suffered from periodic earthquakes. DeLe Patriarcat d'Antioche. as may have been the 4 the walls. Diet. at Of the seven churches recorded Gaza and Mahoymac.DOMICAL CHURCHES: MARTYRIA sixth century to have been in the town of Zorah (Ezra). "Antioch. two (Figs. and the India. Diet. of the many references in the inscriptions to martyria. 53. and le xiv. Even without the available evidence for the long as and the use of the wooden dome in Syria and Palestine. Stephen. it must have come from the already popular beliefs regarding the arisen mystic and cosmic significance of the domical shape. admired and imitated martyria of the Holy Land." 2372-2402. the town of Gaza and its near-by port furnishes further evidence on this ratio. i. In regions which for centuries had been accustomed to wood roofing. Porphyre. cannot be explained by the assumption that this whole all these movement was the result of the introduction of vaulting methods into regions from either Rome or Iran. Apart "House of Martyrs/* the martyrium serr- ing as the sepulchre of the Arians. after the fourth century. In view. Timothy near the Old Church outside with the Old Church and S. in. of which we know nothing except their that the central and domical martyrium was possible to assume not as important in Syria and Palestine as it was in Asia Minor. 1945. Both the rapid spread of domical churches during the fifth and sixth centuries in Egypt. it would be difficult to understand how the dome came to attain such preeminence throughout the Byzantine and Islamic East if it had not already existed and had mystic history of domical beliefs value upon the renowned. of Iran and By other the central-type martyrium built to the commemorate their own heroic dead. Babylas. Sanctuaires. 56) are still domical Out- side the Patriarchate of Antioch. 1477!!. vi. Irene as probable basilicas. Thus we are left martyrium of S. 109- ary of the Forty Martyrs. northern Mesopotamia and the whole Christian and Islamic East. has created an inexplicable problem for the architectural historian. Cabroi. Asia Minor. In addition there are references to other churches having been built over the tombs of martyred saints. three are specifically described. * Lassus. or depicted. Cabroi. and the universal acceptance of the dome after the seventh century in Armenia. then. Instead. Leoncius and Euphemia at Daphne. The tendency to disregard the importance of the Syro-Palestinian region in the names. 6951!. the sanctu- vreesse. which was in the province of Arabia but under the Patriarch of Antioch. Vie de 96 . Lvmf.. op. martyria were at first small sepulchral chapels. gave rise to the The change was augmented and tralized power by means of imperial funds and methods of construction tended to translate this domical martyrium church into a monumental structure with masonry vaults. not only has Syria and the influence of the churchmen trained at Antioch been disregarded. inspired by the writings of the Syrian churchmen. The Church of Antioch was in many ways the most powerful and independent organization of Christianity. this chamber. the sixth century by the censtrengthened during of the state and the ambitious architectural interests of Justinian. was accomplished by adding ambulatories. with the result that and influence extended over a large area including the Euphratensis. the rapid growth of the Cult of Relics. This gradual fusion of two traditions. Therefore. During the fifth and sixth centuries the Church. devoted solely to the eucharistic service. instead of being a complete rebuilding. The religious traditions. 180) and S.DOMICAL CHURCHES: MARTYRIA from a few monumental structures like the Holy Sepulchre and the church of the Holy which were the Apostles. which was going on perhaps some- what independently in different parts of the Christian East. In many instances. but which was directly influenced by Syrian churchmen and the great renown of the domical martyria of Palestine. John enlargement. and the northern regions of Isauria and Cilicia. The change was gradually brought about by adding to the central-type structure. As a its rule result. Mesopotamia. the customary eastern apse for the symbolic tomb of Christ and the side chambers for the relics and ritual. Devreesse. but the fact that Korykos (Fig. commonly called which Justinian was dealing were neither basically Constantinopolitan nor the creation of Asia Minor. however. and by removing any special altars from the midst of the congregation so that nothing could compete with the regular service at the apsidal altar. imperial foundations. as at Korykos (Fig. 83). much of the province of Arabia. was desirious of cultivating the popular appeal of the celestial symbolism already conwith the nected domical martyrium. 193) 5 and Koja R. which new type of domical church. who attributed cosmic significance to the domical church. by retaining the celestial domical covering over the main body of the church. either free standing like tombs (Fig. the traditional desire of antiquity to apotheosize the honored dead and the popular desire to partake of the sanctity and protection of the martyrs resulted in the enlargement of the early martyria. with Byzantine. began to transform the traditional types of sepulchral martyria into regular churches. 5 While it is no longer a question of proving that the dome had one place of origin. 97 . 152) or connected as oratories with the basilicas. too much emphasis has been given to the part played by Asia Minor in this development of Byzantine architecture because of the Strzygowskian theories.cit. 182). At the same time it was undoubtedly aware that this growing popularity of the Cult of Martyrs threatened it it with a new kind of polytheism. exedras and cruciform arms so that there would be space for the crowds to gather about the central altar in the memorial tomb at Ephesus (Fig. as at Seleucia Pieria (Fig. 180). Meriamlik (Fig. After the Recognition of the Church. as well as such Christian communities as those in Bosra. of wood. finding it much easier to construct octagonal rather than circular memorials/ Jerusalem. for it shows an established Palestinian convention for depicting the Holy Sepulchre. ancestor worship as the houses such cult for it was used as acquired varying degrees of celestial meaning because of its skias. because the aeternae Constantinian emperors beginning of the fourth century in relation to the Cult of the Dead. 1-3). enagesterion. which is essentially the same as the one used on two ampullae from the Holy Land.DOMICAL CHURCHES: MARTYRIA Kalessi (Fig. we have seen. tomb and memorial how commonly are clear proof these round classical The debated question of need not now be domical monuments were of the (Figs. where the martyrium is a small. both Nisibis of Mesopotamia. in a review of the domical martyria of Syria. 5-9. like Antioch or Constantinople. dead had of heroic commemoration and the repasts. 98 . Holy Sepulchre (Figs. The scene of the Women at the Tomb on Tkymele. 1959. By with sacred long association in men's minds with an ancestral dwelling. which Roman mausoleum and classical heroon. Krautheimer. with a melon-like dome. it the has been seen. the sixth Edessa. Therefore. eternal house of the dead. the metropole of Osrhene. 8 The most reliable representation of this monument is that painted on the reliquary box from the Saacta Sanctorum (Fig. 152). which depicts a scene of the "Translation of Relics" in a city. 17-21) at the 6 raised. Excellent evidence of the traditionally domical memoriae the how important dome was character of this type of martyrium is the Early Christian ivory in Trier Cathedral (Fig. where a primitive and tribal dwelling had evolved into an the Hellenistic and Roman periods the circular structure. tomb monument. and Arnida. consideration under the Patriarchate of Antioch has been frequently overmust century metropole of the Euphratensis. decorated on the interior with golden stars. 14). That there were so few circular martyria in Syria and Palestine after the Holy Sepulchre had taken over and given such importance to the late antique tradition can be explained by the fact that the Christians made no real distinction between the circular rotunda and polygonal structures. went back to the origins of sepulchral architecture in many separate parts of the ancient world. A. whose churchmen. attached so much importance to the cosmological conception of God's universe as a domical house. R. Robert. 16-29. funereal rites. mundus. Zorah (Ezra) and Madaba. free-standing. of the & Warburg and Courtauld Institutes. v. 1942. heroon. 195) were looked. See pp. were all under the religious jurisdiction of the Church at Antioch. "Introduction to an Icon" ography of Mediaeval Architecture/ Journal 7 F. The evidence for restoring the fourth century rotunda over the tomb of Christ with a soaring and somewhat conoid dome i. the successive metropoies be given to the facts that Resafa. on the south side of a basilica church. has already been discussed. Circular The form of the circular rotunda Christians had taken over from the and much of its symbolic content. is one built by Justinian at Antioch 14 which was presumably domical." Internationale di archeologia cristiana. Since Butler suggested that there must have been an inner circle of columns to carry the dome. 158) and in the Detroit Institute of Arts 9 shows a rotunda with clerestory windows. In reviewing the evidence for probable Syrian domes should be mind that the only extant masonry dome. the Arab chronicler. Palas. Fisher. sumption that its presence was too well recognized to 2. Syria. fig. 4). 155). Among the many churches erected in honor of God after the middle of the fifth century. which Watzinger believes carried a Abel. Butler. which kept in at would have resulted span of about 6 m. has a diameter of 10 38. n. 1939. variant in S. 46).. 11 about 10.80 m. like those on the Palestinian reliquary (Fig." Atti del III Congresso F." mann. this circular church which has a diameter it is of 14. 526/7 (Fig. "An Echo of Early Christianity. the Mother of Antioch." It is impossible filled to deny the possibility of his assumption. S. In 943 Ma'udi. 1923. Denk. 10 Howard Butler. Magie and i64ff. 215-230. 17 iff. of the Archangels. "The Church t at Beisan. 177) and that 12 it had a conical roof of wood. i. which is on the sixth century church m. Buildings (Loeb). fig. Early Churches in Syria. has suggested that the columns formed an m interior square like the interior of two churches at Gerasa (Figs. 504. 1934.66 sive piers. JN 11 12 1924.D. require Eeisan (Beth Sean. Pennsylvania Museum Journal." which he considered proof of its having been "provided with a dome. 155. Church of the Virgin. B 95& '&& 112 > ll & LJtt Stuart. Lesley.04 m diameter. Inasmuch as the and the character of the debris span make it evident that the church must have had a wooden roof. " Procopius. 14). M. 169.CIRCULAR Dumbarton Oaks Collection (Fig. Watzinger. and was supported on mas- Kasr ibn-Wardan had a span of only 6. Another Colombano. n. or place of its because in the inscriptions referred to as an "oratory" 13 prayer. in. Celi. constructed largely of Roman materials. his plan has been modified in a domical it by the introduction of an interior colonnade. tion 1050. Any con- sideration of this question should take into account the fact that there are no Christian survivals in the Near East of conical roofs. B. we are brought back to the original question of the symbolic importance of the domical shape. 9 P. "Les figlises de Palestine recemment de"couvertes.. 4. inscrip- C. Bobbio (G. wooden dome. ancient Scythopolis). In describing the church Butler reported that interior was with debris consisting of "large masses of masonry in brick and mortar. Cimeli Bobbiesi. ibid. n x. A. except as coverings for domes. the only difference being that the heavenly dome over the rotunda was phials in the omitted on the ampulla because of the limitations of the circular space and the preinclusion. and no evi- dence that such a shape had any symbolic significance. 24. This fifth or sixth century circular church (Fig. 99 . C. The fallen columns of the interior indicate that - it must have had an inner circle of supports.95 m -> *s known to have been a martyrium (euxryptov). (Fig. 1935. 48). Princeton Univer- sity Archaeological Expeditions to Syria in " *94~5 ax& *$O9* n.. 13 Art Quarterly (Detroit Institute of Arts). Fa'lul "Built by the most glorious Diogenes" in 3. Abel. because masonry domes were beginning to be built at this time upon Syrian churches. on the contrary. but since their innermost preserved on their Interiors the shape of and in the other a arrangements of supports had in one Instance a quatrefoil plan square. the persistent association of the symbolic 20 The dome with octagonal martyria. Le i Strange. i. square and quatrefoil. 6 iff. were enlarged by additions into martyrium churches. B. interested In the mystical significance of numbers. after studying the stonework. At the same time. Grabar. 29-31. it was known to have had a gilded wooden dome In the sixth century prove that this commemorative martyrium. Antioch? Domus aurea. 29) and the fact that the fact. the 10 octagon in some cases was transformed into a cruciform church. like her (Fig. for Gregory of Nyssa describes an to the octagonal octagonal plan as forming "a circle with angles" and Arculph refers 17 church of the Ascension as a rotunda. baptisteries and tombs. fern*. Palestine under the Mosi. were usually domical rests upon no specific evidence for any one building. that we do not know of any such early structures which were certainly not domical. (Fig." Antike und Christentum. conclusions have been questioned by Lassus (Sanctnaires. and one of the 15 wonders of the world for the beauty of its construction and its height. polygon. 1 tomb at Jerusalem 61). 5. but there believe that many. J. 18 As certain early and venerated memorials which were originally mortuary types. and which cannot be disregarded. . Kratithelmer. they will be taken up later. however. developed symbolism for the octagon In whose shape they saw a correspondence to the number of salvation through death and the beginning of a new life. 368. These Dolger. Ideatlonally. 357-362. presumption that these octagonal memorials of the Christian faith." Bulletin d'etudes orientales de I' In* stitut frangais M. 53' 1 1S F. but upon the general pattern of Christian thought." Not only were the Arabs most inclined are reasons leading us to admire only the soaring. the cathedral at Bosra (Fig. Polygonal tomb-type taken over from the sepulchral and memorial architecture of the Romans. concluded that the four great naves may have been constructed after the octagon had been built around the Stylite. T Krautheimer. John the Baptist at Gerasa 169). Sanctuaire de Qal'at Sem'ta. "Le 1T de Damas. many of the early Christian to be essentially the a special theologians. like the rotunda. opdL 100 ^See pp. which he says "is a round church. 49). was Its domical from the time of erection In the fourth century. Grabar. for example.DOMICAL CHURCHES: MARTYRIA referred to the Kanisah Maryan. and the Tomb of the Virgin the. which had so much Inner meaning. In addition to these four the church of known circular churches. "Zur Symbolik des altchrist* lichen Taufhauses. 1936. which was the most famous church of Antioch. Mdrtyrium. domical churches. 1890. Ecochard. if not all. At KaFat Sim'an. tcochard. 21 lf 2t w G. opMt. the mortuary derivations and implications of the martyrium as a celestial home. of the martyrium-type churches to erected in honor of the Theotokos were domical. Martyrium. The mosaic representation (Fig. it was considered The polygonal martyrium was originally a same as the circular 16 rotunda. rotunda. vi. 141!. 129-132). . of Ant.111. . . Die Ge- burtskirche von Bethlehem. that Sophronlus. "The apsidal than Justinian." Quarterly DepL E. n. xvi. 1956. 2S M. 1920. The fact. 1941. 1941. 1936. which he restored with a pointed. 7-17. Hamilton. Wiegand. "Recent Discoveries . Richmond. xvn. Vincent. Abel. Schneider. subsequent rebuilding. dent. St. which Vincent has explained. exploratory excavations (Fig. Early Churches in Palestine. W. 66." Bymntion.AJ>. polygoctagonal chevet. 101 . tivitS . Rucker. In perhaps the only way possible. Bethlehem.. . 1933. xxxv.D. "Die Konstantlnische Geburtskirche von Bethlehem/* ZeiL d. Les glises de la Terre-Sainte." Bethlehem. of the of the Regarding the subsequent history of the church. a conoid and Syrian dome of wood has been added to Vincent's restoration (Fig. Church of the Nativity.POLYGONAL Bethlehem. Vincent and Abel. It is not clear whether the available evidence makes It impossible to assume that Constantine only authorized the construction of the commemorative octagon and that before the end of the century the prestige site had made It necessary to enlarge the accommodations by the addition rectangular west end. 1935. R. Palmstina-Ver- who would date the tri- Denk.D. Paldstina-Vereins. 1937. In view of the great of the site. 1914. 156) have proved that it was not an ordinary five-aisled basilica. Early Basilica at Bethlehem. Its function as a special kind of commemorative martyrlum is discussed by Grabar (Martyrium. 22fL. 1937. Vionnet.. 83-85:06 Vogut. Harvey and . xxxvni. l *l '> 72. idem. 120-123. 1919. Schultz (ed. 297-301. chevet earlier d. 193-212. . onal roof of wood.. Bethleem. QJ>. who became Patriarch of Jerusalem in 635 A.). "Bethlfem. 74-91. 602-605. "Excavations in the Atrium . M. Pal.. the original. "Zur BaugeseMcfate der Geburtskirche.' ZeiL eins. E.." Pal Expl Fund.88.n. 63. 1883. bibl. Crowfoot. xni. the form of sanctity a series martyrium the sanctuary proper and it is all that the necessary to assume that this domical shape meant to Christians and Syrians. but a commemorative monument of the central type with additional space for the throngs of worshippers In its basilica-like extension to the west. memorial over "the first manifestation of the Saviour 's presence" was distinguished by the recognized symbol of a divine and heavenly abode. Richmond. support the archaeological evidence In placing the reconstruction What is still troublesome in the theoretical history of the church are the fragments of curved walls found under the pavements of the north and south as an experltransepts. building had an about 18 m.b. the fire Patriarch of Alexandria. Therefore. . 1938. Quart. 28-33. 22 Conder and Kitchener. in the tenth century. the only reference which associates Justinian with the work Is a statement of Eutychios. .Dirf. 1915. Wiegand. 1938. Palas. 1935. i. R. Survey of Western Palestine. LXXXVII. 24 A. the Structural Survey of the Church of Nativity. fourth century. deut. Vincent. 22 necessary to accept the conclusions of Harvey. . refers to the church as tri-apsidal. Although too little is known about the church which Constantlne had built over the cave of the Nativity and in regard to its 6. however. Watzinger. 1860. in. W. Richmond and Vincent because the recent effort of Vionnet to resolve all the difficulties by having It is of pre-Constantinian structures completely disregards the architectural evidence. 1910. giff. would appear to in the sixth century. 544-574^ *937> 93* vi. 89-135 and XLVI.b*.. Lederq-Cabrol.). Harvey. "Les figlises de la Nattvlte i Bethl&m. 157). 1911. The Church of the Nativity at R. Unfortunately. 1-8. Oriens Christianus. W. 224238." Archaeologia. le sanctuaire de la Na. T. LXIV. 245!. R. Rev. 23 According to Vincent. it Is generally agreed that It was Justinian who had the church rebuilt with a tri-apsidal east end after It was seriously damaged by 2* during the Samaritan revolt In 529 A. In diameter. 1923. n} 360-419. 1898). In Capernaum there was discovered an octagonal church dating 2* from. G. 283-291. Tell Hum. a devout Roman with walls 2. this partial destruction by of Olives was rebuilt by the Mount of Imboman on martyrium its m. Martyrium. m. and Amida (Fig. which had an inner ring of twelve columns with roofing span of 20. Resafa (Fig. Paldstinajahrbuch. Dalman. It had an inner circle of columns with a diameter of 8. 9. and Orte und Wege Jesu. 105. a very beautiful cupola-shaped building. 25 After Modestus and according to Arculph. 26 Vincent and Abel. Jerusalem. century and that at Gaza. 159). because it had been built "after the like- need to argue in a circle Church of the Resurrection/' It is clear that the interior with a span of 68 feet could not have supported a masonry dome upon its light colonnade of twelve columns. It has been suggested by Dalman that it was a memorial chapel of the Conies Joseph of Tiberius and hence stood in the same relation to the palace tian's tomb at Spalato and the Domus aurea at Antloch. as he did the Holy Sepulchre. In his plan this with its shallow curved walls is architecturally unconvincing. 1 922-23. Taf. 182). to its original form. Grabar.10 m. Pudentiana. it must have had rectangular corners and been the outer ambulatory of a cruciform and trefoil interior such as is seen in the plans of the trefoil was started under Justinian and then abandoned.30 m.. i$$L. Church of the Ascension.. 413. like the building in the mosaic of S. n. Jerusalem. C. as did Diocle- HierapoliSj martyrium? The ruined octagon (Fig. 185).. this renowned church was then domical like the church of Stephen y. it would help to explain the popuand other regions of the tri-apsidal type of cruciform and domical larity in Egypt church to assume that the first tri-apsidal rebuilding of the east end took place in the fifth S. iv/*.. thick a and with a diameter of 41. He writes: "Cuius videlicet rotundae ecclesiae interior 38 domus sine tecto et sine camera ad caelum sub acre nudo aperta that "on the place patet. Built shortly before 378 A. H." Although it has usually been restored with a polygonal roof. 246. Itinem (P.95 lady.dt. 413. (Mali.DOMICAL CHURCHES: MARTYRIA mental trefoil that experimental If such a plan was contemplated. which Koethe has shown was undoubtedly influenced by the "mausoleum of Constantine. op.D.L.D. the evidence shows that it 27 had a cupola after the seventh century.80 commemorative the Persians in 614 A.S. its roof had an oculus. 15 if. 102 . DmL Palas." Also in the seventh century the Armenian account records of the Ascension is erected. If martyria of Seleucia Pieria (Fig.E. xvm-xix. i. Arculphus. H. there is no and insist that it originally had a wooden dome. open at the top. 184) the evidence of the limited excavations permitted. Hence the assumption that it had a Syrian wooden dome open at the top. Itinera Hierosolymitana. which Watzinger believes was covered with a wooden dome. 100 ells in width. 64!. zinger. 1921. Watss " Vincent and xxxvm. about the middle of the fourth century. Capharnaum. after the likeness of the Church of the Resurrection. ness of the 8.. who made a plan of it as if it were a circular rotunda." was built sometime early in the fifth century and was probably a 28 Vincent and Abel. by Poemenia.cit. Geyer. op. open to the sky. this Since it must be assumed that the ardent Modestus restored monument. 82) with its large rectangular niches. Abel. the church was octagonal (Fig. Forschungen u. was domical like her tomb and the many later churches dedicated to her. 1928. 7. but because the Virgin. Tomb of the Virgin. Palas. which was perhaps the first in a series of martyrium churches erected to the Mother of God. dedicated to Abraham the Friend. . 134. (Fig. 67. i. "Das Konstantinsmausoleum Jahrb. Kleinasien. Deutschtum . it around it to protect Garizim by Zeno and how Justinian built fortifrom the Samaritans. 85 De Vogue. It was originally a 31 but is now a Mashhad. this octagonal sanctuary had an interior span of 13 m. is Garizim. supported by sixteen columns of granite and marble. Dmk. Inst. Church of the Theotokos. 150. v... 34 Presumably this octagonal structure. 103 . trans. Procopius tells of the building summit of Mt. was honored in her quality of the Theotokos with sanctuaries of martyrit ium 33 type. does not mean that it may not also have 12. which Koethe uses. 198. Grabar. xxm-xxrv. Palestine under the Moslems. land.D. 83ff. "Les eglises de Palestine recemment decouvertes. Built by the Emperor Zeno about 484 A. 153. Ausp. und verwandte Denkmaler. There would have been no overhang of a dome necessity for these colonnettes if had had a polygonal roof. Abb. sepulchral monument. 149. Fortschritte. Abel. 184190. The fact that recent excavations have shown that this fifth century building... show that its massive walls must have been covered with a masonry dome. 325-536. vii. Watzinger. 805-831. Khitro). B. pis. Hegoumene Russe. for their location at the eight angles at the corners. 33 s* consecree a la assomption de la sainte Vierge ("Vie et pelerinage de Daniel. 1930. The octagonal memorial to the Virgin (Fig. was built around the middle of the fifth 30 century and had an interior colonnade with a diameter of 9 m. 329. 7. 37. has a span of about 14. 6. Its octagon (Fig.78 m. H. These dimensions." Itineraires Russe en Orient. 162). A.* Atti del III Condi archaealogia cristiana. after the Council of Ephesus. 30 Vincent and Abel. 29 Its restudied plan and proposed restoration by Krencker. was a baptistery with its font in one of the apsidioles. the great height of the interior and the presence of bracket columns at the clerestory level to carry the roofing timbers as a 35 all prove that that they it must have had it a wooden roof. or church. 210. Early Churches estine. constructed in the imperial tradition. Since it was a 10. Sim' an. Welter.. Crowfoot. Procopius (Buildings. 17). oratory. d. Baptistery. built throughout his of this church on the fications In addition to referring to the seventeen churches which Justinian had empire in honor of the Virgin. Architecture and Other Arts. 50 iL. Butler." arch. Abb. so well preserved up to the top of its drum. it must have continued the Roman tradition and been covered with a dome. Strzy- gowski. 32 It was a martyrium and place of pilgrimage not only because possessed a relic of the rock of Calvary. set into a rectangular exterior. Jerusalem. by Mme. xcin. Schneider. 160) and an ambulatory divided into chapels. as it was in the Islamic period when 'AH of Herat described it: "The dome 11. Martyrium. Jerusalem. the roof was presumably always made of wood because in the twelfth century Daniel says. 1933. Koethe. 161).POLYGONAL niartyrium built in honor of the Apostle Philippus and his daughter. "Une grande eglise a toiture en charpente. M. 31 Le Strange. n. Syrie centrale. gresso internazionale in Pal1934. Loeb. show 29 were intended to carry the interior 32 H. 1106-1 107. Kal'at been used martyrium. dent. XLVIII. its mortuary implications. pi. perhaps. 226. Tyre. v. De Vogfi. (Fig. f. This small hexagonal baptistery uncertain date was published by De Vogue and can only be assumed to have been domical for the same reasons as the other exceptional baptistery at KaFat Sim'an. Mausoleen. Lassus. Journal of th e Warburg and Courtauld Institutes. was much more than a matter of similarity of forms. 37 As a result. "NymphSaen. Sanctuaires. John the Baptist?) and the "Theotokos naos at Tyre. Martyrium." The earliest baptisteries. 167. the visible promise of eternal happiness and salvation in the heavenly domus of Christ. 27. Why the age came to see in the domical baptistery. Rep. In fact. 10. Grabar.ciL. or martyrium. usually with a small apse in which the font was placed. Kunstwiss. 133. All the evidence at present indicates that the central and domical baptistery. at an early but origins baptisteries date. based upon It the Early Christian relation between the baptistery and the tomb. The ideational and structural relation with its sepulchral between the baptistery and the polygonal martyrium. evolved a complicated symbolism wherein purification by water was linked with the death of the Old Adam. who said. op. - Syrie centrale. were neither circular nor polygonal. Church of the Theotokos." 41 ** Krautheimer. Basil.DOMICAL CHURCHES: MARTYRIA The most compelling reasons for assuming that it had a celestial dome are symbolic ones. chtiectura. 117. 104 . not only were burials frequently made in baptisteries. Syria. ill. the martyrdom and resurrection of Christ and salva33 tion by death. from 36 mausolea and not from the pagan baths. Styger. 50!. type and location of baptisteries and. Baptistery. is made evident by the words of S. Nestorians and orthodox in the Patriarchate of Antioch resulted in some serious disagreements regard89 ing the number. continued to use the primitive type which was usually a chapel connected with the southeast comer of a church. Watzinger. the burial of Christ" and by "being buried with Him by baptism. took shape in Italy. Syria and the is but there the probability that it Holy Sepulchre which initiated the domical form. 79. 132. 163) of Der Seta. *9 Lassus. Lassus's study of Syrian baptisteries shows how the violent controversies between the Monophysites. 40 first 14.. 56-57. through baptism. East. 39 2 * 445' etc 38 Birnbaum. Krautheimer. 155!. During the Early Christian period. their use as martyria. P. was the Constantinian baptistery of the with two notable exceptions. Butler. common upon baptisteries in other parts of the Mediterranean. 1942. 28) to an octagonal sanctuary at Alexandria (Martyrium of S. probably in the Lateran and then in the fifth century began to spread to Ravenna. op.. and hence its mortuary. 20-27. has already been made clear that the central-type baptistery derived the Roman its shape. It may have been this religious conflict which explains the appearance of the polyg- onal baptisteries of Kal'at Sim'an and Der Seta at a time when the symbolic dome was becoming 13. were also used as martyria. ''By imitating. as it had in the domical martyrium. cosmic and heavenly dome. A scholion in the text of Gregory of Nazi- anzns compares his octagonal martyrium (Fig. Early Churches in Syria. however. xxxvi. Christian thought. See pp. 217-22 8. 192 n. ST Baptisterien/* Arit I. polygonal and connotations. with baptistery. however. Sanctuaires. Instead they were small rectangular chambers. 1913.cit. 1933. 47 Grabar. 1901. 15. De Vogiie. ^ogf. 151. The sanctuary reconstructed out of the pagan forecourt may have been dedicated to the Virgin because there are references to such a rebuilding and dedication having taken place in 43 A. The or martyrium. Sanctuaires. 86) standing dome in either Syria or Palestine before the tomb of Bizzos (Figs. which was a kind of monumental baldachin and comparable to the domical ciborium over the symbolic altar tomb of Christ. suggested by Butler. 11. the type must have been common some its time before the end of the Early Christian period in order to explain widespread and persistent popularity as a heavenly abode among the Arabs. 75. there is every reason to believe that it was also a late antique tomb-type. Syrie centrale. and golden dome of wood had been carried off in 69 1 A.D. Mir' ay eh. 18. 164). ix.D. published by De Vogiie and dated by Butler in the sixth century. 179) 44 See p. 101. 145!. Between the fourth and it sixth centuries and Kharga. Butler.. Instead. (Figs. George. B ? 70. 59-61). and in the process given the mystic meaning of a cosmic house. 525 be rebuilt on the Sakra Midjleyya.D. 4. taken over by the Christians for their mortuary chapels. pi. 17. But- Churches. 16 (ed Chabot. such as Strzygowski endeavored to establish by comparisons with the later domical architecture of Central Asia. Zofah 45 (Ezra). which must be later than the middle of the fifth century when the Virgin was honored with the title of the Mother of God. Michael the Syrian. Martyrium. by Caliph al-Walid at The possibility that the 42 Jerusalem has been discussed.. Syria. does not allow us to attach much importance to this particular sanctuary in relation to the other domical built in honor of the martyria Virgin. domical martyrium. which has an interior span of 10. Square The square. Although there are no extant examples of the square tomb with a freein Egypt at became common Bagawat (Fig. The domical history of this 50-53). Early Churches. Lassus. 45 46 Devreesse. ill. were too deeply buried by debris to be seen. This octagon chapel (Fig. 41. 515 A. rnartyrium discussed. are conjectural because the interior supports. 165). Early and Ps-Zacharia. was not open as De Vogiie suggested: the fragments seen by Butler show that "the interior octagon was carried up in a clerestory and was 44 roofed in wood. Icr. 63. while in Syria its resemblance to the native qubab huts undoubtedly gave it an additional 47 significance." 16. 192. Le Patriarcat d'Antioche. Sanctuaires. was in no sense derived from a hypothetical Iranian structure with a brick dome. Lassus. Martyrium of S. i.15 m. 46 C. Ba'albek. at Heliopolis that to its hexagonal forecourt of the pagan temple had been roofed over by the Christians and used as a sanctuary. 49. vm.SQUARE The uncertainty of the date of the annotation. Through the Islamic period and down to the present the 42 4S See p. n. has already been interior dimensions of this small octagonal chapel (Fig. 77-87. 105 . has been and has continued to resemble the fifth century tomb domical tomb chapel was Introduced into Syria by it a mortuary of Bizzos. "Die kirchenbauten Jerusavlertera Jahrhundert In bildlicher N. Pudentiana and assumed that the cross stood unthat there was an ecclesia Ibid. Even if the use as common the Christians it was so similar to the native dwellings (Fig. 191 1. 52 they accepted the doubtful evidence of the mosaic of S." Oriens christianus. 19. 84). John at Ephesus (Fig.." While Vincent and Abel admitted that the cross of Theodosius on the site not refuted the arguments of Stegensek from the time of Constantine. 1931. Beiblatt. 185!. 47. Hagia Sophia. Holy Calvary. it is possible that S. 92). going The were believed to symbolize the four parts of the universe. Babylas at Kaoussie-Antioch (Fig. presumably of wood. for example. this one monument might well have popularized this type of memorial and its symbolical purpose. Jerusalem. dL osier. Edessa. 51 Vincent and Abel. The highly imaginative way In which the Syrians looked upon this form of domical sanctuary as a cosmic replica of the universe and a mystic manifestation of divine presence is clearly shown tomb structure. 106 . whose early dome. arch. 126) and the pagan kalube (Fig. became and remained a popular type of mortuary not. 50 Before the significance of this Mesopotamian church can be evaluated in relation to the Orient oder Rom controversy. domical 49 by "exedras" Into a cruciform church. 359-360. See p. i. $57ff. such shrine of the as the tomb of Rachel (Fig. In describing the church the Syrian hymn refers not only to Its starry vault but makes it clear that its four sides rebuilding of this square church under Justinian was an effort to preserve the shape of an earlier structure. Martyrium. with a masonry dome back to 313 A. 154. i. the fifth century square memorial over the tomb crypt of S. which presumably had a wooden dome. 48 The plan of this first. established the precedent for the two later enlargements and rebuildings as a cruciform and domical martyrium church.. It Is now reasonable to suppose that In Asia Minor. a Syrian hymn describing the square and domical church of Hagia Sophia at Edessa. 83) was originally a monumental domical ciborium. Darstellung. 20..DOMICAL CHURCHES: MARTYRIA domical well. enlarged by the Sougitha. 90. J. the celestial baetyl at Emesa (Fig. xxvii. It should be recalled that Edessa was under the Patriarch of Antioch and was closely linked by religion and trade to the capital of Syria. 120) that shrine.D. however. Kiel. 49 5* may have stood under a ciborium51 and have M. InsL. 2 8off.. square martyrium should have the two undiscovered bases of the inner ciborium so placed that the sepulchral tegurium covered the relics. Jakresh. There has been much dispute about the architectural form of the chapel which stood on the "Tomb of mount called "Holy Calvary/* "Holy Golgotha" and the Adam. fig. leras ixn Stegensek. Jerusalem. According to Grabar s theory that many Eastern churches were an enlargement by additions to an earlier martyrium. limited to The adoption of this type of martyrium was any one Christian region. 170) was at first a square.S. n. Grabar. If there was a domical sanctuary over the golden cross on Calvary In the paradisus between the Holy Sepulchre and the Martyrium. George. 434/4. conoid dome whose bands suggest tion and resemble the symbolic representation of Jerusalem (Fig. (Fig. Finished in 531 A.D. or exedra. M H. the mortuary implications of the domical ciborium and the fact that the martyrium of S. The border of Apostle heads and stars shows that the cross was a still visualized as Christ in his celestial abode. 137. 56 The lightness of the supports and the absence certain. 166) the cross is depicted under what appears to be a ciborium. 2. of vaulting debris in the middle of the church make its wooden construction 22. 226. 169) was a martyrium. Vincent and Abel. consisting of four columns which sup- ported the central roof..D. or meant only an exedra." 53 Regardless of whether esca was an abbreviation of ecclesia. pi. Art examQuarterly. The ibi reliable Anonymous in the sixth century wrote (Codex Sangallensis). the tradition of a circular rotunda within is its square exterior. An inscription of 323 or 368 A. as does the cathedral at Bosra.. construc- Once the the cruciform symbol of Christ is visualized in a tomb chapel. on several Palestinian ampullae (Fig. 1939. 8) because he mistook 107 . 54 Celi. Marc le Diacre. Early Churches in Palestine. this church (Fig. Itmera Hierosolymitana. it is easy to see how shape and memorial strengthened the old legend. John the Baptist at Alexandria. which discovered on the lintel of the pagan kalube (Fig.SQUARE covered In the atrium with only a small chapel. In addition to the difficulty of believing that a golden cross of such sanctity stood exposed at all times and in all kinds of weather. While it preserves. Gerasa. was also the tomb and ancestral abode of Adam. 30) on the mosaics at Gerasa. fig. which shows the jeweled cross on its mount and in a rectangular chapel surmounted by a pointed. Crowfoot. n. 9. like a qubab hut. 96. fig. Lesley. which was a late antique method of representing a 54 heavenly covering. behind it. wood 15). associations of this type of 21. Vie de Porphyre. its specific memorial form like a monumental ciborium at the center. Martyrium of S. 167) are the The reasons for restoring the central roof as a wooden dome memorial character of the building. Gregoire and Kugener. et in circuitu montis sunt cancella de argento et ibi est esca ubi fuit ressucitatus per quam crux Christi declarata et ipsa crux est de auro et gemmas ornata et caelum de super aureum et deforas habet cancellum. which was so commonly believed in the East from as early as the fourth century. fig. Monza phials I bepies of this scene on the lieve are drawn incorrectly by Garrucci (Storia. S. as is indicated by its dedication. refers to the building as the was Geyer. John the Baptist. It may be that we have more accurate reproduction of Holy Calvary on the sixth century mosaic (Fig. central plan and its location in relation 55 to two flanking basilicas. 1880. 215. "Et est mentis Calvariae ubi crucifixus Dominus fuit. Shakka. Cimeli Bobbiesi. 19. 122). dome over the Moreover. there it is rather specific evidence to show that in the fifth and sixth centuries same as was in a square and domical chapel which was essentially the the one built by Modestus after 614. is pictured with a cupola (Fig. n. that the Holy Calvary. caelum aureum must refer to the golden and heavenly cross. ig^fL. 168) in Hagia Sophia at Constantinople. vi. which was a rebuilding of the domical Serapeion. tlie two 53 the 65 conventional serration of the arcii of heaven for a wreath. DOMICAL CHURCHES: MARTYRIA 57 oecus "of the Holy Victorious Martyrs Georgios and the Saints with him." In addition to this evidence that the domical kalube had become a martyrium in the fourth century, De Vogue found that the Christian altar had been located directly under the center of the dome. D. Cruciform The cruciform plan had a long history in pagan sepulchral architecture before its 58 evident symbolism led to its adoption as a martyrium. Proof that the dome was of the Capella del Crocitomb the Roman associated with it is furnished already by fisso 1 (Fig. 171) at Cassino, which has a somewhat conoid-shaped vault of cut 59 stone, 0.45 m. in diameter, over the intersection of the four arms. it The sculptural character of the stonework shows that was not an experimental innovation. By the second or third century the cruciform tomb with a domical vault over the crossing (Figs. tombs with 78, 80) had become common in Palestine, and in the Christian period cruciform interiors were not uncommon to its them (Figs. 59, 81) are known in northern Syria, although only two of have been covered with a dome. prestige after the construction of the to the evidence As a martyrium the plan acquired church of the Holy Apostles by Cons tan tius. In addition 60 which at least indi- cates that this fourth century martyrium, connected with the tomb of Constantine, had a wooden dome over S. it and the martyrium of Ephesus were rebuilt by Justinian with masonry domes is a very strong indication that the symbolic dome was already associated not only with these two its crossing, the very fact that John at martyria, but with all cruciform martyria. This assumption at is is further strengthened by the fourth century martyrium domical. the Nyssa (Fig. 27), which known to have been By fifth century the essential relation between cruciform plan and S. dome is proved by the crypt of Demetrios as a receptacle of the relics, where a domical tegurium, stands in the center of the cruciform chapel, by the domical at Saloniki (Fig. 69), and cruciform martyrium of the church at Ilissos, 81 and by the martyrium at Casaranello (Fig. 72), which has preserved its original dome (Fig. 71) decorated with a cross in a field of stars. 62 with its heavenly dome, In the same century the tomb of Galla Placidia (Fig. 73), is further confirmation of this symbolic relation, while the sixth century is Justinian's cruciform mausoleum in proof of its established the Christians, as early as the fourth century, were prestige. fully aware of the inherent symbolism of the cruciform plan is evident from the references of That Gregory of Nazianzus to the church of the Holy Apostles*3 and from the inscription of S. Ambrose 8f in his cruciform church of the Holy Apostles at Milan, which read, Syrie central*, 43; Butler, Early Forma De Vogu6, m See p. 33. Churches, 249, i, 152. Ibid., 167 n. 2; C. Ceccfaelli, "Sgtiardo generale all' architettura bizantina in Italia/* *Grabar, Martyrium, s "Sotiriou, 'Aft. 'E, 1919, 1-31. 2 R, Bartoccini, "Casaranello e i suoi said/* Felix Ravenna, XLHI, 1954, 1578., (plan), fig. mo6 fig. 19 (dome). i, Studi byzantini e neoelUnici, iv, 1955, 3-64. Grabar, Martyrium, 152-153. 108 CRUCIFORM crucis templum est, templum victoria Christi sacra triumphalis signal Moreover, that the domical tomb was also a 64 imago locum. symbol of His triumph should not be overlooked in visualizing the form of these destroyed cruciform martyria. S. at Kaoussie. The 23. Antioch, Martyrium of Babylas report upon this church, uncovered by the Princeton excavations of 1935, was published by J. Lassus, and its Identification as the In 250 A.D. to a 65 Sabylas by G. Downey. The saint was martyred and his remains, after being buried for a time In Antioch, were removed martyrium of S. martyrium at Daphne and then brought back to Antioch where they were enshrined in his church at Kaoussie, "beyond the river." Inscriptions state that it was A.D. Since it was bulk by Bishop Meletius, who died in 381 and completed by 387 whose body was buried as Downey a "fellow-lodger" with the remains of S. Babylas, it follows, pointed out, that the edifice "must have been well on the way towards as completion before the burial could have taken place/' The central square (Fig. 170), which was the actual sanctuary and perhaps built first as Grabar has suggested, Is 16.60 m. on a side with an Interior span of about 13 m., and and varying In thickness to 1.90 m. The absence of any 1.58 vaulting materials In the debris means that it must have had a wooden roof, as did the four naves which were undivided by columns and had walls only 0.70 m. thick. The church was entered at the western to 4.78 consists of four large piers, 4.50 m. m. on a side from m. end and in the eastern nave were found several burials and no Indication of either an altar or chancel. The fact that all four naves are at a lower level than the crossing and that Inscriptions refer to them as exedras show that the square crossing was the sanctuary and that the arms were built, or added on, In order to provide space for those who flocked to the shrine and those who desired to be burled ad sanctos. A large central platform with a semicircular west end was uncovered in the middle located the altar will be of the crossing. Its function as a high place upon which was discussed with the other Syrian examples of the central bema In the chapter on "The Place of Commemoration/' Also in the crossing, but in the northwest comer, was discovered the double sarcophagus containing the remains of Bishop Meletius and the relics of S. Babylas. The reference of S. Chrysostom to this double burial shows how upon this tomb chapel as a monumental ciborium and cosmic dwelling. It was no empty figure of speech when S. Chrysostom described the two inmates of the tomb as "tent mates" (ofiooTojros).** Most churchmen accepted both the age looked the authority of Isaiah, who said that God "established heaven as a vaulted chamber and stretched it out as a tent to dwell in," and the Hebrew tradition of the tabernacle, or tent of Moses, being a replica of the world. As a result, many theologians conceived of God's universal house, its domelike celestial roof and the salvational abode of martyrs as like a tent. Skene, therefore, in this cosmic for e4 65 and mystic sense was used dome, or heavenly covering, In much the same way that Romans, Christians and xi, Cabrol, Diet., "Milan,** col. 1000. tes t n, 1958, 5-48; La&sus, Sanctuaires chreticms Lassus, "L'glise cruciforme de Kaoussie," and G. Downey, "The Shrines of St. Babylas at Antioch and Daphne/' Antioch-on-the-Oron- en Syrie, 123-128. M Downey, opxiL, 46 n. 10. 109 DOMICAL CHURCHES: MARTYRIA Arabs used tegurium, kalube, maphalia and kubba to designate an Ideal and heavenly dwelling in a blessed hereafter. A somewhat similar usage presumably went back which was synonymous with Also a Roman variant of the same imagery has already been seen In the tholos. tomb of M. Clodius Hermes (Fig. 68) where a heavenly tent, with a crowd watching 8 the transformation, was painted on the ceiling/ That the idea of referring to a double to the early 67 Greek use of skene, as a rustic shelter, interment as "tent life of mates" was not peculiar to Theodosius, a holy man dosius died he was buried with Aphraates in the same skene doret in his oftoppo^tos) indicating again that skene was a celestial abode. 69 Chrysostom, is proved by Theoof Antioch, for he says that when TheoS. (Q^OO-KTJPO^ re KO! are brought back to the original question of restoring the shape of the roof over the center of this martyrium. In view of all that By a devious and cosmic route we long association with the tomb, it is Impossible to imagine that the square sanctuary of S. Babylas was open as has been suggested, 70 or that It was covered with a pyramidal roof of wood like so many the to dome had come mean to the Christians, and its 1 Syrian tombs/ Not only Is it difficult to believe that the Christians would have taken over the pyramid with Its specific sun symbolism for a martyrium, but there are no monuments, Early (Fig. 73) Christian, Byzantine or Islamic tradition, for the pyramidal roofs in Italy, which preserved any pyramidal such as on the tomb of Galla Placldia and in Armenia, were to protect an Interior dome. At every point where we can get behind the veil which separates us from Early Christian imagery we find evidence of the mystic habit of looking upon the domical shape as the shepherd's hut, a cosmic skene, imperial baldachin and ancestral dwelling, like the Syrian qubab. Therefore, It is necessary to restore the martyrium of S. Babylas with a gilded wooden dome 24. of conoid shape. Gaza, Eudoxiana. The probability that the cruciform church, built in 407 to replace the pagan Marneion, was domical has already significant that It been discussed. 72 It is perhaps was constructed by an Antiochene architect S. who undoubtedly knew the martyrium of Babylas. 25. Sichem. Arculph in the seventh century left a sketch (Fig, 172) of the cruciform church over the well of Jacob. 73 It has been suggested by Grabar that the original martyrium was a square structure, similar to the crossing of S. Babylas and the first F. Robert, ThymeU, 19,39, 96; wp?J was normally applied to rustic constructions of wood, but the terms erfAo? and SJCKK were applied synonymously to rotundas, which all had a religious, memorial and at times mortuary 61 Krauthefraer, Riv. di arch, p. 356. cris., xvi, 1939, Lassus, Antioch-an-the-Orontes, n, 34. 72 T3 function. De 143; F. See pp. 15, 39-40. Geyer, Itinera Hierosol, 271; Arculphus, hcis sanctis, n, cap. 21, De Puteo Samariae *P. Marconi, La 105, fig. mi, 1934, 190, mmti cristiano 184!., Romani, 1929, Wirth, Romisckc WandmalCecchelli, Montipi 50; Pittura del (Migne, PJL, LXXXVIH, 802); H. Graf, "Herr Professor . C Dehio und meine 'Neuen Beitrage 9 .. ,"'Rep.f. Kunstwiss.,xvii 1894, 128; Abel, et Teglise Saint-Sauveur," . . . eretici di Roma, 1944, "Le Puits de Jacob tyriwn, i, pi xxxii. Rev. bibl, xui, 1933, 384-402; Grabar, Mar78, 1555. *Theodoret, Relig. Hist, x, P.G., LXXXII, 1893- 110 INSCRIBED CRUCIFORM Ephesus (Fig. 83), which was like a great domical and heavenly ciborium over the Fountain of Life, before it was extended into a cruciform plan to provide space in the arms for the pilgrims who gathered there. In the fourth martyrium of S. John at century Aetheria mentions another sanctuary, near Charra, which was over another well of Jacob and may have been cruciform/ 4 26. Kal'at Sim'dn, Church of S. Simeon Stylites. The reasons advanced by Grabar ) for considering this famous pilgrim church, built between 460 and 4go a martyrium, and the evidence found by Krencker for restoring it with a wooden dome (Figs. 32, 5 36) over the central octagon have been discussed/ 27. Mt. Admirable, Church of S. Simeon Stylites the Younger. If it is necessary to it believe that the great cruciform church at Kai'at Sim'an had a wooden dome, follows that the cruciform church of the younger Stylites (Fig. 173) built somewhat later near Antioch, had a similar dome over its crossing, for its octagonal crossing, only 6 8.50 m. on a side, would have been much easier to cover/ 28. Jerusalem. a 7 The Anonymous mentions over the crossing of its a basilica in cruce posita have had (Fig. dome 43)/ This may nave and transepts as have been the church of the Temptation at Siloh." which may does the Aksa mosque Gaza, S. Sergius. There is no question but that the church described by Choricius of Gaza was cruciform and surmounted by an imposing dome at the cross29. ing. fifth There still remains the question of whether it was a sixth century building or the 9 century Eudoxiana/ E. Inscribed It is Cruciform domical and no longer possible to entertain the Strzygowskian theory that the inscribed cruciform plan, which became so common in Byzantine architecture, had an Armenian of origin. Not only was this type of 80 plan used in the sepulchral architecture the Augustan period, but it had become fully established in Palestine and Syria in the Roman period. Palestinian examples of it have been seen as early as Rome in the pagan tombs of Amman (Fig. 78) and Kades (Fig. 80). The most is developed the second Roman example, however, of the inscribed cruciform plan in Syria century Tychaion at Mismiyeh (Fig. 174) which, like the domical kahibe at Shakka, was converted into a Christian church. 81 While there is much uncertainty regarding the form and construction of the roof over this it now totally so destroyed pagan sanctuary, presumably had a kind of dome, perhaps a 74 75 cloister vault, over its central crossing. Peregrinatio See p. 34. P. (Gcyer, op.cit. 9 68). Grabar, Martyrium, i, 170-175; in addition 76 Mecerian, Comptes rendus de Icochard, Bulletin f l Ac. Inscr., 1936, 205; d* etudes vi, tombs as those of the Seralil (Rivoira, Architettura romana* fig. 9) and Priscilla (i&idL, he cites many examples drawn by Renfig. 125) to such orientales de VInstitut franfais de fig. 14, 77 Damas, aissance architects; Lassus, SanctaazYis, iso, for Syrian tombs, 81 116- p. 88; Lassus, Sanctuaires, ijsff., fig. 55. Breviarias de Hierosolyma (Geyer, op.cit., 155); Grabar, 7* 155. Martyrium, Vincent and Abel, Jerusalem, n, 844. i, central^ pi 7; Weigand, zur AltertumswissmStudien Wurzburgsr schaft, xm, 1938; A. S. Keck, 'The Tycliaion De Vogte, Syne 79 ee 2^ Ill of Phaena-Mismiyeti/' AJJi. f XLV, 1941, 97. Since it occurs at Gerasa in the fifth century and became common in Syria during the sixth century. *Apx- AcXr^xn. Its cruciform piers. 83 8 between 82 s5 5iff. 57. and elongated domes over the rectangular side-chambers are all important to the development of domical architecture. will be presented domical martyria.D.80 m. Grabar.. shallow domes at the four corners of the inscribed cross. perhaps P.. 175). A. Resafa. was. which had a span of 8. "Grave Church. Lauer. relics. fig. all more or less directly influenced by the the crossing. . 164. Crowfoot. 153. fig. Martyrium. 180. 369. suggest that it was already well known. i42ff. 85. 1929. It was rather tentatively suggested by Crowfoot that the crossing and four square corners may have been covered with wooden cupolas. because no remains of were found in the ruins and. plan xo. There is no need to repeat the reasons why it is necessary to restore cruciform churches like this one. because the columnar sup- church of the Holy Apostles at Constantinople. which has a dome over the Grabar has suggested. it might be added. is the first to be considered. 44). which 86 there are ideological reasons for assuming depicts a church with domical towers. 8. 164. Le Palais de Latran. which had become the actual reliquary chapels after the martyria were used as regular churches and the basilicas acquired sacred 31. and uncovered by the Yale excavations. It has been dated in the later part of the sixth century.DOMICAL CHURCHES: MARTYRIA The earliest known Christian use of this type of plan (461-468 A. "The Christian Churches." Ge(ed. prior to its Lateran at Rome. fig* *Ibid.. foot. Not only did many of the later Syrian churches have towers located at the four corners flanking the apse and western entrance. Quite apart from the mosaic of Khirbat Mukhayyat (Fig. CrowChurches in Palestine. Kraeling). The so-called "Grave Church. Martyrium.. 82 This oratory and the fact that the type penetrated the Balkans during the fifth century. Church of the Prophets. originally associated with the martyrium proper. was connected with the is Serbia83 and for the martyrium of Zacharius at Saloniki. 1911. that the four corners had wooden cupolas. but oratories and relics were located in their chambers. as acquired its prestige from having been an established type of sanctuary in either Syria or Palestine. may the possibility that the domical cruciform have had its prototype in one of the unknown is Gerasa. because it has the plan of an inscribed cross (Fig.D. rasa 86 Grabar. In the next chapter it will be shown how the domical symbolism. where it was used for the church of Tsaritchin Grad in Hilarius the mortuary chapel of destruction. go. there plan inscribed in a rectangle martyria of Antioch. los. If the little-known martyrium at Saloniki. Apostles and Martyrs. 177) had some form of wooden roof over masonry 85 ports were not adequate to carry a vaulted clerestory. i. 85*!. Early Xyngopou112 See p. i. 176)." lying outside the walls in the cemetery area. was gradually extended to the side-chambers." There are three buildings at Resafa. which. conas trary to previous reconstructions. 256-260. the church (Fig. 84 "a Balkan reflection of a Palestinian cult which had spread to the West and as far as Ravenna in the fifth century/' then it crossing.) which. with a wooden dome over the center (Fig. Built in 464/5 A. INSCRIBED CRUCIFORM 569 and 582 A.D. When published by Sarre and Herzfeld and later restudied by Spanner and Guyer, it was restored without any clerestory and with a squat, pyramidal roof of wood over the central 87 square, which has a width of 640 m, The only reason for this restoration was the absence of any indications o a masonry clerestory in the debris, dome and date and the recent theory of Sauvaget that it was not a church but an audience hall of Aiamounderos, a chieftain of the Ghassanids between 569 and 582 A.D., are based upon a crude Greek which its Both inscription Macridy Bey saw inscribed upon 88 the exterior of the It apse. is difficult to believe that a chieftain of nomadic Christians, accustomed to living in tents, would have built a structure of this kind in a cemetery in order to hold court at the few times when the tribesmen at gathered Sergiopolis to observe the festivals of it is S. Sergius. While Aiamounderos had his name inscribed on the sanctuary, most unlikely that he would have been satisfied with such a brief and curiously located inscription, if he had built the edifice for himself erection as a martyrium. executed stonework of Syrian character shows that the masons were working with customary forms and were not introducing flat, handkerchief domes over the corners and developing curiously elongated domes over the rectangular side-chambers either as experimental innovations or for merely utilitarian reasons. Both a structural and symbolic domical tradition lay behind their adoption here. Structurally, Syrian workmen were accustomed to fit small, cut-stone domes onto its or contributed to The finely square bays. Since Resafa lay on the direct trade route to the capital, and its churches were under the Patriarch of Antioch, there are strong reasons to believe that the work was done under the supervision of Antiochene builders and that there was a religious, Syrian precedent for the use of 89 domical coverings over the corners and side- chambers, just as there was for restoring the central square with a symbolic dome of wood. In fact, it is not outside the realm of probability that the prototype for this church was one of the many martyria at Antioch. 32. Zor'ah (Ezra), 90 A.D., has a cruciform plan tangle. The inscription is dated 542 with the western (Fig. 54) only angles brought to a reccrossing, 6.65 m. E-W by 6.20 m. N-S, is today covered with a modern S. Elias. The martyrium, which by an wooden dome sheathed be domical as it is at in zinc (Fig. 56). it is The church was undoubtedly intended to it present; but impossible to agree with Lassus that did not originally have a wooden dome because wood was too scarce. In view of all the evidence for the Syrian use of the wooden 87 dome and 309-319. 90 the fact that "Zorava" was under Sarre and Herzfeld, Archaologische Reise im Euphrat und Tigris-Gebiet, u, 39-43. Abb. 152; H. Spanner and S. Guyer, Rusafa, 1926, 42, 66, Taf. 31. Lassus, "Deux Damas, eglises cruciformes du Hau- ran," Bulletin d' etudes orientales de I'Institut francais de Sarre and Herzfeld, op.cit, 41; Sauvaget, "Les Gha&sides et Sergiopolis," Byzantion, xiv, 1939, S9 8S Monuments i, 1931, i^ff., figs. 1-9; "Les chretiens de la Syrie septentrion- "5^ Muslim Architecture, i, Creswell, Early ale," Atti del HI Congresso internazionale di archeologia cristiana, 1934, 481, fig. 4; Sanctuaires chretiens de Syrie, iggf,, 148, fig. 64. 113 DOMICAL CHURCHES: MARTYRIA the Church of Antioch, it is it does not follow that wood was any less transportable in the sixth century than today. which is only a short distance from Zorah, has 33. Ghagra, Marty num. Chagra, 91 a sanctuary which its inscription calls a martyrium. Although the date is missing it in the sixth its from the plan (Figs. 57, 58) and construction place inscription, century. Reconstructed after the 1926, it fire which injured it now has it a zinc-covered wooden dome. When Lassus during the Druze uprising of first published the church he assumed had an ovoid cupola of volcanic scoriae like the kalube at Umm-izdome when again difficult to understand why he insisted upon a masonry he admits that it would have been impossible to have placed a cupola on the octagonal Zetum. It is dome 34. as constructed, unless it was made of wood. fact that the Palace Kasr ibn-Wardan, Palace Church. The church (Fig. 45), built in 561-564 A.D., was an imperial building, constructed by Byzantine craftsmen trained in the vaulting construction of Constantinople, is of great importance to in either Syria Syrian architecture, because it has the only its known baked-brick dome or Palestine. 92 Its span of 6.66 m., massive supports and the Roman manner in which the dome was concealed by buttressing on the exterior (Fig. 46) indicate that around the middle of the sixth century, and presumably under Justinian, the state was introducing the Roman hemispherical vault of masonry in place of the standing, conoid and wooden dome of Syria. 35. il-Anderin } Chapel No. 3. with a pointed "concrete" dome free- The small church, or chapel, restored by Butler George church into a able that it S. at Zorah, has cruciform piers cross had a one he saw on the martyrium of which divided the interior of the rectangular with a square crossing 4.15 m. wide. 93 While it seems more probwooden roof, as Herzfeld suggested for it and like the similar (Fig. 47) like the it is churches at it-Tuba and Resafa, too small to say that certain is it could not have had a masonry dome. All that is reasonably and had a dome over the crossing. that it dated from the sixth century 36. it-Tuba, Church. Dated by an inscription in 582/3 A.D., this church, in which Butler found one cruciform pier and two responds on the south wall, cannot be explained as a gabled-roof basilica, because a restoration of its plan (Fig. 178) shows that the western piers were so placed as to leave two square bays of about the same width as in the previous church. 94 There was no reason in this, or another similar church, to use cruciform piers spaced in square bays, if the roof was of gabled construction. In fact, it is to be noted that wherever cruciform, or T-shaped piers, occur in the churches of northern in many instances, such as at Resafa (Fig. 198) and northeastern Syria the bays are square and there are and Ruweha (Fig. 199), ideological reasons for restoring them with wooden domes. Therefore, its plan is presented as having had two wooden domes and having been comparable to several other churches 91 Lassus, Bulletin fig. 3; d'etudes . . . , i, 193 1 235.; , 93 94 See p. 47. 17; Atti, 480, 92 Sanctmires, 139, 147!., fig. 63. See p. 46. Butler, Syria, n, B, igff., ill. Churches in Syria, 163!., ill. 175. Early 114 FOUR-LOBED CRUCIFORM at il-Anderin (Figs. 200-202). It is equally possible that as at it western part of the nave and a single dome, (Fig. 203), in front of the apse. Koja Kalessi (Fig. 194) had a gable roof over the and Bosra F. Four-lobed Cruciform to the Roman use of apsidal exedrae (Fig. be should taken in 179), up conjunction with the more common trichora plan; but it is presented separately because of its cruciform character, and because it gave rise a different to form of church from the tri-lobed martyrium. Examples at Tivoli, 95 This type, which goes back in origin and, perhaps, the tetranympheum* 7 which Hadrian erected over the pool at Siloam, are evidence of its use in Roman architecture. Also its pre-Christian use 96 Perge in Syria may be out of a Apamea Roman building. The indicated by the four-lobed martyrium which was constructed at early adoption of the quatrefoil by the Chris- form of tomb, or martyrium, in different parts of the Roman Empire is attested to by the domical mausoleum-like structure at Centelles in Spain, whose tians as a Christian scenes on the domical martyrium sixth centuries, attributed to the early fifth century; 98 by the of S. Lorenzo at Milan, which although rebuilt in the fifth and to the fourth; 99 dome have been went back in origin and by the martyrium at Athens, which was erected in the stoa of Hadrian, perhaps as early as the fourth century. 100 All other Early Christian examples, including those at Korykos, Bosra, Resafa and Amida, were in the Patriarchate of Antioch and suggest by their location, chronology and progressive changes that their Christian prototype was an early Antiochene martyrium. The most significant example, which according to Grabar shows that the fourlobed plan was originally a tomb-type later enlarged by additions into a martyrium 102 Its plan (Fig. 180) and remains show that the Korykos in Cilicia. original sanctuary was a free-standing quatrefoil over the tombs of the martyrs and that, like the original square martyrium at Ephesus (Fig. 83), it was later enclosed church, 101 is at in a larger structure and its eastern apsidal exedra removed, or extended, in order to At the time provide the apsidal sanctuary which would make it a church of Christ. when Herzfeld and Guyer published their study of the ruins, they dated the building in the fifth or early sixth century, and insisted that the central grave structure with its four exedrae could not have been domical because the piers were not strong enough to have supported a masonry dome. Their objection to the central and original tombD. S. 95 Robertson, A Handbook of Greek "Di alcuni di arch, result! sui recenti lavori . . . /' Riv. and 96 Architecture, 1929, fig. 134. K. Lanckoronski, Stadte Pamphyliens 26. Roman crist., xvi, 1939, 5iff. und Pisidiens, i, 1890, 41, fig. 97 E. Wiegand, "Das Theodosioskloster," di Byz. 98 Zeit., xxm, 1914-1919, 179. cris., F. Camprubi, "I Mosaici della cupola 10 M. Sisson, "The Stoa of Hadrian at Athens," Papers of the British School at Rome, xi, 1929, 50-72; Grabar, Martyrium, i, 193. 101 Grabar, Martyrium, i, 362ff. 102 Herzfeld and Guyer, Monumenta Asiae Centcelles nella Spagna," Riv. di arch, xix, 1942, 87-110. Minoris Antiqua, n, Meriamlik u. Korykos, 193* i, -i*6ff. "Grabar, Martyrium, 188; G. Chierici, 115 DOMICAL CHURCHES: MARTYRIA memorial having been what it was, a kind of cosmic dwelling with a celestial dome, of course has no validity if the symbolic cupola was constructed of wood, That the dome was this always associated with this type of martyrium is further indicated in the sixth century by the "Red Church" at Perustica, which was domical, showing- that type of martyrium had the prestige to be introduced into Bulgaria. 103 37. Seleucia Plena, Martyrium. The plan (Fig. 182) and many of the mosaics of this martyrium at the port of at Antioch-on-the-0rontes. m tributed to the fifth absence of any remains of masonry century. vaulting and the dimensions of the central with a of too square, 12.50 m., span great to have been covered with a masonry dome on such are slight supports, ample justification for The The Antioch were uncovered by the Princeton excavations original construction of the church has been at- restoring it with a wooden bulbous like the other roof. That its carpentry roof was pointed and slightly conoid domes of Syria (Fig. 181) must be sustained by all that association with the martyrium, has previously been presented regarding the meaning of the dome, its mortuary and the use of wooden cupolas in the Near East. The whole building, with its golden dome, was to the Christians a mystic and monumental version of an ideal dwelling in Paradise, a kalube or tegurium, such as was 105 whose heavenly character was further depicted on its sculptural relief (Fig. Q4), indicated to the initiated by the pavement mosaics of the ambulatory wherein the pagan theme of ferocious animals in friendly combination with their natural prey, which to the Romans meant an idyllic past of love and happiness, was here a Christian symbol of the blessed hereafter. The central quatrefoil, with its apsidal exedrae which were something over 8 m. wide, surrounded by an ambulatory of the same curvature, appears to be curiously separated from the rectangular east end. The plan has the effect architecturally of dividing the building into two ceremonially separate units, one the tomb memorial for the martyr's cult and the other the usual apsidal sanctuary where the eucharistic cult was celebrated at the altar tomb of Christ. Instead of a tomb chapel adjacent to the church of Christ, or a single domical tomb memorial, like the fourth century martyrium of S. Babylas, where the altar was on a platform in the center of the church, century martyrium suggests an effort to combine two types of sanctuary and, perhaps, two liturgical traditions. The key to this transitional type of church is the great platform filling the whole center of the martyrium proper and indicating that here, as in the early martyrium of S. Babylas, there was an altar and not an just this fifth has been proposed. The liturgical implications of this bema and the probability that there were two altars in this church will be fully discussed in the chapter on "The Place of Commemoration." Also it will be seen in the sixth ambon, as century martyria of Resafa (Fig. 184) and Amida (Fig. 185) how the experimental effort here at Seleucia Pieria to combine the domical, four-lobed martyrium with the customary gerc, 1924, A. Protitch,L'Architecture religeusebulfig. 4; Grabar, Martyrium. I, 195194,392. 10 *W. A. Campbell, "The at Se- 103 leucia 105 Pieria/' Antiock-on-the-Orontes m 1941, 55-54, p i. x (plan) See p 6 Manyrion 116 "Les Fouilles d'Apamee. Martyrium. that the symbolic dome was an essential feature of all such sepulchral memorials. but at the same time fully subordinated them to the liturgical preeminence of a single altar to the of Christ. i. 346. 152. which carefully preserved the traditional. probably a diaconicon. archbishop/' and dedicated to "Sergius." Bulletin des musees roy- campagna di scavi in Apamea . wooden dome. 39. Therefore. the center of the structure would have been low and the vault would have required protection. F." 3. desire to force such uncertain evidence into conformity with a theory. were used. Martyrium.D. Certainly by the sixth century the relics were kept either in the 106 baptistery or in the south side-chamber. 340. 55. sfL. 171.. it is likely that a domical tower was carried up over the central vault. 153. 117 . "La Quarta . it was rebuilt with a baptistery on the north side of the eastern sanctuary and with a ceremonial chapel. 1935. Bacchus and Leontius. furnishing the abutment for the heavy masonry vault. lobed martyrium. arch. Lassus. Apamea. 49). This gradual evolution in Syria of a domical. series iv. Since the lateral arches of the central square were the openings of the four apsidal exedrae. Mayence. di aux. Grabar. or whether only four Roman piers. 199-204. Antiquite classique. /' Riv. the exist- Bosra. Martyrium.. set like a sepulchral ciborium within a circular rotunda. quatrefoil type of tomb memorial. 106 107 The use of the side See p. L. 163. but orthodox. in the Church's effort to represents a further development of the four-lobed plan gloriously/' Its 108 transform a martyrium into a church. Sanctuaires. on the south side. martyrs who received the prize and triumphed plan (Fig. de lettres. the one of perhaps great 526 A. At that time the bema in the martyrium was rebuilt and there remains the question of whether of it had an altar which was used as a table of oblations in the service commemoration. . 1936. 332-338. 1935. classe vn. 38.xm. 48. built in 512 A.. four-lobed structure was a Roman building taken over by the Christians. 137. The cathedral of Bosra. de Bruyne. because here the apse and side-chambers are incorporated into the eastern side of the enclosing rectangle. Bulletin. on a side. cro*. The presence of a pagan groin vault over the central square of a fourlobed martyrium would appear to contradict the basic contention of this study. "La Quatrieme campagne de fouilles a Apame.FOUR-LOBED CRUCIFORM church dedicated orthodox service led to further modifications of the plan in order to retain the symbolic features of the domical. 1939. An important four-lobed martyrium with an ambulatory was uncovered in 1935 by the Belgian expedition and attributed to the sixth cen107 Until the plan and a more complete report of the excavations have been pubtury.D. 108 See p. which carried a groin vault of 1 1 m. Without any ence of the groin vault does not exclude an exterior. From building too definitely into the development what has been published it is not clear whether the whole. was a martyrium erected "under the God-beloved and most holy Julianos. lished it is unwise to attempt to fit this of central-type churches in Syria. After the fifth century martyrium had been seriously injured by an earthquake. academic royale de Belgique. martyrium church is indicated by the changes which were made in the sixth century at Seleucia Pieria. 28-39. matters of plan. From what known about the Christian's habit of seeing spiritual meanings in all the parts of his church. the issue of whether the cathedral had a wooden dome. 151-157. 35-38. and Early Churches in Palestine. Rusafa." While architects made individual contri- butions to every building whose erection they supervised. improvisation" by a interior and discovered its Romanesque appearance with a square tower and pyramidal roof rising out of the center. because in its ruined condition so many essential features of its plan were concealed in the debris and. if somewhat faulty. Herzfeld reduced the interior space and restored it with a wooden unbuttressed. liturgy and the policy of the Church at Antioch. Golding. but had it restored by Detweiler with a polygonal roof on an octagonal drum. "The Cathedral at Bosra. character of the exterior. Taf. 184). dome. was or polygonal." Sarre n. it is proposed should be restored with wooden domes. and Herzfeld. 40. because of the prevailing misconcep108 110 See p. we must put ourselves back into another climate of opinion. The builder of the cathedral at Bosra was probably an architect of Antioch and his design was an ecclesiastical question involving symbolism. with a gilded dome or show that a pyramidal. second. believing he had found evidence of an interior octagon of piers. 1948. as it is shown here in a tentative restoration (Fig. exterior form and even fenestration were of too much religious importance and too directly under both state and ecclesiastical control to be left to the discretion of an individual.DOMICAL CHURCHES: MARTYRIA chambers as oratories for the relics tyrium proper. crowned his restoration with a structurally impossible masonry dome. 56-62. free local designer in a provincial city. Resafa. 112 i. Archdologische Reise. 948. 49). in diameter and rose to a height of about sixty feet. Churches at Bosra and SamariaSebaste. Martyrium. Archaeology. has given it a western. he recognized the possibility that it might have had a wooden dome. the martyrium (Fig. first. taking the position that the cathedral was "a happy. roof had a comparable meaning to this age. 110 A recent restorer. After Crowfoot excavated the lobed plan. and Howard Butler. Therefore. Recognizing that the cathedral must have been one of the prototypes for the later Arab mosques. which is still 109 Christ. will be discussed in the next chapter. Crowfoot. 150. which thinks of an Early Christian builder as an artistically objective and "man who had an idea. and either restore a martyrium. conoid and 24 m. 111 M. and the original ceremonial purpose of the mararchitecturally cut off by columns from the altar of The main issue here is the domical Before the interior was excavated both interior colonnade De Vogue and Briinnow introduced an and restored the church with a hemispherical masonry dome. The second of the three churches which a further development of the four-lobed plan of the Antiochene church at Seleucia 112 Pieria. is not to be decided by is modern architectural standards of functionalism and appearance. The remains of this sanctuary on the eastern border of Syria have been misinterpreted. like this church at Bosra. 25. Spanner and Guyer. assigned by Sarre and Herzfeld and Spanner and Guyer to the late sixth or early seventh century. but the modern approach to the problem. 118 . which was c. 111 The significance of this most recent restoration is not its accuracy. the east and west exedrae of the original. the was turned into a regular basilica church by the introduction of old martyrium columns between the piers of the nave (Fig. at the time when the "Place of Commemoration" in the center of the early martyrium of S. without regard for its apsidal exedrae. By taking responds at a and applyd and e. or detached columns. this 114 Resafa. in width are approximately the same as those of Seleucia Pieria. conforming to the ceremonial requirements after the Great Entrance and the service in the prothesis chapel to the north of the apse had been accepted by the Church at Antioch. com- munion S. Although Sarre and Herzfeld considered its plan to be a combination of a trichora with a basilica. as at Kal'at Sim'an. i. S. Martyrium. lobed cruciform plan.FOUR-LOBED CRUCIFORM tion regarding the importance of the domical church in Syria. as a basilica. Sergius was no longer considered orthodox. vm. martyrium was built. 3. 1931. Hence the resultant plan reveals a conscious and purposeful modiwill fication of the plan at Seleucia Pieria. 119 . like those at Seleucia Pieria and Bosra. Later Guyer modified the restoration so that the church had a square tower covered with a ^able roof. a central square is formed with a span of 10. table and throne of Christ. 183) and a more uniform type of church which preserved the popular symbolic features of the traditional martyrium with its heavenly dome and at the same time centered the service in the eastern apse. These essential modifications in the plan. thereby keeping the domical and cruciform character of the memorial elements. to establish a more orthodox liturgy (Fig. not surprising to find even in Mesopo41. the existing width of the northwest pier with that dimension on either side of the lateral ing apses at b.50 m. in addition to the "Grave Church" outside the walls? most reasonable explanation is that sometime after Sergiopolis had been made a metropole. howand show how it was a modification of the fourits c. "Vom Wesen der byzantinischKunst. Sergius was erected. Church of the Virgin. 114 115 Grabar. but subordinating the Cult of Martyrs and Relics to the Eucharistic cult.. to carry the transverse arches ever. four-lobed plan were pulled out. 198) and a new martyrium of S. 104. while the doorways into the ambulatory it become proportionate on both sides of the nave. at the time Sergius. where the one altar of the church was the tomb. presumably dating from the end of the sixth or the 113 m Guyer. central character The dimensions of what remains. 335-357. 126. perhaps." Munchner Jahrbuch. Spanner and Guyer restored it. Amida. Why then should The have had two martyria. 113 The ruined and buried condition of the interior may make it uncertain whether the central square with flanking apses had L-shaped piers.50 m. whose power in Syria was in the hands of the Patriarch of Antioch. had an which will be taken up as a domed earlier martyrium of 115 basilica. Abb. See p. establish its making it a central church. and. Also be noted that the central square and lateral apses about 7. creating a kind of domed basilica were the result of the growing desire of the Church. it when its patron saint. It is tamia a church of the Virgin. Instead of having the eastern sanctuary tacked onto the central martyrium. " Byz. usually from the sepulchral architecture chapels. n. but. Vincent. by the end of the fifth and during the sixth century. 191419. 1918. carried on columns. 82-111. which Miss Bell and then Guyer reconstructed from the more than scanty evidence in the midst of centuries of Islamic rebuilding. series 5. in any sense. E. pi. 119 22g. and is not. v n. an indication that the dome and tri-lobed plan were Iranian elements here being introduced into the Christian East. 102-1 1 9.D. 187-207. of this church (Fig. Grabar. 32 (plan of Guyer). van Rerchem and Strzygowski. had recognized the Virgin in her capacity as the Mother of God and her domical tomb was erected at Jerusalem. which was essentially at Resafa and Seleucia Pieria. 167-216. 33. A. emanating from Antioch.DOMICAL CHURCHES: MARTYRIA the same as the martyria beginning of the seventh century. 45ofL. as Strzygowski asserted in his Amida. which it is repeats a similar arch at the beginning of the apsidal sanctuary. fits seen how this into the development of Syrian architecture. H. M. Sanctuaires. Eastern origin of the trefoil plan in "Der Ursprung des trikonchen Kirchenbaues/' Zeitchristliche Kunst. was taken over by the Christians of the Romans and at first used for small mortuary more monumental martyria and finally combined with the basilica to produce a architecture. n. her cult became very popular in the sixth century and many churches of the domical. 119 116 117 as it was used as an See Chap. xvn. Cellae Trichorae. Strzygowski to the contrary. "Le Plan trefte dans 1'architecture du Palmyra (R. Sarre and Herzfeld. 1909. The schrift fur refutation of this assumption and proof of classical origin in the following: E. 185). the Christians were undoubtedly influenced by the royal implications of the trichora audience hall and triclinium in the imperial palaces. theory of the 120 . Blanchet. G. 70.. the domical cella celestial symbolism as a sepulchral shelter and imperial audience hall. Abb. baths. the mortuary use of the tri-lobed plan was not peculiar to Rome. as Grabar has pointed out. Amy and H. at 118 % "Das Theodosioskloster. Archaologische Reise. plan of the martyrium at Resafa. 1920. Freshfield. while the tri-apsidal plan when used for nymphaea. Martyrium. covered by a dome. i. Amida. xxxi). when the tri-lobed chevet began to be popular in the Near East. 118 which led to their adoption for small martyria. 1936. 1910. palaces and other public monuments must have had comparable divine and trichord presumably had a cosmic and royal connotations. "Les Origines antiques plan trH4. With the addition of church this transverse arch. Seyrig. 149. A summary of Strzygowski's byzantine. 186)." Bull Mon. Tri-lobed The trefoil plan. xxvin. because the diocese of Amida was under the religious After the Council of Ephesus jurisdiction of Antioch. new type of church with a memorial chevet. for it occurs in a hypogeum of 108 A. 116 The plan martyrium type were dedicated to her in the Patriarchate of Antioch. "Re- cherches dans la necropole de Palmyra. xi. 117 In republishing Guyer's hypothetical plan I have made the same addition which was made in order to to the show that the center of its traditional. Weigand. In Roman where it originated. then enlarged into surmounted by a dome. During the proto-Christian period it was the Roman sepulchral use of cellae trichorae (Fig. archeol. is little an indication of its general outlines. Zeit." Rev. 1915. Lassus. lobed design was a square. 154." Syria. xxm. 1956. i. Coptic churches at Sohag. 3362. Kanawat at the end of a rectangular as part of a palace 120 the same century the tri-lobal plan hall. tunately for the purposes of this study there is no evidence to prove that the earliest examples were domical. 19. Piot. Syria. because no such elaborate archiwould have been made. 102-109. perhaps. Dendera and Nagada with their tri-apsidal 129 chevets. Grabar. 384. christl. 3m. 248. i. the whole history of domical symbolism. Callixtus may date from the third century. De Vogii^ fi&" ButSyrie centrale. d. *93*. Cult of the Caesars The adoption of the trefoil plan by the Christians appears to have taken place at Rome where there were four cellae trichorae. 'Apx* 'E. The evidence in Syria and Palestine that the dome went with this type at Corinth. 121 . 34-40. 121 Seyrig. 12e i. . and the 214). does occur in a second century occurs at to the In hypogeum at Palmyra. i. 105.TRI-LOBED The use of the tri-apsidal motif for pagan tombs. Kunst. Syria. and in North Africa it is known that they were frequently covered with groin vaults which may. Architecture and Other Arts. Martyrium. and the spread after the fifth century of domical. 1-31. Among these are the remarkable little sanctuary discovered by Howard Butler in the ruins of the 127 the martyrium attached to the south side of the early church great temple at Sardis. Outside of Syria and Palestine there are a number of Eastern churches which show that the dome was commonly associated with the tri-lobed memorial. of plan is unsatisfactory. Gaul and North Africa. B. xvn. 189. trichora for tombs. fig. is late." Mon. 20. 264. Gesch. It is.. which was. . even in the eleventh century. 1922. A. pis. X. Nevertheless. . n. Martyrium. 44. used as oratories and martyria-mausolea. 129 Grabar. pi. 201-205. 124 It has been suggested that these early oratories were originally open on the sides. 128 > i. 128 the mortuary chapel on the north side of the apse at Tolemaide (Fig. 40212 6ill. Schlumberger. n. 170-174. pi. of which the two in connection with the catacombs of S. Butler. 357-361. fig. the Roman use of the domical cello. ssgff. there1896. "Llnscriptioa du liquaire i. Sotiriou. dedicated complex and later was incorporated into a Christian basilica. while rare in Syria. having been Antioch between 969 and 1080 A. Martyrium. tri-lobed churches in the Near East all combine to sustain the assumption that the symbolic dome was usually an essential feature of this type of martyrium. or may not./ 30 it is an indication of the type of domical martyrium. 21O Grabar. Kraus. F. 1919. io6ff. 125 By the fourth century the tri-apsidal martyrium had begun to spread to 126 UnforPannonia. . or rebuilt. like a sepulchral dborium. Grabar. tectural receptacle for relics unless there had been a long-established 120 Amy and Grabar. condition of the churches. Sardis. 208- 455 122 123 Butler. rv.. Martyrium. re- 124 125 Grabar. 188). Martyrium. 116. Martyrium. Butler. audience halls. 1905. 288. largely because of the ruined.D. Although the famous reliquary of made for a stratigos of early existence of this Aachen (Fig. 1SO G. Syria. state dining rooms and public baths. have been decorated in the Roman fashion with domical motifs.. 121 the sixth By century it must have been common in Syria be122 cause it was used as an audience hall in the and in the episcopal palace at Bosra 123 Imperial palace at Kasr ibn-Wardan. i. 127 ler. i. and well-recognized precedent. xrv. which had for centuries been common upon the lotus cups of Egypt where it had a life-giving symbolism.. which not only fits the space but would have preserved the heavenly significance of the original tomb shelter of Moses. 109). pis. Hence. 153) and appears in the Syrian landscape on the mosaics at Damascus (Fig. B. Although no indications were found as to the covering the earliest make it century. Presumably this kind of cupola. H. It is generally believed that the martyrium of John the Baptist with its tri-apsidal east end (Fig. (Fig. thought. which must have taken shape in wood carpentry. The Memorial 132 Sailer. and probably a symbolic.. 30. 77) and on the apsidal half-dome of the mar- Sergius at Resafa (Fig. dome (Fig. The peculiar non-masonry dome on the Aachen reliquary was not. Church of S. while for centuries in India 139). By the time relation when the heavenly dome was beginning to acquire so much significance in Christian imagery there was a linguistic. went back in origin to the idea of the petal rosette. P.DOMICAL CHURCHES: MARTYRIA probable that the reliquary preserves the shape of some renowned martyriurn church at Antioch. fig. xm. 122 . the appearance of the petal motif. "Edifici cristiani nella regione nel Nebo. which was probably the Holy Sepulchre. pi. the tri-apsidal sanctuary was incorporated into a basilica which was destroyed and replaced late in the sixth century by a second basilica. 131 S. of Moses on Mount Nebo. It also occurs on the martyrium of the 16) upon a building Holy Athenogenes (Fig. di arch. 187) 131 which was an early memorial to Moses was uncovered on Mt. John the Baptist. or earlier. it which meant cup. Nebo. A cella trichora (Fig. while in the scene of the translation of relics on an Early Christian ivory of Trier Cathedral (Fig. between the petal motif and the word Kift&piov. Bagatti. lotus. (i. a creation of Arab fancy. I have presented the plan with a suggested dome. n. In the Codex Rossanensis it is depicted in the scene of the Entry into Jerusalem (Fig. Mt. 151) - Jerusalem. Hinnom (Fig. J. Nebo. such as was represented on Hebrew coins of the nave.cit. tyrium of 42. 152) a melon dome covers the tomblike martyrium. 1936. Memorial of Moses. During the fifth the site was visited by pilgrims. In the early seventh century chapel on the south side which was both a martyrium and chapel of the Theotokos. or a bull and a lion. or lotus on the domical ceiling of a pagan tomb S. a domical ritualistic covering with mortuary implications. 233*?. in. crist. 1941. as many have fore." Riv. the mosaic shows two bulls. Sailer. 183) is evidence as to the symbolic origin of the melon-shaped dome and how it came to take shape in wood carpentry. and had been customary at Tall to combine the lotus flower with the celestial rosette. when known oratory of its over the ancient sanctuary.. Siyagha. on either side of a domical ciborium which has been called the tabernacle of Yahweh. The intrusion of five tombs before the fifth century place the date of this memorial in the fourth century. 189) always had a 43. op.. and kind in Palestine. merely refers to the domical tabernacle as an arched gateway. 41). because this melon-like shape occurs during the Early Christian period in specific relation to both regular and theophanic martyria. 10 iff. Watzinger. trichora. should have been covered with a small dome. Martyrium. Constantinople (396). 400) the domical placed Serapeion and is depicted upon the mosaics at Gerasa with a dome ( Damascus Fi g. On the south side of the eastern arm of the main church was a large three-aisled chapel which had a cella trichora in place of an apse if it (Fig. 138 Although usually described as had been a rotunda with a large apse. "Das Theodosioskloster. had its side niches conbaptistery of the fifth century cealed.121. 133 Although the is not mentioned before the it is to beginning of the sixth century. Madaba. was similar to the martyrium was probably built in the second half of the fifth century and with its the early part of the sixth. 38. Manfredi. which. 46. purporting to have been built over the grave of while on the interior four columns 139 The building. 1914-19. series v. 48. except that the one at Alexandria re(c. trichora. T. Weigand.. Palas. Sejourne. The tri-apsidal a and domical church of the Theodosios of John the Baptist. Abb. i. Gerasa." Rev. 137!. "Madaba. On the south side of the church of S. at Sinai. Wiegand. n. bibl. 4) says fig. Vincent and Abel. Stephen. dedicated to the "Sovereign Mother of God" is only known from a rough sketch (Fig. "Piano generale delle Veroffentlichungen (Wissenschaftliche deutsck-turkischen i). P. 642-668. 1889." Nuovo bolletino di 6. 138 1S& 6. thought have been erected around the middle of the Palestinian church of its fifth century and to be the earliest the shape of the earlier me(394).15 m..D. 173). 44. Nothing is known about morials of the Baptist at Sebaste (before 362). antichit& di Madaba. Jerusalem. the sketch published in 1892 indicates that 137 might have been tri-apsidal. ar- Denkmahchultz-Kommandos. Church of the Theotokos. n. as such.) was discovered an early cello. 138 lateral apses in the exterior walls. Sinai des D. fig. had discussed. 1920. Gaza Church of S. A church Aaron. probably a martyrium. cello. 183 Crowfoot." col 862. Gerasa 136 (ed. v.. 2. Simeon Stylites the Younger.TRI-LOBED dome of church masonry over the central square with its span of 5. LXV. Kraeling). may have been added after the chapel This exceptional sanctuary. 134 E. 8.10 m. 191) of its out47. Theodosios Church. when it was rebuilt as the church." t Cabrol. Denk. 123 . xxni. 134 45. Grabar. cheologia cristiana.30). 190). from the sixth century and was later incorporated into an Islamic weli. See p. "M&kba. 325. Admirable.. 1ST i. which presumably dates supported a small dome on a low drum. The account of Choricius. lines if it it which were seen imbedded in modern houses. which describes the } sixth century church as a basilica with a tri-apsidal east end covered with a wooden dome. 638^. Alexandria and Emesa (453). 224. cloister (Fig. 135 Mt. Theodore (494- 496 A. may have been the church dedicated 133 to the Mother of God that Procopius (Bldgs. G. 167-216. type. Sinai. was probably a martyrium and. S. Der Dosi. Diet. has already been 49. M.. 1528:. i$6fl:. Byz. The plan of this church. 7. pi. It span of 5. which looks as was built. "The Christian Churches/' 1892. Zeit. except that it had a tri-apsidal plan. carried a 140 Doubtful Examples. . Bethleem. H. raise the question of how and dating from about 500 A. 1919. with a span of 50. necessary for domical construction. three-aisled church of the nave at Tsaritchin at Ilissos. 6. 393-399. is of such massive construction as to indicate that its central square (Fig. only briefly published since excavations in Starinar. ^ 421. 87-102. The which was all of the growing process. part of the dome in the Near several variants by East. v. Grabar. 11. probably not this type of rectangular chapel which was transformed into a domed martyrium church because of the growing tendency during the fourth 147 and fifth centuries to associate the symbolic are reasons to assume that at this time. 1938. This grave memorial. 43. substituting a wooden dome for the gable roof.. except to imply that it would not have appeared during the fifth century in such widely separate places as Serbia and Greece unless it had already been an established and venerated type of sanctuary. Mar*. Schneider. according to Schneider. Martyrium. masonry dome. i. 145 near Athens. the basilica was given the distinction of a martyrium church by. however. there when the popularity of the Cult of Martyrs was enlarging the domical martyria into monumental places of worship and the eastern churches were endeavoring to adapt such structures to the eucharistic service. 57. and by covering the whole nave with one or more domes.DOMICAL CHURCHES: MARTYRIA Justinian built for the monks at the place where Moses received the Tables of the Law. Ada Sanct. 1931. 208j. Diet. Rectangular Grabar recognized the ideological significance of the domed basilica as a form of martyrium 14 * attention to the when he dome in challenged Strzygowski's theory as to its origin. 1931.. 6. series 3. 1930.51 m. are not listed 142 and Rouhalbed^ which have presumably domical structures that their lateral apses were so as because of the uncertainty of their date and the fact much smaller than the eastern apse as to make it unlikely that they had a square crossing. Martyrium. produced symbolic Importance introducing the dome in front of the sanctuary. 30. at first. 8l -Q*. by raising a single dome over the center of the nave. jibe. 394. fig. during the early Byzantine period in connection with a ruined Greek monastery. Church of S. built. Martyrium. Instead." Oriens Christianus. 2379. M. Vincent and Abel. *A PX 'E0. Martyrium. "Die Kirche von vi. fig. 192). Grabar. 1937." et-tai- 210. 51. 236-239. 180. Sotiriou. Although there were rectangular and gable-roofed oratories and mortuary chapels among the early martyria. where the type originated. v. which 141 was presumably a martyrium. which were taken over from the sepulchral architecture of the late antique it was period. Grabar.. The churches at et-Taijibe been cited as having a tri-apsidal plan. Oriens Christianus. 124 . "May.D.421. i. Antioch. 141 Cabrol.. 179-196. and called front of the apse on the fifth century. se- 144 i Grabar. 147 U6 336. and over the center 146 Grad in Serbia. i. " 2 A. 140 A. 394. xm. 1-31. He did not. Nothing Is known about this church. M. dome with all martyria. ries 3. Martha. Ed-dschunene. xn. Schneider. fig. like those in the octagon at Kal'at Sim'an (Fig. Wulff. 195) there are two cruciform piers with columns to carry the transverse arches over the nave. The that this dome had to to think of domes in terms be made of wood. Although Strzygowski assumed that it must have had a masonry dome. 149 the support of arches resembles Kal'at Sim'an. in considering the importance of the churches Koja Kalessi and Meriamlik. 197). than the bays on either side one bay were not only carried up higher but had at the corners niche squinches on colonnettes. i. Ecclesiastical Sites in Isauria Papers. 78-80. which were discovered in Isauria and Cilicia. were under the religious domination of Antioch. was to bring the rectangle to an octagon and provide the necessary imposts for a dome. 36) and in the north tower presence of these squinches. logL A. originating perhaps in Antioch. and the fact of the Sergius martyrium at Resafa (Fig. Suppl. In the monastic church at Koja Kalessi (Fig. before he became involved with his theory of Armenian and Iranian origins for Byzantine architecture. while geographically in Asia Minor. leaving a large. Architecture. The walls of this (Fig.RECTANGULAR basilica \Vhere. The absence of any vaulting debris in the nave. n. figs. workmen Koja Kalessi should of Antioch. Also. The transverse arches divide the nave. 183). with Asia Minor to its rather than with Antioch. then. In endeavoring to trace the is domed basilica back origins. 194). has troubled scholars who were accustomed 150 The date of this church. and the other was the tendency to identity the earliest known examples of the type. Kkinasien. 255. did this form of domical church develop? As long as the domed was thought of in the structural terms of a masonry dome and only in relation to those churches o Asia Minor whose ruins chanced to preserve the pier construction which was considered necessary for domical vaulting. Strzygowski. as well as by its powerful be considered an Antiochene church. (Journal of Hellenic Studies. 109115. Strzygowski. restoration for the The 1 use of columns for Amida (Fig. rectangular bay in front of the sanctuary. Early i). which helps to explain the plan and construction of a number of churches in Syria. This meant that the development of religious architecture in these regions was strongly influenced by the architects and Patriarch. Kkinasien. 131. sculptural details and construction 148 149 show the influence Muslim of North Syrian architecture. 1893. 198). Headlam care15 fully emphasized bris in the church sufficient to that "there is no sign of de"- have formed a dome. it necessary to keep in mind the early use of the wooden dome. 0." 125 . whose of masonry construction. Altchristliche und byzantinische Kunst. came very near to the truth when he suggested that the domed basilica was a late Hellenistic 148 type of building. while the introduction of columns between the (Fig. C. In fact. which at did not require massive supports. as Headlam recognized. Creswell. Headlam. Strzygowski. 85) and the proposed Sergius at Resafa martyrium at Resafa (Fig. There were two reasons why this was not given more careful consideration: one was the prevailing misconceptions regarding the absence of the dome and the uniform gable-roof tradition possibility in Syria which led scholars to overlook the evidence for the domical basilica in the Antiochene sphere of influence. it was impossible to trace the type back to its ideological origins. it should be recalled that Isauria and Cilicia. piers of the nave arcade recalls the martyrium of S. 200) them. S. 152 Nyssa. In every example where a domical restoration is gable roofs was also hypothetical cruciform or T-shaped piers to show that the nave was. will be noted that in were used. The argument that these piers the because seem not does timber valid. which could lumber from Syria.D. for insisting is upon a domical restoration for at many of these churches an ideological one. made E. and. was constructed. therefore. what is more imthe great monastic church at Kal'at Sim'an an Antiochene type of domed basilica. verse arches were developed to save roofing construction of heavy stone arches would have required more timber. perhaps. evidence from as early as the fourth the piers in the nave arcades. 193) is a clear indication Emperor Zeno. 46-74. 15 figs. Herzfeld and S. that it might have been erected by the that it of the piers (Fig. Monuments.D. Martyrium of S. the Here. n. which I propose to that out to fair is it although the restoration of verse arches and wooden domes. basilicas at Ilissos. for the churches Ruweha (Fig. dated it around 470 A. *Seep.DOMICAL CHURCHES: MARTYRIA endeavored to push the was placed by Headlam sometime before 461 A. this seems more likely that church at Meriamlik (Seleucia). 32. it Neverled to the early development of masonry vaulting. Tsaritchin had tomb buildings adjacent to Grad and. The basic reason.D. the builders went to some trouble to every church where such piers as to get one. however. it as centering. as did the similar domed Meriamlik. The massiveness the piers formed nave. This would not have a place the piers in such way as a means of saving roofing timbers. however. could date from about 434 A. square bays. than would have been saved in the gable roof. the city (Fig. Guyer. 199) and il-Anderin (Fig. Meriamlik und Korikos. or more. over had a masonry dome while columns were used between a square and domical bay in front of the sanctuary. 52. Asiae Minoris Antiqua. point restorations with their is churches with domes previous these Syrian hypothetical. and suggested was published by Herzfeld and Guyer.. in all that it portant. as at Koja Kalessi. or suggested there are either with transcould have been. 126 . while Wulff favored around the time when safe to assume that it was built sometime tury. It is. It should be noted were when masonry domes becoming more common excavated strucis a church this of side south the on partially for later reference that ture which may have been a tomb. 198) Resafa. preserved probability 151 The who second domed basilica that is may have some bearing upon It reconstructing cer- tain churches of Syria at Meriamlik. at Resafa. Strzygowski the second half of the fifth cendate back to the fourth century. Sergius. Before leaving these txvo churches in the northern part of the Patriarchate of restore with transAntioch and turning to similar Syrian churches. when the city was 45-46. and domical rnartyrium at building his cruciform for domical and gable the growing shortage of building lumber implies that when Gregory was Minor had roofing in Asia theless. Furthermore. if the arches were been necessary. divided into square bays. at the time easily have imported in North Syria. 1930. especially merely intended to carry a gable roof. was built in the sixth century. It is true that all the century. The first church of the martyred 151 Sergius. who. although they admitted that the first alterations made use of old materials. 1908.60 m. we know from Procopius. or now Sergiopolis. while the two end bays are somewhat shorter. 18 (squinch). because Procopius says that the Emperor surrounded the "old church" of the saint with a remarkable wall. like the bemas found in the martyria of S. questions the existence of the church at this time. of course. Spanner and Guyer. Lucius. that the dome was an essential symbolic feature of a real martyrium. Sergius at Eitha around 353 A. 197) E. it is view of the new importance of Resafa. authorities have uniformly restored the building as a basilica whose gable roof was carried by transverse stone arches. These piers. I the roof justification for this careful placing of the piers if had a continuous have restored dome. that the church was not finished at about this time. TaL 15 and 127 . its first ably renamed bishop was appointed by John of Antioch. nevertheless. 13 (plan).. because Herzfeld saw what he considered why no importance was to be an inscription and work of Justinian.RECTANGULAR an episcopal seat. No one. similar to Koja Kalessi (Fig. His church grew rich. saints dans I'eglise chretienne. 154 IT. 194). church as a metropole in 434 Kalessi.. ix. followed by Spanner and Guyer. as the Inasmuch The nave (Fig.D. 198) is divided into three bays by cruciform piers whose lateral sec- tions correspond to the responds along the side-aisle walls. Although their longitudinal responds than the lateral ones they are so located that the central bay is a the grounds. Buildings. n. dated the church for stylistic reasons around 500 A. in whose diocese Resafa was then located. in A. rebuilt the defenses of the city. and it was probThere was a church to S. (sections) 155 Procopius. square of 12. 22-34. The placing of the piers with evident care for the resultant dimensions is significant. and the close similarity of its martyrium to the early at Koja difficult to believe. recall the church at Koja Kalessi.. Sergiopolis. Therefore. 153 indicating that the saint must have already been recognized in the city where he was buried. and had in the middle of it a great bema. Les Origines du culte des 55. and that there was no gable. Archaologische Reise. Sarre and Herzfeld. 155 At the same time that the date with certain preconceptions of architectural chronology in the Near East. presumably under the direction of Antioch. 315. of the line church has been brought into church was an early martyrium.D. 3-9. that the are much wider church is essentially identical to Koja Kalessi (Fig. 52- 14 (side elevation). 154 Both groups agreed that the building had been both altered and rebuilt in what they believed to be the ninth and eleventh centuries. On then. Early in the fifth century the Bishop of Hierapolis. Babylas and at Seleucia Pieria. which orig- inally carried transverse arches across the nave. It is not clear attached to the period of Justinian. Sarre and Herzfeld. 3-16. Rusafa. on stylistic comparisons. The 153 with the central bay raised and covered with a wooden a heavenly dome over the necessity of assuming that the church had it (Fig. consecrated three hundred pounds of gold to erect a church over his tomb.D. 195). it is proposed to restore it as a domical structure. while the other details of the building are so closely related to the architecture of North Syria as to leave no doubt that the martyrium was built by Syrian workmen. clerestory wall of the central bay was drastically changed When change took place is of architectural and. 128 . as restored (Fig. there seem to be strong around the middle of the fifth century. perhaps liturgical. Sometime towards the end of the fifth century. which removed these arches and introduced the columns between the piers. 157 The arches proves that at least the rebuilding of the piers without the original transverse that at some period. which resemble the squinches found in the octagon at KaFat Sim'an (Fig. Restoration of original church as a basil- ica (Sarre and Herzfeld. 197). The justification for restoring the fragmentary remains of the southeast 156 157 Grabar. One reason why the church has always been treated as an ordinary basilica is that part of corbels. Martyrium. Once this earlier date for the original church is considered and the presence of another martyrium at Resafa become much more comprehensible. indicated the original presence of transverse arches.cit. the subsequent rebuilding a hundred years or more after the martyrium was first built. although it was admitted that this rebuilding made use of old materials. therefore. been pointed out that there was no bring a square to an octagon and The towers flanking the east end of Resafa will be taken up other evidence which shows that the domical symbolism was extended. The means by which original is martyrium clearly found in the corners of the square tower of the northeast side-chamber. possible.DOMICAL CHURCHES: MARTYRIA memorial bay In the center was recognized by Grabar when he was discussing the 156 purpose of its central bema. from the mortuary martyrium to the side-chamber. at the time shortly after for dating it when Koja Kalessi was built and when the rnartyrium at Seleucia Pieria had a central platform of liturgical importance beneath a celestial dome. it was decided to build a new martyrium for the city's saint (Fig. where presence of domes over the in the next chapter with the proper the relics were kept and where there were not infrequently oratories in the upper chambers. the pier responds as pilasters it carrying up and reconstructing the clerestory of the central bay so that would be the same the as the clerestory walls of the two end bays. the church was either badly injured or for other reasons. 36) and in the at wooden dome was adjusted to the square bay of the shown by the arch squinches on colonnettes which were church Koja Kalessi (Fig. its intact clerestory has on it the Antiochene type of colonnette as a on such as was found at Kal'at Sim'an and Kalb Lauzeh means of supporting the roofing timbers. took place in the ninth century and left the clerestory the way it was. fig. perhaps. been capitals assumed that the rebuilding. liturgical. 194). probably in the sixth century. It has.D. It has already reason for the use of these squinches except to provide a continuous impost for a circular dome. 4. At that time the original martyrium was rebuilt as a regular basilica with a gable roof by removing the transverse arches. importance. and the presumption that Resafa must have had its first church at least reasons it became an episcopal seat in 434 A. 346... i. 133). In view of the resemblance of this church. 184). op. Although the existing piers on the interior of the nave carry Herzfeld recognized that their meaningless pilasters up to the top of the clerestory. to Koja Kalessi. But- 69. 170!. 196) is unreliable. 59) just beyond the southeast corner of the church and of another tomb structure on the north side are strong indications that the church. comparing the church to the cathedral of Bosra. 16. 76.. beneath. iggf. three-aisled chapel with piers that 161 is reported to have been a domical basilica. Sanctuaires. and there De Vogue's or Butler's study of it to is nothing found show that they any evidence having had a triangular gable. on the contrary. the architectural details. 90. n. 166). and Lassus. 142-148. It still seems possible that it was built at the end of the fifth century in spite of the fact that recent opinions have dated it as late as the second half of the sixth century. 159 S. Ruweha. and as such should have been domical. the cathedral at Aleppo. On the north side of the eastern arm of this church (Fig. is a large. 500 A. J. Cathedral The construction and our available plan (Fig. has its T-shaped piers placed in such a manner as to produce three square bays. 59. 55. Syrie centrale. Sauvaget. 2258:. Martyrium Church of Bizzos. was built in relation to tomb buildings relates it to the domed century at Ilissos and the Serbian church at Tsaritchin Grad fact that it basilica of the fifth (c. fig. is announced. presence of the domical tomb of Bizzos (Fig. This chapel was in the second story to the south of the apse and had an opening into the aisle. Cathedral of Aleppo. Admirable. Early 160 Churches in Syria.. 153. fig. Alep. The plan (Fig. Architecture and Other Arts. which Butler 53. which was incorporated into the mosque of the Madrasa al-Halawiyyah.D.. xi. Amida. fig. 199). the martyrium at As a domical structure the church becomes comparable to Resafa. have been compared to KaFat Sim'an. Lassus. was possibly a domical basilica with 159 either one or three domes. Early Berchem and Strzygowslu. xv-xvin. A Churches. 217-231. B. pis. isa D e Vogiie. Butler. 158 At the time when it was visited and drawn by De Vogue the last upper part in either of its of its facade and the whole clerestory had fallen. 129 . Although the present dome is presumably of Moslem 54. or transept. v n. 134-135. 160 Mt. was a martyrium.RECTANGULAR tower with an opening from the second-story chapel into the side aisle is the Coenaculum o Sion Church at Jerusalem. or anything else to indicate a gable roof. study by M. Aleppo. which has never been adequately published. 69. "La Madrasa al-Halawiyya a Alep. pis. 3. 68. and the church at Koja Kalessi. so that the people could indirectly take part in the hidden mystery. The dated in the quarter of the fifth century. S. 1914. Sanctuaires Chretiens de Syrie. Guyer. such as the wind-blown capitals and the use of columns to carry transverse arches. 145-148. 161 See Chap.). Syria. which was the renowned chapel where Christ performed the first communion as a symbolic Last Supper and martyr's feast. The only satisfactory explanation for the elaborate construction of the piers and their careful division of the nave into square bays by means of transverse arches is the assumption that there were wooden domes over one or more while the of the bays. ficochard. pp." Bulletin de I'lnstitut frangais d'archeologie orientale du Caire. 1914. Van ler. Simeon Stylites the Younger. 57. 61. 246. Bosra. 60. 164 Syria. unlikely structural character. B. M. 60. il-Anderin. 165 Syria.53 m. Butler found a pair of T-shaped piers. 164 justified in thinking of all rectangular churches in Syria as having a gable even stronger presumption in favor of a domed basilica is raised by the plan of the church (Fig. Unfortunately nothing was found to indicate whether it was earlier or later than the martyrium cathedral. H. Jericho. The and Ruweha justifies its restoration building. A. Syria. An cating a square bay. of the apse. as a martyrium. 4.DOMICAL CHURCHES: MARTYRIA Anderin. found on the south side of the city and dated by Howard Butler in 538 A. domes. B. 200). 6. Early Abb." Oriens Christianus. The this liturgical provisions of church (Fig. like those at Ruweha. Butler. near the west end. Church No. n. B. Schneider believes that stood on an older foundation which was a basilica. 7. series 3. No. but also surprising that they made such an unnecessarily short becomes apparent when bay at the west end. seem to indicate a late date. ill. 165 Having discovered in situ one cruciform pier. but restored the interior with the rectangular piers of a continuous arcade. Resafa with either one. Church No. 2.D. Early Churches. It is not only that the builders would have used two kinds of piers of such a different its ruins. the proportions of its plan strongly suggest that a single 163 over the bay in front of the apse. 201). 8 is restored domes (Fig. 8. in front of the apse. ill. and while there is no more reason to consider it a martyrium than the chapel customarily restored with a dome (Fig. n8f. 80. i.. So. il-Anderin. on the basis of an inscription 56. 47). it is possible that the existing church at Jericho preserved the 162 no sharp between the Early Christian and Butler. not because there are any indications that it was a martyrium but dome was because it is similar to the previous church and again raises the issue of whether we have been roof. to Koja Kalessi. 8. ill. "Das Kalamon-Kloster in der Jerichoebene. 163 209. 88. or two. Early Early Churches. Churches. with passages from both side-chambers into the apse. and column bases down the remainder of the nave. n. Butler.. Syria. when restored with a wooden dome in front becomes comparable to the fifth century church at Ilissos and a possible precursor of similar domical basilicas. 82. Cloister Church. 130 . Churches. 57. ill. 87. 62. 166 In view now of the presumption that there was change in the development of domical architecture the mediaeval period. xni. ill. Butler. of this long enough for two square bays. The church (Fig. 196). wide. then. Church No. South Church. Schneider. 279!. The reason for the short western bay another pair of T-shaped piers is introduced and it is found that the space was exactly resultant relation. ill. wide. il found among was a martyrium. was rebuilt as a vaulted structure it in the mediaeval period. j. 198) with a single is dome over the central bay of the nave. ill. wide. with either one or two 58. which 22 m. ill. 58-61. 54. 166 A. 117. n. Church No. Butler's church. 6 m. Although the church (Fig. 1938. as indicated by the tomb attached to its 162 northeast corner and by its location within a walled enclosure outside the city. 39-43. 203) which Butler found in the southeast quarter of the city. indi59. seem to be those of a central-type 169 martyrium. 168 Vincent and Abel. n. Vincent and Abel. 2337. Church of the Virgin. I. after the Nea. 169 Cabrol. It is not clear from the accounts whether in 543 A. 21-26 (Aksa). This available evidence. Crowfoot. appears more convincing when it is realized that among all the other churches not included in this list there is no central-type martyrium which is known not to have been domical. with their wooden domes at what would have been the crossing of a Christian basilica. The detailed description by Procopius of the great care taken by the builders in finding the proper timbers for its roof implies more than a customary gable construction 167 and suggested to Crowfoot that the Nea had a wooden dome. was an ordinary basilica. recorded martyria in their names. or a domed martyrium. or should have been. 17 Creswell. it is still necessary assume that both these early Islamic buildings. on the other hand. DicL. While there are no longer any justifiable historical and archaeological reasons for believing that the Aksa mosque was a rebuilding of a domed 62. Jerusalem. begun in 513 and dedicated much of its construction had been completed by the builders of Justinian. gable roofs. uoff.. Jerusalem. any more than there is for assuming that the great mosque at Damascus made use to of the domical transept of a Christian church. it appears from this review that there are between fifty and sixty known churches in Syria and Palestine which were. it When these examples are all the cities of this region.D. New the earlier basilica that might have had a wooden dome. which they worked out from the dimensions given in the Commemcratorium. of compared with the lists of which we know little more than becomes apparent why we have to give more consideration to the domical traditions of Syria and the Holy Land. domical. 131 . Early Muslim Architecture. as it should have been. 167 168 Buildings (Loeb). vi. Summary Without attempting to labor the conclusions. 13. Churches at Bosra and Sa- maria-Sebaste. even though its proportions. which is still inadequate for historical purposes. believe it to have been a basilica. because church to enjoy the sanctity popularity of the Cult of Martyrs had impelled every of possessing sacred relics. (Damascus). which might be called "martyrium basilicas" because of the appear to have had these reliquary chapels added on or built into them. 914-919. vn. must have been modeled after well-known and common 170 types of Christian sanctuaries in the region. Jerusalem. v. At the same time the basilicas with their oratories. basilica of Justinian. 48 by 58.SUMMARY essential domical form o 6 1 . 15. and the veneration o the tradition of a single altar in the east. It further complicated by the apparent relation of these large bemas in the martyria to the "exedras. Les Origines du culte des 1S2 . 432-451. established usage of the orthodox Greek church. someone Already. the architectural evidence makes one suspect that many of the efforts to deal with the problems of this transitional period. 182) many monies which took place in the martyria of this period. In advancing a new explanation with great reluctance that I differ with the be hoped that a new explanations of scholars such as Grabar and Lassus. takes the initiative I believe. In fact. 170) at Antioch and of the fifth century four-lobed cruciform martyrium controversial issues regarding the cereis at Seleucia Pieria involves (Fig. it has become evident that the liturgical specialists will not attempt to deal with the architectural evidence until criticized. such as the architectural provisions for the ceremonies of the Martyrs' Cult relics. saints. which have been discovered in the center of a number of basilica churches of northern Syria. 1 1 Two of the clearest indications of these changes seem to be. and the liturgical antecedents of the table of oblations." or enclosures. or bema. have been unduly in- fluenced by the later. which make it necessary to challenge the accepted doctrine of continuity. 1908. the prothesis chapel and Great Entrance. Lucius. when the popular enthusiasm for the martyrs was presenting the Church with many serious problems. E.VI THE PLACE OF COMMEMORATION A. problem o explaining the liturgical purpose discovered in the middle of the fourth century cruciform church of S. besides the conviction that the bemas in question were connected with the veneration of martyrs. Babylas (Fig. That there were special ceremonies which took place in the "Churches of Martyrs" is indicated by the efforts of the Church shift the to correct their abuses and to subordinate everything connected with the saints to the one service of Christ. The Problem THE of the large platform. and presents an explanation that can be Syrian architecture of the fourth to the seventh centuries has shown that there was not the widespread uniformity of religious usage which has often been assumed. It is to theory will contribute as much as their studies to an eventual solution of the problem. While it is attempt to answer dangerous for an architectural historian to raise liturgical questions and them without help of clergy. During the fourth and fifth centuries. first. The purpose of this chapter why these bemas were and and at first associated is to present the reasons which show with the Cult of Martyrs and had their origin in the domical martyria before they cults of martyrs relics became a "Place of Commemoration" when the were introduced into many of the regular basilica churches it is during the fifth early sixth centuries. certain radical changes must have taken place in the ceremonial provisions for this cult before the Eastern churches were able to standardize the liturgy and whole emphasis to the worship of God. There are other reasons. . tice of vigils. and that to show that the Cult of Martyrs during the fourth century was becoming a new form of hero worship and was "by way of degenerating into a refined polytheism and idolatry" has been presented by P. It would seem some special poems and addresses were provisions would have been the fourth necessary for the great feasts which. and "sacrificing to God in memory of the martyrs. 432-436). have been special provisions at this time so that the emotional crowds. however." replaced by the festivals of Peter. probably before the end of the seventh century. 377 n. and the churchthemselves were split into opposing factions. the sudden disappearance of the bemas and exedras under disthe gradual transformation of the central cussion. the fourth and feasts fifth 416) emphasizes that during centuries the martyrs' were more communal than ecclesiastic it was some time before they were controlled by the Church.. could present their gifts. Disp. in. 2 During and fifth when the mounting fervor of the people was carrying over into pagan cult of heroes. eulogistic sermons. (Graec. vin). affect. the Church in Syria and in other parts of the Empire did not 2 Lucius (ibid. second. 3 relics communal At while awaiting a miracle. It was not until upon the close of the sixth century that one would expect that such conditions could have been imposed with any uniformity. Some of the evidence 133 . position of the Spanish presbyter. of prayers. as if entirely discontinued. make it clear and hymns sung in honor of the under what conditions the early prac- making kinds of life gifts to the martyr was continued and how long it was before readings on the of the saint. 4. it does not follow that. Virgilanius. to reconstruct the Histories of the cult do not attempt ceremonies which took place in the great Eastern martyria of the fourth and fifth centuries. one wonders whether the vast crowds which gathered on the saint's feast day and on other days usually connected with some great act in his life would have been satisfied with the orthodox arrangeof the much ments and liturgy as they are now known. as we do constantly" (Augustine).. and. in fact.PROBLEM and domical martyrium into a regular church. 3 Christian. offerings They do all not. Schaff Basil forbade the holding of agapes and the eating of banquets in the House of God.. Paul. who desired to press around the tomb or midst. curatio. Ibid. before they were abolished because of the abuses." which could have developed into a new form of polytheism. take part in the meal and make their prayers of intercession as if the martyr were in their men the popular enthusiasm was at its height. Christianity so cult. 434). There must. The Church Fathers were apparently in complete agreement in differentiating very clearly between "sacrifice to the martyrs. it was necessary for the Synod of Trulles in 692 to prohibit agapes and the cooking of food at the altar (ibid. Although both fully the Council of Laodicea and the Rule of S. after the Recognition when the Cult of Martyrs began to have such tremendous appeal to the masses with their pagan heritage. it is inconceivable that the whole this time when service was focussed the apsidal altar of Christ and that everything connected with the cult of relics was relegated to small chapels and oratories. They emphasize the importance of all-night martyrs. Nevertheless. in the fifth century and the description by Theodoret of how "the feasts of the gods are who (History of the cites the op- now etc. were the most popular communal feature of the centuries in Syria. 385(1. 1891. presumably influenced by the pagan Cult of Heroes. it follows that there must rata.). like the oil. 1935. Grottafer"little altars" into the liturgy. 4 could have been con- Lucius. Now that it is must have varied very markedly from the developed it is difficult the early Syrian churches generally recognized that the services in liturgy of the Greek Church. Petrouskj. At the same time preparation of the offertory at a table was an generally recognized that there was only the one altar in the Eastern churches. The Shape of the Liturgy. because. tions altar indispensable to the it veneration of martyrs. 375-377. or something intimately connected with it. there is no specific evidence of a prothesis altar before the eighth and ninth centuries when it is regularly referred were usually kept in a small chamber or chapel at one side of the apse. to understand why it is necessary to assume that at no time in the East was there ever more than the one to believe that for altar. as the midst of the people. feeling. when the Church was endeavoring to resolve the more funda- mental problems of the heresies that flourished in the Patriarchate of Antioch. did not involve fundamental The councils of the unorthodox preparation of communal meals that altars repeated prohibition by the in the churches and even offerings the emphatic insistence of the churchmen and were not for the of martyrdom. Westminster. where the relics were seldom placed under the altar but ulum Apart from Lassus' discovery of a small altar in the prothesis chapel which was built onto the cathedral of Brad at the close of at Sion. or "table. xx. Dix." in the tome. which was in the midst of the congregation. Augustine wrote. 2goff. the sixth century. Jean Crystome. de Meester. 41). when the crowds would have been too great to approach the relics in a small chapel. there is the possibility. as it is reasonable some time the popular Lucius has pointed out. that on feast days. P..PLACE OF COMMEMORATION countenance ceremonial customs. 60. but for the "God who gave the crown transitional period. op. P. churches that suggest regional variations in the service. Inasmuch. 21). dedicated to Christ. In one suspects that the church historians of the period deliberately ignored these variations as long as they issues of the creed. would as have considered an place of distinction. Also in the Syrian churches. Hutolre de la redaction slave de la liturgie de S. as S. La Protest della liturgia nel rito Bizantino-Greco.cit. it is op. there was not only the later tradition of the that custom of symbolic implications which developed into the elaborate ritual of the Great Entrance and was finally introduced early Syrian in both the prothesis and diaconicon (Papas Marco Mandala. however. Instead. orthodox liturgy (Mandala. was brought out to a centrally located altar. and hence did not find it necessary. located in either the diaconicon or the nave of the Syrian churches. 134 . which does and for the origin not appear in the actual liturgies until so much later. such as the Coenac- have been a table of oblations. 2^5-357).." imply that during the martyrs. 4 when prayers and invoca- were addressed If there was a special place for the location of the it martyr's service. which from an early date served an important role in the ritual (Dom G. the Church was unable to attain the desired uniformity. a gave a sense of immediate presence to a saint. This us when we endeavor to find some basis of fact for the forced upon ceremonies which took place in the "Churches of Martyrs" during the fourth century of the table of prothesis and the Great Entrance. Also it is further indicated by the many architectural differences in the liturgical arrangements of the Syrian fact. 1945.cit. to "bear for a time with some things conclusion is that are not according to our teaching" (Contra Faustum. but also the early custom of having altars in oratories. Les Origines et les developpements du texte grec de la Uturgie de S. Jean Chrysosto in the amounting almost to probability. the relic. See p. for it is also agreed that the altar of prothesis and the Great Entrance were originally part of the Syrian service.57 m. The that it central square itself where this bema was located was the actual tomblike sanctuary.MONUMENTS sidered a "table" and hence not recognized as an altar. 83) and the square church at Edessa with its cosmic dome. Its its AJX S deep. second. 1. 109. those churches which were primarily martyria and pre- sumably domical. John is at Ephesus (Fig.. could not have been merely the provisions for an ambon (although it will be seen presumably had a lectern for readings). but were interred along with the body of Bishop Meletius in a of S. outer course of masonry This platform. Babylas (Fig. although with removed its actual imprint is only 2. as the interments show. prothesis chapel Syrian or development. and. second. first. which lay "outside" the crossing. whose rectangular portion alone was 57' 6" long by 23' 6" wide. 5 Later.42 m. In view of these facts any explanation of the Syrian bema ? Lucius. probably towards the close of the sixth century. and by the references to them in the inscriptions as exedrae. semicircular projection at the west end was originally about 3. B. like the original square martyrium of S. 135 . Therefore. Since it is now generally agreed that there was no the after in the churches until introduction. i The earliest known bema in what is now to be considered a domical martyrium is the one discovered in the martyrium of S. those churches which were ordinary basilicas. This proved by the absence of any provisions for the services in the eastern arm of the cross. The remains double sarcophagus at the northwest corner that is. sepulchral ciborium. of what was to be the orthodox liturgy with its Little and Great Entrances.cit. The Monuments DOMED MARTYRIA The architectural evidence for liturgical provisions in the center of a Syrian church falls into two groups: first. after reviewing the evidence of the Antiochene churches and the Testamentum. 170) at Antioch-Kaoussie.82 m. may not have been used as a kind of prototype for the "table of oblations" and eventually transferred into the prothesis chapel alongside the sanctuary. which was built about 381 its wide. or one-half the width of the platform. the Babylas were not deposited beneath the altar. because it was far too large and.15 m. 453. for those desiring burial ad sanctos. deep. in addition to serving for some special ceremony in connection with the Cult of Martyrs. a kind of monumental. long by 7. the question will arise whether such a mensa. while rectangular portion is 8. because it was the only place in the church for the altar and its service. it is necessary to discover the precedent for both the "table of oblations" and the transmission of the Sacred Elements through the congregation to the high altar. were enclosed spaces for the throngs of faithful who gathered for the festival and services of the saint and also. at one side of the actual sanctumust recognize that ary. at first located in the midst of the people. the four naves. . by the lower levels of the four naves. 6 op. as was custom in the West. one which was sixth century. Therefore. in p. The church itself. as has recorded that Campbell both the church and the underwent platform two periods of construction. were irregular. our earliest known plat- martyrium. while is is its semicircular west end 3. that the central platform was built the sixth century at the time when the church was rebuilt after an earthquake. since it would have been bema Otherwise the Platform torm Actually. was based upon the appearance of the pavement around it which belonged to the original construction in the fifth century. Campbell (Antioch-on-the-O writes. it is impossible to believe that such an important liturgical structure existing would have been introduced into an church in the sixth century if it had fifth the pavement edge next to where it was preserved (ibid. radically different from the martyrium of S.. this platform was redecorated and repaired. Babylas. which had to be the loca- tion of the main altar. the of the to S. Compared eastern sanctuary for the altar of Christ shows a transitional stage in the development of the martyrium. Because its edges. of the liturgy. showed an edge no more irregular than might be expected. The question. one would expect the buildine and rebuilding of the platform to conform to the dition to the fact that a similar in the fourth bema existed two building periods of the church. 2. therefore. In view of the size and importance of this bema in the main body of the church and its similarity to the fourth century bema in S. m. when the Church of Antioch was torn by so many controversies. was added to the existing m the rebuilding to make a place for the plat- century excavations showed. fifth 136 . of a real form was in the center undoubtedly belonging to the was found in the middle of the martyrium. arises whether there was at this time. use was made third of this bema in the sixth century after the whole emphasis was shifted to the altar of Christ in the eastern sanctuary? 3. presumably under a memorial and celestial dome. wide. 1 1 6. x). where it belones in the development of church architecture. and was the place where the altar stood beneath its own domical ciborium.6 m. 7 A bema was discovered by Spanner and Guyer in the middle of the nave originally covered by the marble revetment of the bema which had largely disappeared except for a few See W. Larger than the sanctuary of many Syrian churches. has a rectangular section 10. fig. At Seleucia Pieria 182) a second bema.5 m. Babylas. 7 In the sixth century. this central-type building with usage only That some development was taking place in the form and use of the central-type martyrium is further shown by the baptistery and side-chambers which were added on either side of the eastern sanctuary in the altar to prevail in the East. this bema (Fig. although still a cruciform and domical martyrium. we are apparently confronted with provisions for its two altars. in ad- when not already been there in the the church was first built. the one place where the pavement had an unnaturally irregular and broken edge (ibid. 1941. where they came up against the foundations of the bema. which would place the platform in the original construction of the century. Quite apart from the excavation data. long by 5. towards the close of the fourth century. he coneluded that the pavement had been removed sculptured fragments. perhaps. deep.. original fifth century structure. and.5 m. If there were provisions in the fifth century upon the great platform in the martyrium for services of the saint in the midst of the then what congregation. 63) was where a semicircular pilaster or base. which architecturally appears to be an appendage to the martyrium.PLAGE OF COMMEMORATION here in Antioch. Babylas because of its eastern and apsidal sanctuary. The near-by century martyrium at Antioch. The conclusion of the excavator. pi. A. when the church was restored and enlarged. 51). rebuilt in 539 A. If it is possible to prove that these bemas were developed in the Antiochene martyria and used in connection with martyrs' like ceremonies which were eventually abolished. is other evidence. Sergius suggest a parallel with the martyrium at Seleucia Pieria and again raise the questions of how such a bema was used first in the fifth century and then later. 143. 36. 23. for what he called "the tribune. which was better preserved than the other examples. Rusafa. into a regular church of Christ. 36. had its own altar." The symbolism of this will be discussed later." 11 Furthermore.. n. The architectural changes in S. situated in the midst of the congregation and that it had hangings to conceal the clergy seated in the exedra and to veil the high-place with its altar under a ciborium. 1X first is that all these central bemas H.. the Syrian describes a structure in the center. 216) the rectangular portion. Later." were inaccurate.MONUMENTS 8 Sergius (Fig. consisted of a platform 6 m. long. See p. 12 See pp. les goes on to describe it: trouvent) onze colonnes. the presence of large bemas in four central-type and presumably domical churches suggests several conclusions regarding their purpose Limited as and origin 8 for which there S. J. 7. which it calls it a hymn bema and was "of the type of the Coenaculum "Et. we may have an explanation for the later transformation of this particular domed martyrium into a gable-roofed church. for this chamber. the double communion. around the middle of the fifth century and of the martyrium of S. an oratory. After these discoveries at Resafa it to be an altar set within the four bases seemed to Lassus and others that the bema must have been a kind of chapel. The reasons for dating this church. says it in the church of Hagia Sophia.5 m. Guyer.D. 36. Here in a martyrium of Sergiopolis. consisted of a rectangular section surrounded by eight colonnettes and a semicircular exedra with concentric banks of seats. 9 10 Lassus. after the martyrium had been made 4. 12 our knowledge is. the platform.D. 137 . (au Cenacle a Sion). but it should be kept in mind that any explanation of these bemas should take into consideration this very specific reference to the domical s'etaient caches onze Apotres qui comparison with Sion oratory at Sion where Christ with his Apostles performed his own martyr's feast. which was a kind of domical martyrium. for restoring the superstructure with a dome 9 over the square bay where the bema was located have already been presented. At Edessa. when Jean Lassus reexamined the platform he found that the measurements given by 10 Spanner. square and a vestibule at the east end. According to Lassus' description and drawing (Fig. beneath the cosmic dome. au-dessous d'elle (se at Sum. where John of Antioch was appointed bishop in 437 A. 1926. Antioch-on-the-Orontes. 198) at Resafa. 32. 127. built over the grave of the martyr. The fig. Spanner and See p. The reasons have already been discussed why I believe that it was around the end of the sixth century that the transverse arches of the nave were removed and columns added in the nave arcades. while on its raised portion were the moulded outlines of what appeared of ciborium columns. Even more significant is the square. However. 63) the ciborium columns indicate that there was an altar over the relics in the center of the square memorial. Syrian sanctuary of the Janiculum at Rome. was venerated. which was presumably a wooden dome. without a wellestablished pagan precedent. Babylas there were no other to Syrian churches of the that this custom of having provisions for an altar. such as the temple at Si* (Figs. and in which De Vogue said that the altar stood under the center of the pagan dome. like an oratory. it 1S and 396 implies that was not uncommon See p. At Jerusalem the sepulchral chapel over the empty tomb of Christ. many of the difficulties of explaining the beginnings of Christian architecture disappear. 138 . 15 Eusebius. And finally there is the probability a central altar under a heavenly dome was taken over from a pagan Syrian tradition. 33. stand It is difficult to under- why the Christians in the fourth century should have adopted. 124) which had a baldachin in the middle.D. 123. " See Chap. John (Fig. 44. Ecclesiastical History (Loeb). The second is that these bemas originated as a platform for an altar. in the middle of a sanctuary where the memory of a sacred person. was in the middle of the Holy Sepulchre.. George in either 323 or 368 A. the reference of Aetheria to the church on Mount Nebo. with an altar in front of it. That the altar was commonly located in the center of the domical martyria is indicated by a number of early churches. because everything in his panygeric is consistent with martyrium the "royal house" having been a domical and cruciform instead of a basilica. probability that the Christians took over from the pagan memorials and temples this custom of locating the shrine in the midst of the worshippers and be- The neath a symbolic dome further strengthened by the provisions in the polygonal. pagan kalube at Shakka (Fig. buried elsewhere. "inside A. 14 is Also fire beginning to be evident that the many square temples in Syria. because it was customary during the fourth century to have the altar located in the middle of the domical "Churches of Martyrs" and because in S. for in the center of this structure. At Constantinople in the fourth century martyrium of the Holy Apostles the altar and semicircular bank of seats for the clergy were both located in the center 13 of the crossing under the domation. 122) which became a martyrium of S. if it is assumed that the sixth century rebuilding of the church at Edessa continued the architectural forms and interior arrangements of the fourth century edifice. there is nothing inconsistent in Eusebius' account of the fourth century church at Tyre. 4. For example. 15 Furthercalls what he more. which was presumably domical like a kalube. In her account she writes. where he describes the altar as in the midst of the people. which it is usually thought to have been. there was either a tomb or a triangular altar. must have it is been covered with either a domical canopy or wooden dome. once the centrally located altar and the symbolic dome are recognized as part of a Syrian tradition and in the fourth century as essential distinctions between the two types of sanctuary. while at Ephesus in the original martyrium of S. n n.D. x.PLACE OF COMMEMORATION were peculiar martyrium type during the fourth and fifth centuries. a type of martyrium which was so different from the regular churches. written between 393 in the early memorial churches to have a raised place. 33. it being understood. 31. 4. P. n. located in the middle of the nave. 81. B. col. which is assigned to the fourth century. ill. 4. 1069.. and that a small and crudely constructed chapel containing the table of prothesis was added in the sixth century to the east end of the northern side-chamber. 'Here was the Holy Moses laid by the angels. The available information on each example will be reviewed in an approximately chronological order. In the West Church at Burdj Hedar.D. 77. All were found in churches of North Syria. for as it was written. 209-211). 22. In the cathedral at Brad an enclosure in the nave and close (Fig. 19 It is presumed that the reliquaries which he discovered in this church were in the large chapel at the southeast corner that was built about 480 A. L. At Kharab Shems (Figs. were discovered closure. fig. excavations except on the south side where he shows a trapezoidal court and three doors into the south aisle. Unfortunately his report makes no reference to the size of these enclosures. with their semicircular west end. Itinera hierosolymitana. He also reports the finding of a third enclosure in the East Church at Babiska. Diet. 208 n. similar in shape to the by Howard Butler.. M. Seven of these enclosures. i. Sanctuaires chretiens de Syrie. while eight others have been reported by Lassus and Tchalenko. Martyrium.. xn. Grabar. Lassus.D. which is dated 390-401 A. Butler found a typical enclosure. 24. the chronology of Syrian churches is more a matter of opinion than fact. 139 . fig. Princeton University Archaeological Expedition to Syria in 2904/5 and 190$. 176. does Ibid. in a tury but assigned by Lassus to the fifth 20 3. Syria. 53-55.50 m. Since most of the examples were found accidentally without excavating. " 16 BASILICAS The second group consists of those basilicas in which have been found an en- bema in the martyria. 188. a little raised. 205). however.. no man knoweth of his burial/ 2. fig. we do not know how common the enclosure was in the Syrian basilicas. fig. 208 n. L. that with the exception of a few dated churches. 175. McClure and C. long. give his reasons for dating the martyrium He Pilgrimage of Etheria. Lassus. 322-325. and they answered.D. wide and something less than 6 m. Sanctuaires. 68. Geyer. Three examples occur in churches of the fourth century or at which can be dated either towards the the beginning of the fifth. The example that he discovered Ibid. 17 At the same time he found that the martyrium chapel opening off from the northern side aisle was built in the fifth century. Lassus discovered also un- covered evidence of an altar in the apse.. Feltoe. The plan (Fig. 205) is Butler's to which have been added the results of Lassus* 17 chapel in the sixth century and later than the inscription which Butler found on it. Lassus reports the discovery of another apsidal enclosure in the nave and points out that sometime after the fourth century the southeastern side-chamber was enlarged into a martyrium 18 chapel with an apse. 90.MONUMENTS the church I saw a central place. I asked the holy men what this was. Cabrol. 20 Butler. 208. dated 395-402 A. containing about as much space as tombs usually take. 168173. Early Churches in Syria. 32!. The 1(1 church dated by Butler in the fourth cencentury. had in them an ambon and ciborium. Butler. De Vogue. 208 n. The finding of stone reliquaries in so many of the Syrian churches with enclosures and the fact that at Brad. . Again no dimensions are given. were entered at the east end. iu - 74*" Ear ^J 26 it Ibid. here again stone reliquaries were found and there was the remains of what Lassus calls an ambon in the enclosure. 22 216. wide and something over 6 m. Syria. Butler. n. Churches.D. B. 68. No examples it is have been found in the excavated churches of Gerasa and Palestine and quite certain that they were not in all the North Syrian churches. pis. 89. One of the best preserved examples was found at Kirkbize in a private house which had been turned into a chapel. Lassus (Sanctuaires. Syria.. B. 207) which is 22 dated 492 A. in the middle of the enclosure. as did the colonnettes around the bema at Resafa. ill. 23 24 Butler. n. 140 .. 349. like the bemas in the martyria..PLACE OF COMMEMORATION was 447 m. 4. 77.D. the enclosure was only 4. long. this Although none of the examples in the basilicas were raised platforms. Butler. fig. 28 173. Mir'ayeh (Fig. 122129. Early Ibid. 26 The enclosure must be late because the West Church is dated 501 A. 2 * discovery of enclosures in the nave of churches at Bettir. 208 n. in the East Church (Fig. Syria. 27 Churches. Bench. in the southeast chamber. 221225. it consisted of a single course 'of that masonry.D. had semicircular terminations at their west end. 68-69. Lassus. high and with dowel holes in the top of each stone. 210. From the sixth century an example is reported having been found in one of the churches at Bakirha. 28 The way in to the fifth At Kalb Lauzeh century. 4. 212) in the church dated by De Vogue end of the which imprint had been worn down by the scraping of feet suggests that the liturgical use of the structure had been discontinued. 315-517. Without publishing any plans or dimensions Butler mentions finding a similar structure in churches at Dehes and 25 Djeradeh. In buildings dating from either the fifth or sixth century Lassus reports the Kfer and Behyo. 208). or metal. long. 70-71. 21 At Kalota. he does not specify whether was the East or West Church. ill. elongated sanctuary. and the East Church 546 A. 67. Syrie centrale. 175.. Early 85) reports finding fragments of reliquaries Churches. 2 15. on the evidence of Lassus. Sanctuaires. The outlines of a semicircular enclosure were discovered by Butler at il-Firdeh 27 25 (Fig. which carried curtains. Architecture and Other Arts. Burdj-Hedar and Babiska martyrium chapels were added to the churches in the fifth century raises the important question of whether or not these nave enclosures 21 Butler.5 m. 210. perhaps as early as the first half of the seventh century. 1358:. were presumably veiled and. they were located in the middle of the nave. fig. ill. Early Churches. Butler found the outline of a semicircular enclosure cut in the pavement. indicating at it had a superstructure of wood. u. which was certainly later than the fourth century. 215. but the one in the West Church at Behyo appears to be most important because it is reported to have a well-preserved semicircular exedra with seats for the clergy. ill. B. 161. in the sixth century. ill.55 m. furthermore. but which he attributed 206) in the exceptional church with the (Fig. the four columns of a ciborium ancTa raised "throne/* richly sculptured. D. Theories None of the theories as to the use of the Syrian bema and enclosure has proved entirely satisfactory because they have not answered all the questions raised by all the evidence. If they were associated with the ceremonies in honor of martyrs and had been taken primarily over at a smaller scale from the bemas in the fourth century martyria. vn. After his excavations in the cathedral at (Fig. 33!. introduced among his other heretical practices which were condemned. The reason for now to it is because at the time there was enough evidence only referring Brad competent excavator that there may have been with these bemas and enclosures. 205). relates how Paul of Samosata. he advanced the impossible suggestion that the semicircular exedra might have been a 29 on which stood a statue of the saint. xxx.. 1933. 80 PROVISIONS FOR AN ALTAR? Shortly after he had studied the remains of the "tribunes" in the martyria of Sergius at Resafa and Antioch-Kaoussie. Eusebius. it had nothing to do with the deacontice the Testamentum says. based upon Lassus' dissertation as and the evidence of Tchalenko part of his study of the church at Edessa. 2. when it was that the enclosures were only in the thought was believed that they must have been choirs. 30 Mattern. presented the Syrian platform in the martyria and the enclosure in the basilicas as a 29 from Behyo and Kirbize and developed Spanner and Guyer. At first. the novel idea of training "women to sing hymns to himself in the middle of the church on the great day of Pascha.THEORIES were connected with the Cult of Martyrs and built into the churches at the time when relics were and special acquired martyrium chapels were constructed. Ecclesiastical History (Loeb). On the other hand. 116. which would make one shudder/' Although this prac141 suggests that singing in the middle of the church was customary in the veneration of a saint. it hypothesis that the enclosures 1. J. A Travers les villes mortes de Haute Syrie. Rusaja. 351. Sergius at Resafa. Lassus advanced the theory that the S. Another platform was unsupported basilicas. "Remarques sur Fadoption en Syrie de la forme basilicale pour les 6glises chretiennes. . 1940. to persuade a altars in connection AN AMBON? Grabar's theory. for House/* 31 Lassus. Although Spanner accepted this explanation for the platform in the martyrium of S. altar high was located on these platforms in the middle of the nave in much the same way 31 that it was placed in the nave of many North African churches. "And let the deaconesses remain by the door of the Lord's esses. when he became head of the Church at Antioch about 264 A. C. were for the Syrian deaconesses. where he found a typical Syrian enclosure in the center of the nave and evidence of an altar in the apse. if they were essential to the regular liturgy during the fifth and sixth centuries. it becomes very difficult to explain why their use was discontinued without any survivals in a later period. 10. he discarded this theory." Atti del IV Congresso internazionale di archeologia Christiana. it is readily understood why their use was discontinued at the end of the sixth century. which were quite different from those of the Syrian enclosures under discussion. 35 In fact. Mattern ("Les Deux glises. the excavations in the church of S. are the sixth century church of S. Diet. where the enclosures were located. 231) De dome (Lassus. 1945.PLACE OF COMMEMORATION 32 from Resafa and Behyo had already pulpitum. 13308:. XLVII. 1338. In developing the history of the place of reading. erected by Bishop Ursus between 379-396 A.. In the ancient cattolica. and the three churches where it was on axis. but near the east end. that in many Italian and North African churches the ambon was located is near the center of the nave hand he might well have referred to the Ursiana at no indication of the practice in Syria. an octagonal stone with projections to the east which he called the base of an ambon. 132." Cahiers archeologiques." Melanges de I'Universite Saint-Joseph. Sanctuaires. by both the martyria and the naves of the basilica churches. 85 At Dair Solaib. with the other Syrian and Palestinian churches in which the pulpit has usually been found at the eastern end of the church. Inasmuch as the evidence for the clergy. R. 34 i. isgff. located exactly in the middle of the eastern nave. 87 The other examples of a centrally located at Myra. 1939. Vaux discovered a similarly located stone Cabrol. cols.D. an- 1945. i. just in front of the eastern sanctuary.) built an elaborate ambon 32 Grabar. instead of being in the center. which he called the base of an altar. Lethaby and H. fig.. Grabar. xxir. CabroI. On the other Ravenna where there was a large Syrian colony and close contacts with the East. 130. Grabar does not compare these particular churches. while the clergy sat in the apselike synthronos. He attaches the greatest importance to the account of Hagia Sophia Constantinople by Paul the Silentiary who says the ambon was connected by a solea to the sanctuary and was located "in the central space of the wide church. and just in front of the sanctuary. 4. 8. 42. this ambon was merely in front of the bema as later Greek writers described it. which was variously designated 34 during the Early Christian period as pulpitum. Constantinople. at Kal'at Sim'an it should be noted that the actual center of this martyrium church was in the octagon where the column of the Stylites stood under a heavenly 3 and west. and. Agnellus (553-568 A.D. The at or fact ambon. where he believes that the ambon was in the center of the nave. W. Ca- kiers archeologiques. "Les Ambons syriens et la fonce'glises tion liturgique de la nef dans les tiques. Simeon Stylites at KaFat Sim'an uncovered the foundations of a pulpit. 37 Sancta Sophia col. was reserved for the ceremonial use of the clergy and that only the side aisles and arms of the church were for It was also part of his theory that the central space in the people. which were likewise located in the midst of the congregation. none of the examples cited in support of a centrally located ambon at are Syrian. i. 33 II Esdras. tribune and ambon. or ambon. but which from its shape was clearly an ambon. Diet.. i.. 1938.. 9. 54). bema. yet tending rather to the East/' 36 Hence. which he cites. Nicolas Croix at Mizhet and the tenth century cathedral at Preslov. 142 . He believed that this Syrian type of ambon went back in origin to the reading tribunes of the Hellenistic synagogues. at Ma'in (Rev. bibl. furthermore. 6fL) found in the middle of the nave. 33 as described Esdras. The of Church 1894. off center. Grabar assumed that a proved that the semicircular exedra was place the rectangular portion was a spacious ambon where the reader of the scriptures stood beneath a ciborium with the Sacred Books laid upon the "throne" in front of him. in. 54. Swainson. S. 15. Berti. just as jthe Apostles were hidden in the little oratory at Sion when at they received from Christ the mystical Last Supper. among other things. bema at Edessa was "of the type of the Coenacis ulum at Sion." His reconstruction of the bema in the domical martyrium of Hagia Sophia at is based upon his interpretation of the French translation of the account of Edessa it in the Syrian les hymn. "Et. should be noted that there evidence of there I having been two find available altars in the Ursiana. La Metropolitan Ra~ Sull' A. Diet. of a raised ambon. 49-50). verse xv. and that he does not give any reason for the sudden disappearance of these centrally located bemas. 1339. Dupont-Sommer. As yet it is not clear from the sources that whether the main altar was located in the center of the nave. 38 At the same time that it this ambon is taken into considerais tion as evidence of a Syrian usage. canus Syriacus. au dessous d'elle (se trouvent) 41 onze colonnes." taken from di 1931. 37. that the columns surrounding the bema were concealed within. 1947. The reason for finding Grabar's solution unsatisfactory lecterns." Felix Ravenna. F. 31. which reads. xxxvn. that he does not explain in his theory the compari- son of the Edessa to the Coenaculum at Sion. 29ff. or whether there were always two altars.. xxxvn. were literally "under" in the sense of Since the Sougitha also says that the being supports. or a first story. 1923. antico Duomo di Ravenna. that his theory disregards one possible interpretation of the evidence in the Testamenturn. if the bema Edessa was supported like a great similar to the large ambon on eleven columns. 1931. then bemas in the martyria of Antioch-Kaoussie at it was in no way and Seleucia Pieria and was entirely different from the one in the martyrium 88 Resafa which we know was C. G. Instead." Having taken the French word "estrade" (Syriac for bema). col. The question is whether this was their sole function and whether they existed in addition to a regular arnbon." it is to be noted that there nothing in the tradition of Christ and the Apostles having concealed themselves in the "high-place" at Sion for the per- formance of the sacred to the feast to Coenaculum suggests that imply a public pulpit. 38 Ricci. symbolizing the Apostles. in a purely symbolic sense. 1923. Guida di Ravenna." the veil." either event the Ursiana appears to have been another fourth century church with an altar in the middle of the nave. the emphatic reference "under it were eleven columns*' meant. which is used to designate this structure. Ricci. Rossi. or "under.THEORIES in the middle of the nave. I. fols. di 14. as the 39 plan published by Ricci shows. Buonamici. to mean pulpitum. n. The most serious objections to his explanation are that he does not account for the differently located ambons in other Syrian churches. 143 . Ravenna. "Chiesa del Duomo. 37-41. 40 Ricci. Cahiers arche- ologiques. All the is not that he says the bemas and enclosures had evidence shows that they were used. or at bema "ambons. Anastasia and the other the In "great altar" dedicated to "Holy Resurrection. comme onze Apotres qui s'etaient caches (au Cenacle). G. 95. G. Grabar assumes that the eleven columns. Guida. for some kind of reading. Furthermore. 1880. Cabrol. "L* Antico duomo Felix Ravenna. 1748. one of 40 S. "Une Hymne syriVatiaque sur la cath<?drale <Tdesse" (Codex 41 venna. to as a "Place of based upon the importance which was given to antiphonal 44 singing in the Church of Antioch.T l sanctuthe nave. 2 the Conations. Antioch in 363. he stresses the importance of the ambons found in the naves of the churches at Kal'at Sim'an.cit." goes on to say that "its originators now collected the lovers of the divine word and work into the Churches of the and with them spent the night our purposes is the next Martyrs. 28. he does not attach any significance to the fact that was at first antiphonal singing peculiar to the Cult of Martyrs at Antioch. op. and so "they summoned their choir to the Church. r^ s - - (OP * Eastern and Western Lituriries. Later a restoration of these bemas (Fig. antiphonal or responsive singing and the performance there of the mass of the catechumens. 1 806. 5 ) that Rahmani and Lassus (ibid. Dair Solaib and Ma'in which have been discussed in note 33. has developed a more elaborate liturgical explanation for their use.."" In fact. In addition to this reference 144 . which includes. make clear f ' Constitutions. the Constitutions. Although he notes that responsive singing was customary at Antioch from the time when the remains of S. sec. Babylas were transferred is middle of the church. all the references to at Anantiphonal paragraph which how singing So Lassus. 3. n. ally Lassus' belief that the choir was also located in these situated in the enclosures. "who favored the Arian error. will be discussed in the next section. n n 4 (Ecdesias- 28 (Brightman.* 3 Although recognizing that no such ambons have been discovered at Gerasa and that the Syrian ambon was usually just outside the sanctuary. asked the two deacons to perform this act of worship in the churches. AMBON. the first suggestion that the bema in the church at Edessa and the enclosures in the Ca am madC ln F r r a hman Les Lltur 9 "bv es onen - ? ' IS . i 20 line ." not daring to stop this but popular practice.PLACE OF COMMEMORATION surrounded by small colonnettes. in addition to the regular readings of the service." Perhaps more significant for Leontius.//' V LTr * . which is specificlocated near the altar at the east end. KTSl ? r m Apostolic the ) SJf^Jf at 43 S3yS "in the middle of t . Flavianus and Diodorus "were the first to divide choirs into two parts. Theodoret to tells from Daphne us that under Bishop Leontius (348-357 A. 207si6. Sanctuaires chretiens de Syrie.) two orthodox deacons. 42 His reasons for placing the reading of the scriptures at these bemas and enclosures are: the discovery of a sculptured siege at Behyo and Kirkbize. ^ nS ^ iS - preSCribed from the context that the la <* where the P der take their sea is th e bema at ^ it is not at regular all clear from the very abbreviated directions in the east end of the church Lassus. As to Lassus' StatemCnt <' 2U n 3' S) that the same source refers to the ambon as a place lar^e en U Sh Hke the Vian enclosure under dis- m ' ' ' CUSSi n ' t0 h ld the bish P' P riests * o*er it clergy. The evidence in the Testamentum where I believe these enclosures are referred Commemoration" quite distinct from the ambon. CHOIR AND MASS OF CATECHUMENS? Lassus. sect. wishing to discredit it. and the somewhat reference to the ambiguous ambon in the Apostolic Constitutions. fthe facing 1S ' n> Say the tribune m rtfrS AhZlTr' 43 m f ^ .. in singing psalms to tells God.D. who first advanced the explanation that these enclosures were ambons. 2 1 7) will be proposed which will not only link them all together but will attempt to explain the references in the Sougitha to the symbolic columns and the Coenaculum. 211 n 9) are justified in this assumption. and to teach them to sing the psalms of David He then antiphonally. ices or singing inside" (E. Select Letters of Severus. in. n. W. it seems surprising that such it is difficult of his theory. especially when the place is in silence. . Theodoret tells how Ephraim. (4) his own evidence that the enclosures appear to occur in basilicas which had introduced and the Cult of Martyrs.D. disappearance (6) possible evidence in the Testamentum. 46 Lassus. The major weaknesses. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. 85) to the choir having been divided by Flavianus and Diodorus between 348 and 357 A. 1904. Brooks... The Evidence of the Testamentum Nostri Jesu Christi is The Testamentum Domini a compilation of canonical in- formation. according to the theory of Lassus. were they being conveyed to Antioch to be "deposited near the tomb of Babylas the were honored with singing of martyr. elaborate architectural provisions." There is also the refer- 145 . 689-692) describes how the Arians during the night chanted songs. iv. vi n. of Lassus theory are that it does not attempt to explain all the evidence. 30) to indicate that in the third century at Antioch singing "in the middle of the church" was customary in a service of veneration for a saint.. after the sacred and the as In addition to serving readings sermon. Even if Lassus is correct in believing that the liturgical evidence allows to understand how an architectural variable can be explained by a liturgical invariable. viii. taking up so much space in the nave. psalms antiphonally. however. vni. M.L. but. (ibid. 1 D. should have originated for a minor part of the service and have had no lasting influence.PX. 1892. part n. Sanctuaires. 1536-1537) when "Where the bones of holy martyrs have previously been laid. (5) the sudden reliquaries of these and the enclosures. are indicated by a letter of Severus. . n trans. viii. LXVII. Presumably.D. were used for the Mass of the Catechumens. written in Syriac. What then was the ceremonial procedure in the many churches that did not have these enclosures? Also. t . xix. Patriarch of Antioch. (s>) Sion. who custom of singing "responsive hymns/' while Sozomenus (Eccl. there martyrs" vi. according to a colophon. went from the sanctuary to the place in the middle of the nave. and then. they returned to the apse. an ambon and choir the Syrian enclosures. Socrates (Eccl Hist. such as: the relation between the enclosures in the basilicas and (i) the bemas in the the reference in the Sougitha to the Coenaculum at martyria. (3) the Antiochene use of antiphonal singing in the ceremonies of the "Churches of Martyrs". the Cult of Martyrs. the Syrian. 26).P. translated from the Greek tical History. 212-216. "which they call responsive/' and credits Ignatius with having introduced at Antioch the ences of opinion between the orthodox and Arians regarding the services which should take place in the martyria. 46 When this part of the ceremony was concluded the catechumens were led out.THE TESTAMENTUM tioch and Theodoret's specific distinction "The Church" strengthen were used as choirs. he says the readers and the clergy. Further evidence that singing continued to be associated with the Cult of Martyrs and that as late as 537 A. during the singing of the trisagion. composed songs which "are still used to enliven the festivals of our victorious ence in Eusebius (Chap. it is right to pray. tells how the remains of Meletius.. 271). LXVII. the doors were closed and the Mass of the Faithful followed. this between "the Churches of Martyrs" and if the Syrian bemas and enclosures usage in the fourth and fifth centuries was associated with the probability that. and the heretics are not unlawfully conducting servwrote. were still marked differ- M. Hist. Gerasa (ed. "Let the Altar have a veil of pure linen it without spot." meaning. Con- servative scholarship. J. who at the end of the fifth century quotes early as the time of Severus some of its passages/ 8 Therefore. although little must have had a lectern for it the transcription and reading of names. which has been "For this type is also like heaven. enim et typus in coelo. Seleucia and Resafa clearly indicated by the next sentence which reads." 50 The paragraph ends. Moreinjunction that the "place of priests be within a veil' suggests that the whole Place of Commemoration.. That Pieria this heavenly place was like the is bema in the martyria at Antioch. perhaps. it is as the history of the manuscript has proved considered a reliable source of testimony on Syrian usage during the period of the sixth and seventh centuries. 176. 1945. xv. Chitty). it belongs to the period and general region that made use of the central bema in the churches. Handbuck der Christlichen Archaologie. this "place of priests" apselike exedra with its bank of seats which has been seen at the west end of the Syrian bema. Furthermore the Testamentum makes it it certain that the Place of Commemoration could not be an ambon." 49 Regarding the because on." Puzzling to be. 1899. 1913. 175. D. coL 2782. instead of agreeing with the efforts to trace it back to before the Peace of the Church. 9." which we have already been told was located with the cathedra in the apse. Diet. 47 1. for men and women. that this place symbolizes heaven. Testamentum Domini *9 * Dictionnaire de thtologie catholique. veiled chapel. C. Leclercq in Cabrol. M. 4-5. was a kind of It also implies that its 5 The Testamentum shows some over. Nostri Jesu Christi. "And let the Place of Reading be a outside the altar. such as the evidence from Resafa and Mirayeh has already indicated. and the archdeacon with readers. early form of the office of oblations took place at it. 1946:. "And let the place of priests be within a veil near the Place of Commemoration. Kaufmann. 146 . Chitty. and write the names of those of those who are offering oblations.. 175. Talus est translated. or on whose behalf they offer. and throne be raised three steps up. 175. Gerasa (trans. a reader or the which priests and people offer when the Holy Things are being offered archdeacon may name them in this commemoration with supplication. par. Now let this house [church] have two porticoes to right and left. describing the episcopal throne as versus orientum. In the section entitled "How to Build a Church" the Testamentum starts with the east end of the church. Kraeling). for the Altar also ought says. because in a later sentence says. Ibid. m. it is altar it reads. pars. so that by the bishop. that the enclosures in question were not ambons but a "Place of Commemoration.D. at least as of Antioch. "Let this place of the to be there." Then in the next and most important paragraph let a place goes "And for the Commemoration be built so that a priest may sit." which by its name and the account of the presumably offering of supplications may have been devoted to the Cult of Martyrs and Relics. places its origin in a monophysite milieu of Syria. Rahmani.PLACE OF COMMEMORATION by James of Edessa in 687 A. and probably during the preceding century." Since the must be the synthronus with the bishop's throne has already been described. to which the place of priests was connected. H. There can be no question but what the large platform with its semicircular west end in the center of the cruciform church of S. it may be inaccessible to the multitude. for he writes. would it not have been necessary during a lengthy ceremony offer this commemoration which priests and people with supplication" to have a "table" for the proper presentation of Holy Things? At this point one comes back to the earlier question of whether at any time this which involved naming them "in "table" under its ciborium could have been used like the "table of prothesis" in the developed liturgy? E. the southeast side-cham- ber) to the purpose that the Eucharists. wrought with The fact that there were centrally located and lattice-work." it would seem to follow that the oblations offered and recorded at the Place of Commemoration were of a different nature. "and let the Diaconicon be to the right of the right-hand entrance (i. "and finally the altar. The study started only with the intention of accounting for the bema in the two martyria of Antioch and Seleucia Pieria and of seeing if there was a relation between the centrally located bema and the domical martyrium. In discussing the Testamentum. If the proposed explanation. as in the later service of the prothesis. perhaps having been the special which went with the supplications to the saint. that placed in the middle the holy of holies. however. Eccl Hist. commemorationes (anche mobile) come sarebbe per alcuni il vapaTponrtaov farebbe pensare ad una relazione con 1'altarino del nostra protesi actuale. and also whether both were provisions for the veneration of martyrs." were the elements of the Eucharist. bishop." which the Testamentum says were "offered by the relics. 44. "locus 52 Eusebius. Some intimation of its appearance may perhaps be derived from Eusebius' account of the dedication of the fourth century church at Tyre. x. all which is an endeavor to include the evidence and satisfy the conditions. The Place of Commemoration Further excavations and liturgical studies will be necessary before any certain solution can be found for the ceremonial use and historical development of both bemas and all enclosures. answered the important question of whether the enclosure in the basilicas was derived from the bema in the domed martyria. proves helpful to others in arriving at is a more correct solution. Since the Testamentum specified where the offerings for the regular service were to be made when it says. 51 may help to explain the This specific reference in the Testamen- turn to the offerings in the diaconicon makes it evident that the Place of Commemoration could not have been in the side-chamber. Mandala (La Protesi della liturgie nel rito Bizantino-Greco. 147 . 51 It is tempting to go a step further and ask if the "Holy Things. enclosed it with artistic carving.PLACE OF COMMEMORATION It has not. (Loeb). or In either event. there to .apologize for its no necessity to emphasize its tentative character and unorthodox suggestions." 52 wooden lattice-work. 4. and. or offerings that are placed there may be gifts seen." 37-38) says.e. Babylas was the actual sanctuary on which was the altar. partially or wholly veiled by hangings veiled Place of Commemoration in later Syrian churches. accurately altars. At the same time. martyrium Martyrs. with its two century side-chambers of Eastern origin. 55 148 . Babylas in the fourth century. et theol. and the other was the so-called and had the altar in the center. which was dedicated in 549 A." the article of P. a distinction must be made between the two types of churches which were at fourth and fifth centuries in Syria. XXH. the intent of the Church. at S. that before everything pertaining to the popular Cult be gradually subordinated to the regular service of Christ. and presumably in Syria ment had an 53 altar in both apse and nave. 182) was built. bill. That some more survival of these early ceremonies to the "Place of preserved in the references of the is Testamentum Commemoration" a possibility which should be fully investigated. 55 xxvm. especially S. Therefore. isff. in it spite of the subsequent history of the Eastern this transitional Churches. there must have been John at Ephesus. Mattern cites also eglises. at martyrium of S. of Martyrs could it follows. did include special provisions is and prayers." proved by S. and the stone the nave. 1939. even though they were not approved of by the more orthodox for offerings clergy.D.PLACE OF COMMEMORATION In accounting for the development of the centrally located bema such as we have Antioch. One was the ordinary quite distinct during the basilica.) believes that the stone found in the nave of Dair Solaib was the base of an altar instead of an ambon. 58ff. the prominent position in the church was still given to the great bema in the midst of the congregation where. and the Ursiana Regardless Tyre of the apparent conspiracy of silence on the part of both Church Fathers and later historians regarding so many aspects of the Cult of Martyrs. This transitional phase of liturgical and architectural develop- may then account for the two altars which were probably in the fourth 5* at Ravenna Ursiana and the church of S.^ Guida da Ravenna. Ricci. there were ceremonies at the central altar of the martyria which. 5* Mattern (Melanges de I'Universite Saint- 1939. C. the marked differences between the services in the two types of church. See p. XLVII. That the "Churches of Martyrs. which eventually was to turn the domical and central-type martyrium into a regular church devoted to the cult of Christ. the of the is Holy Apostles. George at Shakka and perhaps by the church 53 at Ravenna where Syrian prestige was strong. 142. 1923. 1938. the altar had been located. By the fifth century when the martyrium at Seleucia Pieria (Fig. is apparent in the way the traditional type of martyrium has an eastern sanctuary. Apollinare in Classe. as is clearly indicated by Theodoret's references to antiphonal singing at Antioch. "long and with its head to the east" as the Apostolic Constitutions describe it. and controversial period of rein there were two altars. and another devoted to the cult of the martyr in the midst of seems necessary to assume that in the congregation. 192-194. one for the service the Church of Antioch ligious history of Christ in the apse.) to show the use of altars in Joseph. 231) was also an altar. Therefore. Here the altar in the nave is thought to have been set up in honor of the Virgin by Bishop Maximianus. Babylas at Antioch. Batiffol ("De la de"dicace des Revue des sciences phil. however. found by De Vaux at Ma'in (Rev." which was usually domical altar during the fourth century was fre- in the "Churches of quently located in the midst of the congregation. 149 ." While in Syria tombs and relics were not placed under the altar or in the Place of Commemoration. as in the basilica into a "Place of Commemoration/' which was still used for churches. I have accentuated the symof the other columns being "hidden" in the way the Apostles were bolic significance 56 Eusebius. Here at Resafa the bank of seats for clergy and the evidence of colonnettes to veil both priests and "table" show the nature of this Place of Commemoration as a special oratory. the comparison of the Edessa bema to the Sion chapel suggests that these Places of Commemoration were actual oratories. the middle of the fifth century when the martyrium at Resafa (Fig. in order to show what the Sougitha meant. a memorial chapel and small domical martyrium. restore the one at Resafa (Fig. In order to help visualize the scale of these bemas in the martyria and to help I have attempted to explain the description in the Sougitha of the one at Edessa. however. adjustments. Sergius there may have still been two altars. likely. with some hesitation.. which symbolized the Apostles. 198) was built over the tomb of S. it was entirely subordinated to the altar of Christ in the apse.PLACE OF COMMEMORATION the sixth century the addition of a baptistery and side-chambers in the rebuilding of the martyrium at Seleucia Pieria indicates the triumph of the orthodox desire By to focus all the emphasis so. their tombs being placed in oratories. may so. which according to the archaeological evidence was rebuilt in the sixth In century? answering this question I am suggest- ing that by this time there was no longer an "altar" on the bema. which were this later to take place at the "table of oblations" in the prothesis chapel. Also. xi. only a "table/' and that the fourth century bema had already been transformed. It seems were Around more however. In this way it becomes apparent how the columns." for the "high-place" in the Sion church. like a chapel. and that the indications of an altar beneath a ciborium on the bema only mean that there was a "table" there for use in the ceremonies of the saint and. 217) using Lassus' plan (Fig. Eusebius tells us that "the martyrs of Palestine were 56 interred in the churches. By restoring the columns around the "place of priests" outside the veil. were not "under" the bema in the sense of supporting it like an ambon. from the plan of the church that the emphasis was on the altar in the apse. In the regular service. it has been seen. palest. De martyr. which had now become a kind of veiled oratory. for a time have been used for some early form of the office of oblations. was a hidden oratory. I am suggesting that the bema. By the sixth century it is the memorial character of a veiled place in the center of a church which explains the reference in the Sougitha to the bema at Edessa as "of the type of the Coenaculum at Sion. Certainly Aetheria's account of the pulpitum in the fourth century church on Mount Nebo supports this interpretation. 216) but making certain the rectangular platform. upon a single altar of Christ in its traditional sanctuary. perhaps. 28. If then the transference of "Holy Things" from the veiled chapel in the midst of the faithful might have been a forerunner of the Great Entrance. special ceremonies connected with the cult of a martyr. for the oblations. If then what was done with the central bema. Eleven columns are placed on the two sides of as the plan at Resafa allows. Actually one of the strongest reasons. first. that the central-type mar- tyrium was being adapted to the regular liturgy. Little else can be added to the present description because no specific information as yet has been published on the ciborium found in the one at Behyo and no picture of the so-called "throne" found at both Behyo and Kirkbize which Lassus and Grabar said was a place where the reader laid the sacred books. Furthermore. while the probable transformation at the end of the sixth of the domical century martyrium of S. While the reading of names took place in the Place of Commemoration. noted that excavations have shown that there were no such provisions in the sixth century martyrium at Bosra where the whole emphasis had been shifted to the apse with its flanking chambers. including the semicircular end for the clergy. As yet no place of commemoration in a basilica has been reported to be more than 6 m. these special oratories were veiled as had been the large bemas in the domical martyria. At the same time. It has already been pointed out that the worn pavement with the outline of a Place of Commemoration in the church of suggests its no Kalb Lauzeh removal in the seventh century. it is strengthened by the fact that so many of the later basilicas with a Place of Commemoration have been found to have stone reliquaries in one of their chapels. It was this simplifi- cation of the original provisions for the Cult of Martyrs that the Testamentum describes as a "Place of Commemoration/' The conclusion that these places in the basilicas were introduced in the of the martyrs is fifth monies in honor century and were connected with special ceresupported by the fact that the three fourth-century basilicas of Brad. many communities were moved. and. to introduce into the naves of their basilicas a smaller and modified version of the martyrium bemas. because of the growing popularity of the martyrs. because some of them must have had screens of wood and metal. when it becomes apparent that the orthodox liturgy with the prothesis chapel and Great Entrance was being adopted in Syria. the Testamentum makes it clear that they were not ambons. long. its complete disappearance from the interior of all Eastern churches. By the end of the sixth century. is not intended to give more than a general indication of how such bemas might have looked. where he found a dowel hole in the top of each stone around the enclosure. Before turning from the original bema type in the domical martyria. however. perhaps connected with the great bema in the nave. apart from the evidence of the Testamentum. for believing that the Place of Commemoration was essentially devoted to the Cult of Martyrs and Relics is its sudden and the fact that it seems to have disappearance left survivals in the later churches of the East. however. second. On the basis of Butler's evidence from Mir'ayeh.PLACE OF COMMEMORATION The restoration. My only strong reason for questioning Lassus' suggestion that the mass of the catechumens also took place here is. it should be hidden In the Coenaculum at Sion. Burdj-Hedar and Babiska all show the later addition of large martyrium chapels. the apparently limited use of the Place of Commemoration even in North Syria. Sergius at Resafa into a regular basilica implies a liturgical reason. the Eastern Church had triumphed in 150 its long effort to subordinate . ning round. showing that the Testamentum refers to the southeastern side-cham- in the dead space at the end of the aisles on either side of an internal apse" and that "not fill one of these chambers was built for liturgical purposes" (Gerasa. or atrium. All the North Syrian churches have the forecourt. Crowfoot found no indication that the pastophoria were considered a part of the sanctuary. Domical Chapels bema and In order to strengthen the relation between the original type of central the domed martyrium. with a portico run- plans XLIII and xxxix). Furthermore. Hence the transformation of the domical martyrium into an apsidal church with the one altar and the abolishment F. 178. follow the usage in the Testamentum and so prove the liturgical unimportance of the North Syrian side-chambers. 175. par. they deposited their relics in one of the pastophoria. which obviously combine Syrian features with the Palestinian custom of having a western atrium. it is this chamber in most North Syrian an inscription (Gerasa. 181).) and the church of SS. to this Diaconicon" (Gerasa. 228. 58 Lassus. usually the 57 one on the south 60 side. During the fifth and sixth centuries many basilicas acquired relics and sometimes either built special martyrium chapels. Churches with a martyrium chapel on the north side were usually early: the fourth ceneo 151 . although in both the church of Procopius (526/27 AJ>. to the purpose that the Eucharists. were used structures.D. It is is there no evidence Crowfoot's opinion (Gerasa. xxxv). which had been taken over from pagan temples.DOMICAL CHAPELS everything in the popular Cult of Martyrs to the glory of God and the service of Christ. which to also 1 cannot agree with Crowfoot's conclu- that the "Diaconicon" was meant be at the sions that the Syrian side-chambers came "into existence by a sort of structural necessity to right-hand corner o the west facade. 205) it was not until late in the sixth century that the actual prothesis chapel with its table was added to the northeast side-chamber. and in the sequence of churches at Gerasa." and "Let there be a Forecourt. let "And or offerings that are offered. 540 A. Crowfoot uncovered several churches at Gerasa which had a large lateral chapel western forecourt. opening one of which was designated as a diacania in off a ber which was "to the right of the right-hand entry. this as vestries and tomblike At and for the reception of offerings pastophoria were not only small. 162. when the church of Bishop Genesius was built. 58 churches at Gerasa. as at Brad and Babiska." Hence these but they were of little significance in the liturgy. plan. of the Place of Commemoration.D. Sanctuaires. until 58 after the introduction of the orthodox liturgy. Peter and Paul (c. 2). 182) that at Gerasa of a prothesis chapel before 611 A. but I cannot agree with his interpretation of the Testamentum and his belief that the churches that had an arched opening into the side aisle and was the place where most reliquaries have been found. At Brad (Fig. or enlarged one of the 59 side-chambers into a mortuary chapeL For the most part. however. the Diaconicon be to the right of the righthand entry.) the chancel was found to extend across the side aisles in front of both side-chambers (Gerasa. on the south side with the two entrances into the south aisle and usually the prescribed portico. by being cut off from the side aisles by a chancel. In the fourth century relics and the martyrs were honored in independent time the two small side-chambers flanking the apse in the basilica churches. from the congregation. as Crowfoot says." where the clergy entered. it is necessary to see how this association of the mortuary and symbolic dome with the tomb memorial of a martyr was transferred from the "Churches of Martyrs'* to the the ordinary churches had no mortuary chapels of the basilicas. When the Testamentum says. it does not mean. may be seen. Hist. in Palestine the relics of the Sabaite are recorded as having been in the martyrs northwest corner of the church (Gerasa. Grabar. Grabar. 152 . 1-31. (Lassus. impossible to say at exactly what time this combination of martyr's chapel with the regular basilica resulted in the adoption of the domical symbolism. Syria. 98-105. 178 B. Euphemius in Chalcedon had a domical oratory to the north of the apse (Evagrius. 352 n. 166). Altargrab der christlichen Kirchen im 4 Jahr. 77). at the south side of the on the second story. the fifth century church of Ilissos had a cruciform and domical martyrium on the north side (Sotiriou. fig. we do have evidence that some such development was taking place. and the shifting of the relics to the pastophoria. i. At first the side-chambers of the basilicas were usually one-story chambers either under the ordinary side aisle roof or with their own pent house roofs. Lassus (Sanctuaires. Martyrium. At Resafa. had a cruciform tomb at the northeast corner (Butler. for example. Nicholas at Myra in Lycia (Grabar.. A.. 167-176). n. or if the end flanking the entrance were also chambers that began to appear at the west used as chapels. 183. Man. 62 If for no other reason... F.. n. Martyrium. the probable location of the altar. Although it is impossible to tell from the ruined condition of Syrian churches when the pastophoria were built-up into flanking towers to provide second-story oratories. WieAltar u. 168. 59. Syria. EccL. il-Anderin. 1912. by making use of their traditional side-chambers for relics the Syrian churches were able to keep the Eucharistic sanctuary the basilica type of and the martyrium chapel under one roof without abandoning church. 336). See p. i.. Barnabas at Salamis in Cyprus (ibid. 9. Kal'at Kalota and several other places recorded by Grabar 62 (ibid. or beneath. 34*-343)- 54). the elongation of its central axis to focus upon the one altar.I>. Peter and Paul 253) (Gerasa. Martyrium. Takl. perat Palmyra (ibid. By the fifth century we do know that the Sion church had two domical side-chambers apse.*E$. B. fig. 208-210. 1919. 36. which were famous oratories. ill. 3) says the bishop of Maiouma in Palestine deposited the relics of three martyrs beneath the altar. 6). and other similar examples are also cited by and at S. 336). 343). i. 168. EccL Gr. in S. B. 295). Grabar (Martyrium. pendent and domical martyrium was being adjusted to the regular by the addition of apse and side-chambers.PLAGE OF COMMEMORATION served as the "DiaconicorT in the sense that it is described in the Testamentum. the separate martyrium chapel of 525 Grabar. 61 and in S. Cyril of Scythopolis. at Brad haps (Butler. i. Sanctuaires. 183). m *43)- ^ Reliquaries have been found in the southeast chambers in Syria at Sokani. 76). 9 n. 349-356. 3. In spite of this growing popularity of martyrs the strong determination on the part of the Eastern churches both to subordinate the Cult of Relics and separate it from the Eucharistic cult prevented that union of altar and martyrium which became the altar. 183. 'A/>x. the south church. at Apamea (Lassus. 61 rule in the West where relics were placed under an Therefore. the martyrium concept was also moving into the It is basilicas. t Mar Saba George (ibid. Sanctuaires. i. at the same time that the indeservice of Christ. and at Kefrnabu church of SS. At the same time it should be noted that at Gerasa in the land. at Gerasa in the fourth century cathedral (Gerasa. Spanner and Guyer tury church of S. Martyrium. n. the sanctity and prestige of the domical Coenaculum at Sion would have resulted in the spread of similar domical oratories. 245) stone reliquaries were found in the floor of the apse behind. This means that there were two related tendencies going on in the development of religious architecture. e3 century date. 44) has domical towers flanking the facade of a church. fifth Although the author suggests a fourth or 153 . where the character of the stonework domes in the corners of the church at Resafa. 153) indicates that a domical tower was a symbol of a saint's martyrium. For reasons that should now be and because of certain specific evidence. restored these towers with domes of wood on the exterior as a traditional manifestation of the celestial and mortuary nature of the symbolic tomb chambers beneath as a means of correctly interpreted the purpose of these dome onto them. I have apparent. 213) Tolemaide. perhaps. 1940. It was the Syrian tradition of subordinating the importance of the relics to the Eucharistic cult by enshrining them in subsidiary P. the tunnel vault over the side aisles. 2 15) recalls the small It is that I because of this evidence and the general pattern of ideas which was involved have restored the two martyria at Resafa with domical towers and have shown the martyrium of the Prophets." Atti del IV Congresso internazionale di archeologia cristtana. Romanelli. 63 In this relatively late basilica. Furthermore. The Syrian landscape preserved in the mosaic of the at This insistence that the towers Resafa Damascus shows domical towers (Figs. figs. fitting a which were the same as those in the 35) and in the domical tower over the While they squmches a square impost. the ampulla of the Holy Athenogenes (Fig. It does. 31. Apostles and Martyrs at Gerasa (Fig. the presence of matronei and the stonecutting of the vaults all indicate a late sixth century date after this region came under Syrian and Palestinian influences. gilded domes does not mean that all the in the basilicas were domical. 41. Add to this evidence the prestige of the domical oratories in the basilica church at Sion and we have strong proof that the domical symbolism originally associated with the independent martyrium had pene- mosque at trated the basilica. 194). corners of the octagon at Kal'at Sim'an (Fig. (Figs. 175) with similar wooden domes at the four corners. it accounts for the effort to construct masonry domes over the elongated side of the "Grave church" at Resafa chapels (Fig. 176) and over the square chambers at at the east end of the North African basilica (Fig. while the mosaic from Khirbit Mukhayyat (Fig. 2 14. 30. however. the explains appearance of the dome over the side chapels of the churches In fact.DOMICAL CHAPELS discovered in corners of the square north tower of S. (Fig. "La Basilica cristiana nell' Africa settentrionale italiana. when taken in combination with the growing popularity of domical mysticism that was gradually transforming the domical martyrium into a regular type of church. reliquary chapels signify a tendency in this direction. it is the transference of the dome from Coptic and. 198) arched squmches supported upon columnar nave at Koja Kalessi corbels. Sergius (Fig. had visible. the martyrium to the oratory which. 28 (plan). 379-286. it will be noted that the tri-lobed plan of the north chamber and the cruciform plan of the south chamber continue the same early tomb-types which the Christians took over from the Romans for their martyria. 42). the use of corner domes in connection with the central dome on later Byzantine churches. they restored both flanktowers with masonry domes concealed beneath ing gabled roofs of wood and tile. Moreover. the church has four square chambers. south and west facades. i. in addition to an independent tomb building as at Ruweha. or too Islamic. Mouterde and A. has a 154 . Mattern. cruciform plan and appears to have a "cloister" dome over the crossing. R. It is and with columnar porches between them on the north. 6fL. Beaulieu. one at each comer four corners. which is free standing at the southwest corner. "Dair Solaib/' Melanges de I'Universite SaintJoseph. pi. that is immaterial to the basic thesis that the dome had great significance in Syria and was closely associated with the martyrium 64 as a spiritual and eternal Domus. The tomb. xxn. because they seem too prominent. 64 If anyone desires to change the shape of the domes which I have restored on the Syrian churches. 1936. The second half of the fifth century is suggested for the date.PLACE OF COMMEMORATION at Gerasa were chapels which leads to the presumption that the four corner chambers small oratories and that other Syrian churches may have had domical towers at the only by means of such a restoration that we obtain an explanation for the recently discovered church at Dair Solaib where. Among lies (39) [of the wall] gleams with marbles of all these. Words enclosed in square brackets in the 1 Rhodes to describe leveling or crowning courses which ran around the interior walls of the church of the Holy Apostles at Constan- present version have been added by the translator. 3). 6 Or "girdle. 107. ton. As Described by Choricius of Gaza/' Pal. Apostelkirche. 5. 45. 178-191. of one kind by nature but made by skill The lower part into which is both broad and tall in proportion. one particular stone. sec. Spatantike Gemaldezyklus in Gaza (Vatican City. which Hesyat KotXoT?/?: a literary circumlocution describ- chius wvrj. 56)." Rep. <tyk means "arch. see also Theophanes Continuatus. of the apse of I. Marc. Hamil- "Two Churches at Gaza. and by F.. Ekphrasis. adorning the two walls on either side. d'aprs le rhkeur Choricius/' Rev. 5) also speak of a certain type of course as K&typ^nys. ed. arites gives as the equivalent of wij. each of them bearing the appropriate marks of distinction. p. i. 1930. many forms. XL. xxxvi. also 3 and Paulus Silentiarius uses the verb ftumj/xt Procopius of Caesarea's description St. Studi e Testi. Nazianz u. 201) and Nikolaos Mesarites.E. with n. H. and on the left you kinds. 18. 89). 37-46. i. and Laud. which is itself of the same stone. 5-31. There are translations by R. 34. Beginning on the pavement itself. and the remainder is gradually 2 3 drawn together is in breadth. Leipzig. the spectators holds the one on the right of the see the Forerunner. 1931. 122).. vn. *Apx. "Gaza au VI e stecle. ed. speak of such a course as axm}p. A. 32. P. 63. Legrand. this [stone] alone supplies the facings on either side along the edges of the window which it entirely surrounds. 747) and Mesarites (xxxvii." (01/17 is used by Constantine of and Birnbaum "Die Oktogone von Antiochia. Abel mistranslates cupwo/icVov as "se dilate. (s. has drawn me to it so quickly that I cannot bear to linger further on the details of the outside [of the church]. ed. ed.G. p. see also Sotkiou. * * Sophia.. below. 678. which and. SECTIONS 3746 1 TRANSLATION AND NOTES BY (37) G. On uvq beautifies. 1896. E. T Literally. Sophia. 326. in Procopius of Gaza. i.e. in equivalent contexts (St. Bonn. Nyssa. jcoiAo'T^o-ts ed. church in his hand. harmoniously with the arch. Kunstwiss." 155 .. cf.. Friedlander.. the lower part of which maintains a constant width* 5 as far as the arch which stands upon the corners. in his description of the church of the Holy Apostles bibL.-M. wrrrip) gives as the equivalent of ing the semicircular plan of the apse. Quart. 199*200. 1921-22. DC. Constantine of Rhodes (w. R. 1913. tinople (v.. 2 Constantinople (xxxvii. Grabeskirche u. and it has rightly compelled me to come to it before I have gone through the other features [of the building]. neither of which is wholly satisfactory in the rendition of certain details.. surrounds the window. 3739. Paulus Silentiarius (Am- bon. Abel. Heisenberg. 7 (40) For in this way bands you fashion.v. De aed. 79. 1929. 20 and text on 192. (38) On either side there a pair of holy men. a well-executed its But the eastern end. W. n. STEPHEN AT GAZA BY CHORICIUS. Forster-Richtsteig. Expl Fund. in Choricii Gazaei opera. 362. 23." cf. DOWNEY varied craftsmanship. it does not stop until it has mounted up on both sides and has reached the band 6 resting on the window. 79. and they are so variegated by their natural colors that they do not short Laud. 677.AcAr. p. St. and concavity distinguishes the wall. which Mes- Ambon. Marc. in the middle [of the lower part of the wall].APPENDIX DESCRIPTION OF THE CHURCH OF S. 1939. "of no other stone. in." not "apse". and are so well fitted that of marbles conceal the wall in well-joined would suppose that they were the work of fall nature. f. smitten with amorous jealousy. that which rests upon the window of the apse (sec.e. i. being the highest in the church.e. while is dome ly" Abel's rendering of "element" inappropri- The word ordinarily ure. "On a "quarter-sphere". should be in they will find many fine lovely stones and I have seen many such things painted models here. (41) On one band the highest. but only to say that it bears a fruit which is called my 12 the cone. A central At the summit of the dome. 9 ten "upright section of a cone." "disques. 18. Marc. 37-45 refers to the when calling a dome a "sphere" (which is the commonest term) do not trouble to note that it is a hollow sphere." ly translated ate. 10 8 Geometrical its terminology/ I understand. Marc. Downey. 38). Had he employed corresponding phraseology in the present passage. 22-54. 14 1. of the Amer. 1946-48." Choricius fond of Hamilton's and Abel's translation is of displaying his technical knowledge. I calls this mean there rests a novel shape." Trans. Indeed. Marc. 27)." Byzantion. from the material which his them equally in two. But if you wish to hear a full description.e. Choricius is clear tural Terms. This much I can describe to you by a graphic image. Choricius is also more exact than many writers in his references to spherical domes... but there are plain indications to the contrary.APPENDIX of human painting. posed that the whole of Previous translators supsees. origin as and if this was some who tell this story." and Abel That Choricius means a truncathis these ed cone rather than a vertical section of a cone is shown by description of the apse of the church of St. deeply pitying her plight. nor do they. I. Philol. he would have writ- which the transition from one subject to another may be made. emphasizing that he is now writing about an architectural element which rests upon the highest of the "bands" of stone. whose task it is to choose and need of columns to reproduce. follows. LXXVII. 15 Or "sectors" or "segments. xviri.. sent up a tree of the same is it name as the maiden." cf.. 99-118). 40) also indicates a is deliberately distorted for literary effect. 11 neither believe the people who tell this nor it." Hamilton renders "half cone. i. how Boreas. call a dome a "half-sphere" and eastern apse of the church. he states KvuXoi. and joining nine of the 8 slices 15 to each other 6 17 by their tips/ and also joining them by their middles to Or. 12 I.. The references to the "bands" are a literary device by is now right section of a cylinder" calls an "up(Laud. to the geometrical form. of which he has previously described only one. Marc. 13 Literally. Assoc. it is like intention to relate this. 40). dome description of the springing of the central in the same church (ibid. which he that the one he describing is different. Choricius makes it a semi-dome ey.. These must be the points which had been the middles of the 17 16 150 . DownSome Post-Classical Greek Architec- plain that he has changed his subject. This is the origin of the term applied to the form. was about to slay her.. Sergius. 19). wood. ox^ is wrong"ornament" by Hamilton. i." 11 The grammatical structure of the sentence is (sec. see G. like Choricius. when 1 Earth. "Byzantine Architects. and an apsidal semidome is "the fourth part of a hollow sphere" (ibid. Marc. 39). (Laud. a T/%UI is a sector of a circle or a segment of a circle. see G. Choricius likewise gives a very pre- cise quite as loosely as these words are in English. or copy the fairest things in existence. "geometry. Most writers." and is means "shape. Laud. i. Choricius uses it to mean both "decorative pattern" (Laud. Sergius." "figemployed in Greek is called "a hollow sphere divided equal(Laud. cutting circles/ five in 3 craft furnishes him/ and cutting each 4 of number.. 18) and "architectural element" (ibid. unwarranted. at their middle parts. 1946. I. (43) A carpenter. 10 "demi-cdne. the term receiving tree. 38). (42) You have perhaps seen in your country the pine originally a maiden for there are a half cone. "architectural element. if the painters' students. There are several of (sec.. The remark about the students of painting change of topic. 27) that he writes in the tech- by "discs." In geometrical terminology." or "form. tne architects (on their use of geometric methods and ter- minology. Describing the apse of the church of St. nical language of the /uppmnroeot. 27). loosely." does not necessarily mean that the planks laid upon the ribs were nine in number." plpo* a neutral. an arch of the same material rests over each of the two. then. "the remainder.APPENDIX just now mentioned was the highest one. which had similar profiles. i. the central dome. The tenth semi-circle is introduced. not as an actual structural element of the supporting semi-domes.e. and at the 25 dle. (45) This itself divided equally and part of it being placed on one side of the nine. 19 supporting semi-domes. and part on the other. circles before they and now form the 23 lower end of each 18 half-circle. 23 hollowed out in front. Wishing to make his picture as accurate as possible. I have described the function of only nine of the sectors. non-graphic term. which begin in broad fashion from below and gradually become narrower and rise up to a sharp point. not the individual planks of The middle of the church. circles in Choricius introduces the idea of quarterorder to indicate the profile of the The half-circles formed the ribs of the dome. uAa are the gores. were composed. And gold and colors make the whole work brilliant. 157 . contributing an increase to the beauty of the image which 24 is depicted there. of the Ruler of all things. 25 Choricius means that there was one gore (i. (44) But while I have fit cut five circles in half I realize that is part. 2ft which they the tips of The "cones" are. whether laid vertically or horizontally. And since it is necessary for each of the colonnades [stoas] to have some kind of distinction at the eastern end. as a "concavity. for in that case they would be very broad.e. but to relate their configuration to the central dome. sets upon them pieces o 19 20 which he makes wood/ concave. tapering upward to a point. main element which he has is said to rest just described. 37. and bending them gently. 21 The tips of the ribs and the is gores. were cut. a half-cone. equal in number to these. same time necessary that they should not have so much [distinction] as the mid26 they are adorned with other forms. one set of planks) to each rib. The description of the semi-domes is to be inferred from that of Or. the band which 8 I so as to 21 the concavity of the wall. in plan. His purpose is not to describe the construction of the supporting semi-domes. plus the supporting semi-domes. lo-apiQfia 20 The metaphorical employment of each is of these semi-circles in illustrated by the way which an arch 24 I. but in order that it may be cut in two so as to illustrate their profile. 22 used here as the central dome. (46) So these things are constructed in this fashion. the central dome. he produced a most pleasing spectacle. where he describes the apse. Choricius employs the same usage as that in sec. and drawing together all the tips into one.e. On these were laid planks. in the upon them. but without the variety given by the cones I which have described. in the middle. and 22 are you probably seeking the remaining part of the circle. which formed gores between the ribs. . Hagia Sophia. 70. 117 (Fig. 55 ancestral shelter. tomb ampulla: Alexandria (Fig. East and West Churches. 55 Apostolic Constitutions. 66 Amaravati. 43. 104 Kal'at Sim'an (Fig. 14^ '5 1 "Cemetery. 66 Berlin (Fig. 104-106. 98 Aetheria. 92. 224). 96 "Sepulchre of the Arians. 66 Adraa. 102. 8)." 96 81-83 Parthian. 144. 129). 31. Thebes. 67. 41. 59. 141. 28. relief (Fig. 36. 69 arch. 48. ambon. 69. 56 56-57. 56 Byzantine. 43 Palace. 166). 72. 159 . East church. 135-139 Zeus. 146). 140. 219). 15. church of Nativity (Fig. 80 Brad. 68. 135 M3 in domical shrine (Figs. domical. 83 churches: South Baths. 134 127. 126-128. Athenaeus. (Figs. 69 bonnet. 121 i baetyl (Fig. Sergius (Fig. 72 Church of. 69 Baldwin I. Babylas (Fig. 135. 105 Bench. 70 central: S. 69. 115 Ba'albek: aedicula. 55 "Forty Martyrs. 56 symbolism. 24. 145) in prothesis. 67. 146) with stars (Fig. 205). 114). 150 Beisan: 90)." 96 Virgin. shrine (Fig. Colombo. martyrium (Figs. 107 Detroit. Arpachiyah: domical houses. 113 Aleppo. 80 Antioch (Fig. round. 14 Athens: bema. 73 ovoid (Fig." 95 Domus aurea (Figs. 138). 34. 107 23. 68 coins (Figs. 80 coins (Figs. 117-118. relief Bernard de Breitenbach. 137) with parasol (Figs. Nisibis. 134) Areopagitica. 73 Dushara El-Gabel (Fig. 78 Bosra: Tyre (Fig. 66 99). 66 Canopus. cathedral (Fig. 133). 140. seal (Fig. 144. 57 Der Seta (Fig. 15. coin of Gallienus (Fig. 73 house form. 148 Apollo. 101). 46. 144. 153). heavenly. 166). 29- Brahmanic hut (Fig. chapels Church No. 144. 127. 98: church (Fig. 133 Agnellus. 103-104 Lateran. 63 painted sherd (Fig. 31) S. 133) Munich Ravenna (Fig. seal (Fig. 148 Leontius. 129 Alexander the Great. 70 Virgin's church. casket. (Fig. 26. 67-68 Alamounderos.INDEX Aachen: Reliquary (Fig. 130. monument. 19- fountain house. 5." 96 "House of Martyrs. 57 "ancestral home. Stephen. 83-85. 130). 7. 23 (Fig. 43. 31). 98-99 stele (Fig. 77 Pre-Islamic. 70. 132. church. 109). 159. 73 (Fig. 105). 74). 162). 69 Milan (Fig. 9). 69 amalaka 80 (Fig. 80 (Figs. 65. S. 139. martyrium. 73 Apamea. 42 Area. 17-21). grave (Fig. 126-128) with tree (Figs. 66 Serapeion. 37 Gabbari. 82-83 xvith eagle (Figs. 19 (Fig. 119-120 Adraa 73 156-157). 74. 153). shrine (Fig. 131). Brivio. 28. 69 Agrimensorum 13). 76). 140 Bharhut. see Holy Sepulchre with eagle (Figs. 28. 65 (Fig. domical naos (Fig. S. 140). 58 conoid. Mosque. 62. 8. 23 rectangular." 52. 53. 109. ivory Manchester (Fig. 4. 182). 75 temple. 99 Dresden (Fig. 50-51. church. Odeon. 221). 99 30. 31 Altar: center of church. cathedral (Fig. 135-139. 104 baths. 21 bethel. 151). 95. 75: Buddhistic (Fig. 73 aedicula. 73 72 Bobbio. tomb. and martyrium. 29. 45. 101-102 Bettir. 3i 29). Cathedral 150 (Fig. (Fig. 91 Buddha enthroned Buddha Gaya. seals Babiska. 110). 72 Amaury 20 I. 132). 56. 27. 126. 75 Edessa. 140 Berlin. 127. 131). 114). 6. 71-74 Anastasis. 49). 95 S. 85. 141-144 Amida. 95. Asoka. 73 'Amman. conoid. under dome. 5. 142 S. 59 Behyo. 56. tomb S. 99 S. 150. 90 ark (Figs. 53. 220. 140). 104 Holy Sepulchre. ampulla. Museum. 30. 218). 58 (Fig. ampulla (Fig. 43). 73 church tomb. 137 Resafa. Romanorum Zeus Kasius (Fig. 73 Washington 'Amrith. 56-57. 188). 155). 129). 104 Tyche (Fig. 81-82 Alexandria: Aksa mosque (Fig. 19 III. Lysicrates. 97-98 BakirhS. 127. 96. 73 domical cosmogeny. 105. 198). 130 Zeus Kasius 105 bait. 139). 170). 136 (Fig. 45 bowl. 78 Stoa. 56. 140 baldachin. 70. 115). kalube. Hadrian. 153) Emesa. 131). 66 book covers. church. (Fig. 65. 98). 87 Armenia. 71-74 (Figs. 158). 59-61). 129). 163). 203). 19 Baldwin Baldwin II. 73 Anonymous. Pergamum tree. 25. 66. 26 Abydos. 68. 81 Ravenna. no ampulla (Fig. 58 representation (Figs. 170). 106). Babylas (Fig. seal banyan tree. 89 baitylos. 143). 73 aeterna memoria (Figs. 53. 137) Bizzos. Antioch. 54. 121-122 baptistery: Antioch. Sassanian (Fig. 196). 86). 48 battering ram. 121-122 tomb. 73 reliquary (Fig. 109-111. 73-74 India (Fig. Antioch: 107 Bagawat. 137 Seleucia Pieria 152. 65 83 95 100 imperial (Figs. 59. John Baptist. 141. 9 Bawit. 104 Arculph. 188). 185). 138 agapes. 129). 129). 73 (Figs. (Figs. 107 Bobbio (Fig. 96 Martha. heavenly. 151 baetyl: Bethlehem. Pergamum (Fig. 71 Chagra. 21. 81 polygonal. 76. Maximianus Libanum. 41. 115). 45 "Dome of the Eagle. celestial. t 73 Caltagirone. ovoid baetyl (Fig. 54 Church of Antioch. coelum. 69 with Coenaculum. 116). tomb." 132-134. (Figs. 79-94 hypaethral (Figs." 38 69 Cons tan tius Chlorus (Fig. with rosette (Fig. 80. 69. 66). domical: circular. 40). 69 Emesa (Figs. 22 Sagalossos (Fig. 115 Chabba. 8. 38-39. 128. West Church. 5 160 . Kalube. 22. 75 tent of Ion. 93. 70 29. 36. Clavijo. 5. 168). 89). mass. 83 (Figs. Constantius. 14. Charlemagne. 106). ig . Anastasia. 85 Laodicea ad mare 113). Theodosios church (Fig. 55 Maxentius Sepulchris" (Fig. 143). the Russian. 190). 17. 121 Der Dosi. 22). 33 Domation. 62. 69 Chronicle of Tabari. 73 omphalos. 68 ambon. 52 Damascus (Figs. 33 dome: Armenian. 121 hemispherical. 22 Dehes. 148 church. 21. 54. (Fig. 35. 32. tombs (Fig. 7 8 8 5 diaconia. 78 Crete. 42. 68. 111. 27 heavenly. 133). "De 24 caelatura. 19). celestial. 87-89 Nestorian. 68 Sassanian (Fig. 55 Detroit. 10-11 Centelles. 10-44. 18). 70). 88-89 Dioskouri. Casaranello. 15. *43> 145 36-37. 134 Cult of Martyrs. Babylas. 46-47 29. 155-157 Christ enthroned (Fig. Aachen. as a divinity. 77-78 54 Caliph al-Walid. 80. John Baptist. 151). Calvary. 72. (Figs. 77). 22 De Bruyn. 102. 26 choir. 129). church. 98. with dove with eagle (Fig. ampulla. 228). 163). 69 with 54 65-66 coins: Adraa (Fig. 68. S. 31-32 corbeled (Fig. 80 Cratinas. 144 Cosmas Indicopleustes. 81 Burdj Hedar.80 Bulgaria. 41. Catechumens. 74-75 5. 123 construction. 103 Daphne. 41. 122 melon 153. 105 Callot. 154 113. 24-25. 72. 91 tree. 147. 30. 58 with scale pattern (Figs. 133). 124-131 square. 36 relief S. 95. caelum> 107 Caesarea ad (Fig. 27. 31. 55 Constandne. conopaeum. 42. Mark. 52. 97-98 "Churches of Martyrs. 120-124 Cult of Heroes. 24 69 Diaconicon. 8. 33. churches: S. 151 Diodorus of Tarsus. 28. 8 astral (Figs. 68." 42 "domed houses. 58). 140 domical shape. 144. 16. 41 -44 lotus. 151 arabon. Euphemia. 77. 9l brick. 112). 73 India (Fig. 29 Constantius Chlorus. 131 Holy Calvary (Fig. 34 en parasol. 132. 126-128. 105-108 tri-lobed. 108 171). 145> 150 Cult of Relics. 69. 20-22. 79. (Figs. martyrium. 108. 68. 5. 5. plan of Jerusalem 21 seal conoid shape. 64 cruciform. 73. Romulus (Fig. ciborium. 18). 10. 40. church. 152 chapels. 7. 107 Damascus: Great mosque Shrine. 104). 68. 41. 97. 37 Arpachiyah. 222). 19 (Fig. heroon. Corinth (Fig. martyrium. domus. 151). 73). 26-27. 140 Tyre (Figs. 105. 24. 12. 96 volcanic scoria. martyrium 49> (Figs. 119. 96 Dapper. 82 "4 Chalcedon. 78 Antioch (Figs. 111-115 mortuary. 82 Persian. 101. 54. Der Seta. 21. 53. 148. tomb (Fig. 39. 142 (Fig. 38. 21). 129. 24. 17-21. see 6). 27 Delphi: 65. 101 Canopus. 42. 9. 42. 90 72. wooden. *52 Daniel in den (Fig. 51 Commemoratorium "cones of rock" (Fig. 64. 63. 20. 115-120 inscribed cruciform. 81 8. 96. 122 Mespotamia. thatched (Figs. 154). 8. 224-227). coin (Fig. 90. 107). 78 cosmic house. 98-100 168. 130). 145. 74-75 Canons. 102. baptistery (Fig. 106. 102 Choricius of Gaza. Cassino. 109. 17. 25. 24 S. 68. 81 cella trichord. 18. 68. 152. see melon handkerchief. 42. 52. 68 Caesarea ad Libanum (Fig. 69 golden. 79. 6. ciboriuni 24 99 Palestine (Figs. 50-60 Parthian (Fig. 91. 20. 68. 29. 52 24 Corinth: gored. 63 Assyrian. 144-145 ceiling as heaven. 32-34 conoid 107 (Figs. 24 Djeradeh. 131). church. 18. 151-154 chariots. 15. shrine canopy. S. 8. 5. 142. 42. 92-94 churches. u. Euphemius. 71. 8. 94). 90. 134). 71. 72 Eucratides II (Fig. 28. 133. 92 Alexandria (Figs. 69. 81. Constantinople: doma. 20). 14. 92-93. 120 (Fig. 8. 137). 108 89 bulbous Holy Apostles. martyrium 72). 79. 31-32. 39. 53> 89. (Figs. 55. Vedic. 139 Byzantine architecture. 123 Jewish (Fig. 109 S. 77 Cult of Caesars. 137). 104 64 69 (Figs. 5. Institute of Arts. 108-111 four-lobed. 113 24). 112). 138). 39. 34 88. 87-89 cosmic egg. 73. 33. Jonah scene (Fig. 37. 51-52 S. 149. John Baptist. domical. flanged (Figs. 69 4. 41-42 (Figs. 8 4. Dendera. 8. 73 Antioch in Pisidia (Fig. 55.32-33 paten. 228). 7!. 9. 67 cosmogeny: Christian. Holy Sepulchre. 63. 73). 19. 135. church as world. 82 Hagia Sophia (Figs. 33 martyria. 69. 188). 105). 24. 70. 5. no). 111-117). 88 Islamic. 6. 97. 29. 67. 13). 62. Leontius. 96-97 cabin. 55. 123 stars (Figs. 70). 73 Daniel. 134. 83 Divus Maximianus.INDEX Buddhistic shrines (Figs. 18. 64). 68. 137. (Figs. 150 DairSolaib: 144- pine cone. Melicertes (Fig. Byzantine. 153). 85) 18. 90 219-220. 146 Tyche lions* in. 63 Cambrai. Capella del Crocifisso (Fig. 26. S. 11 57. 132). 7. 69 Cagliari. 151 no). 63). 4. 6-9 domical shape. 100-105 rectangular. 6 No. 136 Gamim. (Fig. 99). 77 De Bruyn Goujon. 58 Etruscan: (Fig. 108 martyrium Holy Apostles. 39-40. 15-16. 123 John Baptist 167. 4. Indra (Fig. 59 earth lodge.. 24 Reliquary. 5. 175. 139). (Fig. 112 Roman S. 153). 80 vault. 72 coin of Antoninus Pius (Fig. 115-120 helmet. see Ba'albek (Fig. 15. Mu. 81). baths. 76. 55 S. 166. tomb (Fig. (Fig. Ed-dschunne. 96. relics. Nat. 59 heaven: martyrium. 80 house. 35 Emesa (Horns): Bishop Genesius. Dravida. Apollinare Nuovo 7). 58 tent. 152 cella trichord.. 72 heroon. 16- Hagia Sophia. 69 84 66 Syrian (Figs. tomb (Fig. funereal (Fig. 86-87. 87 Horomos. 79. (Figs. 86-89 il-Anderin. pine cone. Alexandria. (Fig. 19 domed. Gandhara. 124). martyrs. dosme. 39-40. 228). 64. 54. Ravenna 73). Latin kings 18-20 23 (Figs. in Cambrai. Trier (Fig. 29 Pococke. 28 Bernard de Breitenbach. 149 Eutychius. 98-99 (Figs. 109-110 No. Golgotha. 145 Epidauros. 86 Edessa. churches: Nyakang hut (Figs. hut: 67). Herodianus. 23 El Hadra. 114. 51 wooden domes. 26. 65 Goujon. 54. 51 house. 86 shepherd (Figs. 75 il-Firdeh. 150 Greece. church. 35 Hahpat. 142). 151 Cathedral. church. 12). Clodius. 226). cosmic. 124 "grave memorial" (Figs.86 urns. 100 Guy de Lusignan. Medici Chapel. 38 Hagia Sophia: Constantinople 89. 72 baetyl (Figs. 89-91 Evagrius. 70. 26. 22 Irene. 24 24 151. 23)> Sarcophagus (Fig. 4). 52 Eusebius. Seals. 130 conoid. (Fig. 72 coin of Uranius Antoninus 128). 8 (Fig. 70. 154). John Entry into Jerusalem (Fig. 6. 48). 2. 118). 9). 6 Eclogues." 96 S. 85-87). Brit. 143. 140 161 . 108-109 Holy Calvary (Fig. 149 74. 72 Baptist. relief (Fig. 65. 52. 27. representations: Agrimensorum Romanorum S). 65 Constantinople. 79. Tholos. sketch (Fig. 73 eagle. 33. 196). see "Cosmic egg" Gaza: 29 Egypt: ampullae (Figs. church (Fig. Sieglin Coll. baetyl (Figs. 22 Horns. 80 Dresden. 84 Ephraim. 18. 10). church. 111 fountain. S. synagogue 53. 79-94 Es-Semu'a. seal 31. Stephen. 133 Fenikang. 25. 132. M. 158). 27. 151 Prophets. "House of God. Marneion. Rabula Gospels (Fig. 106. 106. church. 76 Gotama Zuallardo. 127 Eudoxiana. 47). 123. plan Dapper. 93 fornix coeli. 23 fire temples: Indian (Figs. 87." see Gaza Eunapis. Bibl. 54. church (Fig. 99. ampulla. 123 86 coin of Caracalla (Figs. martyrium. 75). John 27 (Fig. 100 fire altar (Figs. church. 137). 5 1 96. 98. Holy Sepulchre. 142 (Fig. Raising of Lazarus (Fig. 18. 101 and tree. Esdras. Minoan Gerasa: ivories (Figs. nouses. 76 Hermes. tomb. 123 (Fig. Domus Romulus. Ephesus. 5). 16). MS. 200). see Fra Giocondo. 75. 7." 72 house. 20. 84). 37-38 et-Taijibe. 65). glass medallion. 59 hut shrine (Fig. Gregory of Nyssa. 65 as paradise. Greek (Fig. 8. 7 n hoop roof. 130 (Fig. 16)." 92 house tombs. 72 mosaics (Figs. mosaic (Fig. 47. 64. 218-227). 76 17.ai Rossano Gospels S. 11 wooden dome. celestial. 22 gem. tomb of Rachel 59 Heliopolis. shrine of 93) feasts. 14-16 "Old Church. 29. 82). 21 El Gabel. 104. 100). 66 "Ferdus er-Rum. 31). 101). 22 (Fig. 53 68). 27. 126-128. 126-128). 106-107 Edessa: bema. 30. 28 14). 65-66. Egg. Ezekiel. Great Entrance. 169). 65. 27 house burials. 83 gardens. 61 Fountain of Life. church. 47. 65 Parthian (Fig. 94. 24 MS. 21 MS. 201). 119. 66 Holy Sepulchre 29. 66 chapels (Figs. tomb. 115). 7. 66 hemisphairion. 77-79 (Fig. 177). 51 Hass. 63. 22 granary. 58 Galla Placidia. "Eudoxiana. 70. 11 tombs Euphratensis. 82. 75 (Fig. 15). 92. 27 "dome. 93 . 22 21 and Martyrs. 5 Doura-Europos: ark. 37 Harendermolen. 56. 114 (Fig. 126. 11). (Fig. 33. Falul. 127). with eagle" Gabbari tomb." tomb (Fig. 82. 140). domed S. 45 (Figs. 31 Procopius. 6). 75 four-lobed plans. 83). tomb. 98 Etschmiadzin. 124 Gregory of Nazianzus. 137). see Emesa Ephod. Rewick. Gr. i. 24 Enthroned Christ (Fig. 99).INDEX Domus aurea. church: Hierapolis. 69 107 SS. fr. 79. 108 house grave stele (Fig. 145) Hebron. Virgil (Fig. no ampullae (Fig. 21 Callot. 3). cathedral. finial. 135. the Syrian. Milan (Fig. church. 41. 52 Dushara. 130 (Fig. 62. 69 Florence. 132). 1070. 37 hortus. 24). 206). Egerton. 97). 7 No. Sergius. bowl. 33 Milan. 38-40. 54. 79. 98). Theotokos 89-91. 138. 21 MS. 150). 18. 168). 95). 3 No. 25). 67 gold-glass. church. Sacrifice of Isaac (Fig.. 192). Museo Sacro (Fig. church (Fig. 96). 96 S. Peter *5* and Paul. 103 (Fig. 22 (Fig. 30. 160). church. 86. 142 (Fig. Apostles Madaba. "Royal. 134. 69 Enthroned Virgin (Figs. 51 houses. 27. 99 (Fig. 66 Eitha. 62. Qubbat-as-Sakhra 17. ivory 23 (Fig. 121 Kaoussie. 58 Kal'at Kaldta. 114 Korykos. 42 Mongol tent (Fig. relief (Fig. 138-139. 115 tomb. 102 Aksa mosque (Fig. S. Lotus and dome. 178). cruciform. 162). 52 Myra. 87 square. Murano. 7. tholos tomb (Fig. 151-152 Patricius. 87 Jonah scene (Fig. 120. 78 14 'ohel mo'ed. 41. 36-37. Palace of Gods (Fig. kubba. 187). coin 24 paradise. (Fig. pyxis (Fig. 54 Josephus. Leontius. 69 Mycenae. 15* 55 122 Milan: kiln. Ascension. Kalb Lauzeh Kal6ta. church. 143 S. 40 John of Antioch. 85 Mar Saba. 52 Parthian sanctuary 82 (Fig. 121 Nazianzus. 111. 144. iss. 27 (Figs. 36. 18. 18. 27. Mt. parasol (Figs. 31-32 oblations. 198). 105 Paul of Samosata. Antioch. Mismiyeh. Palace. 64 Church (Figs. 98 Manchester. il-Haiyat. 61 Jupiter Sol. 80 Isaiah. India: Kirkbiz. 6. 98-100 Orphic Cult. 58 Khirbit Mukhayyat. 65 La Horgne. 7 Holy Apostles. 52 Michael the Syrian. 74. Marco Polo. 80 sacred hut. 16. 97. 20. 87 Khosro II throne room. 35). 121 Kazanlak. Holy Sepulchre (Figs. 36). 69 6). 47. Church (Fig. 63). 68. 161). 63. 102. 42 (Figs. 146. church Nero. book cover (Fig. 81 ovoid. 103-104 pulpit. 80 Palladio. 130 seal (Fig. Cloister church qubdb. 5. 162 . 140. 53. 142. 30 Manasara. Nebo. 159). 122 Sion Church. 121 (Fig.INDEX Ilissos. 31. 150 Kodja-dagh. qubba Lahore. 132-154: oratories. 140). 19 (Fig. chapel. 103 Theotokos. 67. church (Figs. 142). church (Fig. 122-123 (Figs. 87 Khorsabad. palace. 43. 82 Khurbet Zanuta. tomb. 72. 80 qubab houses ritualistic tent (Fig. pastophoria. 193). kalube (Fig. ambon. London. 73. 131 Plan of Cambrai (Fig. 7. 92. tomb (Fig. 218-227). 164). heroon (Fig. house grave stele (Fig. 81 Mark the Deacon. church (Fig. 124 . Brit. 106). grave stele (Fig. 64 Nyssa. 88 Latin Kings. 9) baldachin (Fig. 104 circular. 17. patens 36-37 227). 58. 86 (Fig. Nat. 144-145 mausoleum. 76 Kefrnabu. 99. 5.69 altar of Zeus (Fig. 18-19 Nea. church (Fig. 148). 124-131 Kalube. tomb (Fig. Gal. 83 Palmyra: domical houses. 127 John of Damascus. 52 Maximianus. 150 (Fig. 189). 103. 152 Kal'at Sim'an: Baptistery (Fig. 108-111 four-lobed. 8. 166. 152 Kfer. 22). Odeon. 62 7. 115 (Fig. 135. 45. 20. 72 mappula. church (Fig. 140. (Figs. 56-57. 6?)' 52> 75 Jerusalem: Mizhet. Moses. 95-98.. ivory (Fig. 78. 153 Mezek. Mschatta. 14. 148 Nineveh: mosaic. relief (Fig. 212). 126 Metz. see egg otipavw Church 61-71 (Fig. 125). relief 147). 191). 105 (Fig. 16. Brivio casket. 140 polygonal. 149 Mt. Simeon 32. 108-109 ivory S. palace. rock-cut 89). houses. 116). 149 127 maphalia. 218- Last Supper. hypogeum. 11). East (Fig. 123 69 (Figs. 55 209- Kharga. 46-47. 59. 77 Osrhene. 101. 27). 82 Nestorian. 145 Melicertes. Mir'ayeh: 115. 7. 44. 41 Madaba: Mosaic. 76. 28). 129. 69 Nuzi.1 149 cosmic. 152 omphalos. 5. 81 (Fig. 87-88 (Fig. 91) (Fig. 79. 208). 67). 41. 13 Meriamlik. 16-29. 109. 75. 111 it-Tuba. church 211). 174). 149. 150 (heaven). Admirable. martyrium miskan. 142 Stylites (Figs. 15 Koja Kalessi. 114 Mass of Catechumens. relief (Fig. 165). 103 massebdh. 21). Athens. 122. 120-124 Kanisah Maryan. 91 Laodicea ad mare. John Baptist 19. 105-108 tri-lobed. ambon. 1-15. 44). martyrium (Fig. 40 Malalas. round building.. 80. 152 Templum Domini tetranympheum. see qobba. martyrium (Fig. 87). 46. 144 "Lord of the House. relics. 34). Temple 24 43> 83 of Bel. church 43). 91). 98). tomb (Fig. 152 baptistery. 140. 5. 105 Michelangelo. 4." 73 mundus. 19. 115-120 inscribed cruciform. 207). 17). 32. 31 Mahoymac. 126-128). 114). 85 Jupiter. 83 cosmic house. 72 palladium. 139). 52-53 Munich. 24 Nicholas. tholos tomb. 80 Paris. miniature (Fig. church. 141 Paul the Silentiary. 93 Ka^apaj/. 54 Maxentius. relics. 17. 140 Kharzib Shems. 147. Tychaion miter. Louvre. 8). 66). mosaic (Fig. 65 Kabitka (tent). 93-94 Midjleyya. 98-99 ^ mountain. 24-26. 95. 79 Pergamum. 35. 33. (Figs. 125-126 church 180). 85 Jean de Brienne. 194. Virgin (Fig. 98 *otje. 195). 86. 41 (Fig. 142. 173). 102 Dome of the Chain. museum. 18. 55 Mardan. coins 113). 122. 92. Mu. 108. 78 Jericho. 69. 70). 115). S. 168). (Fig. 142 Modestus. 37. 46). 15) 1 63 Lorenzo. Holy Sepulchre (Fig. 123 Nagada. 7. 149) Nisibis. church. 80). memorial. coins (Figs. 81 Kades. 73. 5. church. 42. 71 domical church. see Antioch Kasr Ibn-Wardan: Mashhad. 65 Justinian. 139-140 Meletius. 228). 66. chapel. 56. 111-115 83 34-35. 100 Kanawat. 13. 141. hut shrine. 111. 75-77 martyrium. 46 21 38). Koyunjiq. 105 mensa martyrium. loo. 227). 100-105 rectangular. Church Ma'in: (Fig. Holy Calvary 106-107 lampadophores. 83. church (Fig. mausoleum. tomb (Fig. 142-143 relics. 199). 43. 71 71. hut shrine. 67. 76 Maximus. 56 Monte del Grano. martyria: Antioch-Kaoussie (Fig. 53 Leontius. Murano book S. 143. 5. 25 Ursiana. 112 Honorius. location. Augustine. Bosra (Fig. 182). no Cyril of Jerusalem. 123 Rome: cellae trichorae. 58 Sebios. H9 S. coin (Fig. 24 Giorgio. qobba. martyria: S. 21 Rihi. 93 Giorgio. 76 163 . S. Simeon Stylites. S. 83-85 qubab huts (Figs. 113 Euphemia. 27. S. see Beisan Sebaste. 24 Rossano Gospels (Figs. Bizzos (Figs. 27 Septimius Severus. quatrefoil. 110-111 S. Domus Domus Caecilius Jucundus. 24 Rachel. 68). Daphne. Elias. 117. 129 Siyagha. 14 Preslov. 24. 96. 127 pit house. 35). 142 Servilii. 65 Sergiopolis. 96 Maximin. seal 223). in (Fig. 82- Pseudo-Dionysus. 65 Sebastya. 148 Severianus of Gabala. 31. 134 Babylas. see kubba. Cagliari (Fig. 51 Scythopolis. 71 Shehba. 56 Galla 26. 43. 90. church. 69. 122-123 Sozomenus. Andrea. 31). 56 Torre de' Sciavi. 23). 123 Damascus. 115). 64. 55 S. 25 Sion Church. 55 153 S. tomb. 25 Zacharius. 25 Sebastiano. Red Church. 34). 56). 67 Saewulf. 10). baldachin (Fig. 6 "Place of Commemoration. 126- Alexandria 66. 36-37. 123 129. 73. 109- kalub (Fig. 124). Gaza. 91. 138 martyrium. 116- S. S. 90-91. 137. tomb 58 (Fig. 149 167. 17 Demetrios. 52 Sacrifice of Isaac (Figs. 141. 97). S. Rome. tomb. 149. 169). 107 (Figs. tomb. 53. domical tent 145). 121 Sassanian. 38-40 Sagalassos. 71. 36 Constantinople. 221). martyria: (Figs. 15. Ephesus (Fig. 7. 123 S. Procopius. church. Mt. Museo 68 26. 95. 138 S. Barnabas. 72 Rewick. 101 Sinai. 82 Jerusalem (Fig. seal (Fig. Hermes. 84 Sokani. 64 tomb. 134-135. 198). S. 13. reliquary 55 149). 61 Querate*. 37 Seleucia Pieria: Qusayr an-Nuwayis. coins 28 Eitha. 115 Perustica. 124 Demetrios (Fig. 14. Kal'at Sim'an Pompeii: sarcophagus (Fig. 49). 55. martyria: singing. 73 Philo. 82 Pococke. Sougitha. Rouhaibed. 152 Ravenna: Arian baptistery. 197. 172). S. 123. 104). 56. 135. Germanos. S. 131 prothesis chapel. Daphne. Simeon Stylites the Younger. Admirable (Fig. 111 Romulus. 25 Romulus. 148 Apollinare in Classe. 132. 99. 18. Saloniki. 136). 39. 83). Ba'al 138 Shamin (Fig. 181. round church. 45 "Shepherd (Fig. church Sicily. tomb. 55 Rabula Gospels (Fig. tomb. 707l 72> 74-75 (Figs. church. 109-110 Socrates. 117 Hilarius. Athenogenes. 109 relics. 67. 152 (Fig. 108 tomb (Fig. 149 Sohag. 25 S. 51 Sophronius. 51-53). 84). 53. 19 S. 173). relics. 139. 121 Emesa. 103). 144. 17. S. 64). 89 Severus of Antioch. 108 S. 118). 126-129 S. 67. 50-51. 48.INDEX Perge. 40 pyramidal roof. arch (Fig. qubdh Qubbat-as-Sakhra (Figs. Gaza. 184). church. 118- S. 7) Syrian temple. 145 Spalato. S. 27. 78). Resafa: 49 10 5 "Grave Church" 113. relief (Fig. 152 ambon. 107 189). 14). 108 Andrew. 119). see Resafa Rabanus Maurus. 122 108 skene. martyria 153)' 66. 187). Chrysostom. "Memorial of Moses" (Fig. 15. Basil. (Figs. Si'. (Figs. 31-32. Daphne. 59. 117 Pisidia. tomb. 73). 20 S. 60. 146 Shakka: 170). 94). 32. 129 tomb. 66. 152 Sol Elagabalus. 111. 148-149 relief (Fig. 91 pileus (Figs. 55 martyriura (Figs. 104 palace. baetyl. 22 Pantheon. 18. n. (Fig. 88-92). oratory. 107-108. 25 Priscilla. 145. 19). 70). 59' 72 qobba. (Figs. 55. 53 82 S. 78 reliquaries. tomb (Fig. architect. baptistery. John. reliquary (Fig. 197. 122). Zor'ah (Fig. 37. Barnabas. 38. relief (Fig. Sichem. John Baptist. 78. tomb (Fig. 69 Apollinare Nuovo. 198). John Baptist. S. Ramah. 79). 25 Lateran. i34-*3 6 ) 7 8 '79 pine cone. 48. 183. 145. 60. 19 Ruweha: (Fig. 144-145 Sinjerli. 123. 106 Rahle. 92 Rufinus. porphyry. chapel. S. 109. 103. hypogeum. 69-70 Qurinus. Ambrose. 139. 148 S. 112- S. tomb. 30. 49. domical rotunda. relics. 69). 104. 145 Martyrium (Figs. 150. 121 Sohar. 123 151-153 George. 33 Scythian tombs. 68 Salamis. Sacro. 119 176). 96 Euphremius. 91 Vesonius Primus (Fig. 85 Helena. 41 Virgin and Child. 112 Samaria. Bizzos (Fig. 69). 8. 70 Raising of Lazarus (Fig. cover (Fig. 87. martyria: Bosra. rotunda. 24. Costansa. 82. Sergius (Figs. 69 Saar basin. 116 Petra. paten (Fig." 119. 59-61). 84 temple. S. Tent of the World" Placidia. Stephen. S. Theodoric. Domus aurea. temple. 25 Philostratus. 107). 39-40 Resafa (Figs. 93 tomb. 228). relief (Fig. 123 Gerasa (Figs. 123 qubbeta. 143). 34-35 S. baths. no Prior of Holy Sepulchre. 140 Shakka Zor'ah (Fig. 61-67 qubba. 151 Prudentius. 132-154 Plutarch. 35. 57. 38). 16. 25 Sebaste. S. 74. 54 Sardis. 122). in Saloniki: S. 78 Sardinia: huts. 90 Sergius. tomb (Fig. 105 (Fig. mosaic (Fig. 42). 111 1 "Dionysus/ 52 Etruscan (Fig. 97). 52. 120-124 Theodorus of Mopsuestia. 22 164 . 79. 103 tomb Persian. 7. 54." 31 Tyche. 57. 106. 28.'* 67. 42. 153). 85 Yak to. 41. 70 70. 25 144). 11 Tolemaide. 153 Damascus. 13 tabernacle. 5. 61 Tepe Gawra. 60. 105 51. 69. 86-88. 51 Valerius Romulus. 81 portable. 74 Theotokos. Syrian forests. 51-53). 53 (Fig. 185). tomb. see bema trichora. 153 Tyre. 53: Mesopotamia. 85 towers. tomb. 80 tegurium. 51 Sicily 54 Eclogues (Fig. 149). 51 5711. Zora. 36 welt. 110. domical: ampulla (Fig. 88 Theodosius: baldachin (Fig. 121). 41 tent. 54 Teiasir. 28. 73. 115 Ur: cistern. 75 Tsaritchin Grad. 36 stupa. 102 cruciform. 145 Theodoric. mosaic (Figs. 111). 88 Tychaion. 82 55 kalube" (Figs. church. 55. Arab. 63 Thomas of Jerusalem. (Fig. tent. 70 120. 128 stars. 64). 109-110 Virgin. 92 Vedic cosmogeny. 80 vihdra* Virgil. 53 Veluwe. 23. 30 Zenobius. Tresilico. S. 115 Theodoret. 133 Assyrian (Fig. 75). 20 "Theotokos naos. 111 (Figs. 145-147 tetranympheum." 64 Testamentum. 124 Yahweh. 33). 98 glass medallion (Fig. 8. 58 Bulgaria (Fig. 68. David (Fig. 43. no. 107 "table of oblations/' 135 Alexandria. 96 S. 80 Vasari. 25 Takle. 152). 92. 9). 7 Achaemenid. shepherd. 131 Madaba (Fig. Imperial. 84-85 Ion. 93 tent. 66 (Fig. 133. dwelling. 129). 67. 82 Trivulzio. temple. 7 Parthian 82 (Fig. 8. 215). 57. 81 Alexander the Great. "round house. 25 world house. 27-28. 66). 44). 91 "tholos" houses. 108. tombs (Fig. 20 tree tree and dome. 153 (Fig. 123 41. 58." 81 "tentmates/' 109.INDEX squinches. 81 leather. 65 70). 57-60 tunnel vaulted. half domes. 54. 171). 53 baetyl (Fig. 138. 78 Trier: Cathedral. 43. 146). 81 Symeon of Thessalonica." 62. 228). 7. 51 Templum Domini. portable i47)> 6 9> 83 tomb: "Adam. 119-120 Ba'albek. 26-27. 67 tri-lobed plan. 96). 84 Xerxes. 63 (Figs. 45 Resafa (Fig." 76. 54-56)* 49* i3-"4 George (Figs. Sardinia (Fig. 86. church. 85 tent pattern. quatrefoil plan. 63 tabernacle. 83 "Translation of Relics" 98 tree. sanctuary. 191). 147 17. Stflma. Supratentorium. 33. Todas. 53 heavenly. 59 Well of Jacob. 24 Varenna. Dumbarton Oaks: ampulla (Fig. cave 80 Khosro II. 42> 153 Jerusalem. tomb. shrine Tyre: 50. 53. 80 throne. 51 Vesara. 13. 63 Tell Hum. 29). relics. 25). 88 Xerxes. Timur. 43. 24-25 65). 84 qobba. 82. 130). 108). 83 Mongol. 60. 73 Zuallardo. 108. 58 Tell Asmar. 60. 73 tholos. 52. 81 Torah shrine. Nea. 55 sweat house. 104 volcanic scoria. 63 tombs. 34). go. ivory (Fig. 88 heavenly. 141). 52 Cassino (Fig. 5. 81-82 Africa. 123 (Fig. church. Sudama. baetyl 108. churches: (Fig. 43-44. 99 Syrian. 6. no "Tent of Meeting. 19. 59. 81 kabitka. 99 paten (Fig. 53. 152). Umm-iz-Zetum. 49. Agrimensorum *3)> 2 9 (Fig. tomb. 55. 83-84 North 53. 158). 55. temple. paten (Fig. 110-111 William of Tyre. 63 Ningal. architect. Dublalmah. 69. 103 Hebrew. 57 Amida Garizim (Fig. 78 "Tent-Dwellers. 73 Theophrastus. 6. 7. 54 Virgilianus. Sinai. 57 velum. 161). 83 Khirbit Mukhayyat (Fig. 82 cosmic. 112. 43. Tyche. 58 Valentinian II. 84 audience. 26 tunnel vault. pyxis cover tribune. 55. 51. tomb. Elias (Figs. 84 Tivoli. shrine umbrella. 87. 108 Celtic. 26. ivory (Fig. 152 Tall Hinnom. 69 throne room: (Fig. see tri-lobed 27 Wolfenbuttel. 160). 5. see Virgin tholoid shape. Scythian. 87. 51 Antioch. 93 "vault of heaven. 65-66 and martyrium. pyramidal. 81. 29. 198). 80. 67. 83 Washington. 144. 18. 23. Zeus Kasius. 214. 125. 53. 67. church 153 (Figs. tentorium. IL LUSTRA TI NS . . fourth century. A^. n.. y Sepulchre. Holy Sepulchre. section by author) c. fig. pi.387) 1150. restoration (Vincent 11. Greek manuscript (Vincent and 3-rioiy Sepulchre. seventeenth century (after drawing by de Bruyn) Holy Sepulchre. 136) c. . plan of Cambrai (ibid. Holy Sepulchre. n. figs. interior. Sepulchre. 4. Abel. 317. 5.m. section. 1400.4 - owtKrrw a -JErl: >\J: H HO ojy ana Abel. xxxm) plan (Vincent and Abel) (restoration 6.m p. mosaic. pi. 15- Women Tomb. Rabula Gospels at the Tomb. u. Apollinare Nuovo.'i^UiM 10 11 7. Madaba Women at the Tomb. pi.To mb of Milan 10. sarcophagus."Agrimensor U mRomanorum. Rome "City of Jerusalem. ivory at the book cover. Women at the Tomb. Holy Sepulchre. Basilica Vaticana. Ravenna ^-"I>eSeP ulchriS.Wolfenbuttel 4- Christ. LII/I) Women . 350/4) 8 ' ^ thC T mb ^^ b k m*' 12 . mosaic S. I. reliquary box. Trivulzio Collection. Museo Sacro." miniature (Grabar. Let Miniatures du Gregoire de Nazianze de I'Ambrosienne. ' Rome (Garrucci. Nati nal GaUery> Munich U 9 . 18. Abb. pi. coin of Maximianus (Maurice. coin of Maxentius struck in honor of Constantius (op. 309 vn/io) Raising of Lazarus.cit. xix/i. coin of Maxentius (Die Antike. 236. coin of 161-169 A. (op.cit. 17. Codex Rossanensis Memorial. 9) 21. pi.D. coin of Divus Romulus struck (op. Numismatique "Tomb" of Maximianus. 25 /d) Chlorus 19.17 18 19 20 21 22 16. no. 23 20. 2. British Museum (Donaldson. 401) . Architettura Numismatica. death in 23. Constantinienne. xix/io) Memorial. 22. pi. fig. vn/5) after Shrine of Melicertes at Corinth. t pi. gold-glass (G.rit. coin of Maxentius xii. Note storicobibliografiche di archeologia cristiana. Entry into Jerusalem. 16) Memorial.. Ferretto. Memorial. drawn by Fra Giocondo _ p 28. LXXX/C) o Alexandria. vi. g 0i city Rivista dell' Instituto d'arch. d'archeol. 1937* pi. plan. Museo di 25. Antioch pi. Abb. fig. 136. Peter and Paul. box cover from Tresilico. e storico dell' arte.LXxva . mosaic from RegU> (Galli.tiL. xi. mosaic from Yakto (Levi. i SS. 31 Roman relief Symbolic tegurium. Mosaic Pavements.. Domus Martyrium. Nazianzus (op. i) (Me7. 63} aurea of Antioch. Gerasa l. Funeral 29. et I'hist. 1891.24 26 29 24. n u * ' . Istanbul paten from Sttaa. Du. Museum. CoUection. Was.32 34 34 .banon Oa. KM. 33. Silver . r ' paten ire. S. XLVII. pi. section of octagon (after /Chufch of Main (De Vaux. Rev. S. . mosaic at xiv/4) bibl.35 36 35 .. KaVat Sim'an. Simeon r) Stylites. Mahoymac. 37 38 37. Dome of the Rock, section, pi. xix) Jerusalem (De Vogue", Le tigliscs Temple de Jerusalem, 38. Dome of the Rock, exterior pi. xix) (De Vogue, Les de la Terre Sainte, 39 40 10 20 30 40 50 feO 41 42 Q Q Q Q D C QOQQQQQQ[ 44 39. Great Mosque, section, Damascus (Creswell, Early Muslim i, 42. Syrian landscape, mosaic of Great Mosque, Damascus (ibid., Architecture, 40. fig. 63) 4 1. Great Mosque, section through nave, Da-nascus Syrian landscape, mosaic of Great Mosque, Damascus (Cres- *?%?' '""^ 44. PL 43/ b) * ^^ " ^'^ Mukhayyat (Le- well, op.cit., pi. 43/3) Church of S. Lot, mosaic from Khirbit maire, Rev. bibl, XLIII, pi. xxvi/i) 45 46 47 48 45. 46. Church, plan, Kasr ibn Wardan (after Butler) Church, section, Kasr ibn Wardan (after Butler) and section, il-Anderin (after Butler) 47 Church No. 3, plan Fa'lul (after Butler) 48. Round Church, plan, 49 a 49' 52 Bosra 493. Cathedral, section, 40b. Cathedral plan, Bosra Palestine, fig. 7) 53 (restored by author) 50. Martyrium of - S. George, section, Zorah - (De Vogite, pi. (Crowfoot, Early 52. S. Churches in 21/1) > lan > Zorah (?1 21 / 2 ) 5 1 s GeorSe P George, exterior in 1900, Zorah (after Butler) in 1936, Zorah 53.$. George, exterior Ruweha (I>e Vogue. Chagra (after Lassus) 55. exterior. pi. S. section. 56. S. 91/1) Tomb of Bizzos. Elias. 60. plan. Tomb of Bizzos. Martyrium of S. 59. Elias. exterior. Zorah (after Lassus) 58. plan. Zorah (after Lassus) Elias. 91/3) 61. Martyrium. plan. Chagra (after Lassus) Tomb of Bizzos. pi.58 57 54. Ruweha . exterior. Ruweha (De VogW. restored elevation. Zorah (after Lassus) Martyrium. 57. Architettura 52) 65. 1-13) . Neolithic tomb. B. fig. Arte e tivilta 66. Bulgaria xux. 1922. aorc) ft J/ tomb. xiv. A. Caltagirone. Holland (Van Giffen. Prae. 1945. Viterbo (Rivoira. figs. Etruscan rock-cut fig. Kazanlak. ZefL. 129) romana.]." Mycenae Rock-cut tomb. Tholos tomb of "Atreus.. (Pace. 64.C. Sicily dcUa Sicilia antica. 65.62 64 65 66 62. Tholos tomb of third century (Verdiani. A. I.. pi. fig. 19) 72 - 69.. 73 70. Tomb of Galla Placidia. Martyrium. 1892. 6) 72-74) 73.72 67. catacombs of S. 1929.. Casaranello. Saloniki (Soteriou.Dome niosaic (Bartoccini. Clodius Hermes. S. fresco. vi) of fifth centur y martyrium. m. Felix Ravenna. fig. Tomb Rome (Wirth. 1934. Sebastiano. Ravenna . 19) of M. Museum. 'E0. Wandmalerei.at.. crist. Sat- pi. fig. Stone reliquary in crypt of figs. Demetrios. Italy 7'. Casaranello (op. 50) dinia (De Rossi. plan. 'A/x. Bull di arch. Rom.8011! of House enhclcl. Jonah earned to celestial tegunum. Metz (Linckgrave-stele from La Horgne. section. 08. Lts Steles funeraires en forme du maison. . op. Tomb. 'Amrith 1901. Tomb. 76. Jerusalem (opxit... Tomb "5. fig. Denk. section. 38) (Creswell. 80 77. no. 80. stele. op. Selmstya (Creswell. Quart. Qusayr an-Nuwayis (Watzinger. St. 8) .E. Kades (Watzinger. 386) Tomb.tit. Tall Hinnom. Tomb/Amman ^ Muslim Architecture. 99) plan. 78. Rock-cut tomb. Abb. ^P.F. Abb. Early Tall Hinnom. Go) Palas. plan.. plan. no. fig.. Jerusalem (Macalister.. 79.cit.74 77 76 78 74.Ceiling rosette. 87 Dome decoration. n. 85. Bagawat. Tomb. funerary chapel. de 87. Cellae Trichorae. Ephesus Islamic weli.hn' pan of original martyrium. Egypt (Freshfield. Egypt (W." Hebron 5") .83 84 86 Tomb j. pL "Tomb of Rachel. Kharga. Fenikang in Nilotic Sudan . Orientalisches Archiv. 20) Shrine of Nyakang.^ ^S^-y-a^ # 88 89 90 91 92 88. 59. Syrian village. Qubab types Sennacherib's palace. Cappadocia painted sherd of fourth millennium. of 60) 93. Nineveh (Banse. fig. n. relief Rock-cut house forms near Utch cabin go. Arpachiyah (Mollowan and Rose. Syrian 89. 92. Rustic and trees..~? t^^J^^rV ^^%.^W>-^^. hissar. Abb. Prehistoric Assyria. qubab village 91. Naos. glass 97. ^ RltoSf liac Jewish Synagogue.. i fig 189) Ura rnam "' " " C C ^' ampulh fr m ESyPt ' 10 0.^ meeting of Gotama w j ti. ivory pyxis 101. 45) . relict manyuu at Seleuda Pieria. Princefrom martyrium Paradise relief rrora Paradise. MardSn (Foudier. Abydos (Roeder. L'art gri-co-bouddhique. Doura Europa VL81 ^ f . Shepherd's hut." Dynasty XX. pi.Sacrifice medallion from Trier relief. Stone "naos of goldsmiths. of Isaac. Brahmanic anchorite. 4. 102 103 104 107 108 102. xxvi/5) Shrine of veiled goddess. High priest Codex Rossanensis. no. Antioch. 105. 08. Cat. pi. Galatia. no. xn/2o) Portable tent shrine of Tyche. coin of 104. xxxix/ii52) pi. coin of Mus. no. coin of Septimius Severus (Brit. Galatia. Coins. pi. 109 106. Portable shrine Mus. xxx/7) Antioch in Pisidia. coin of Trebonianus 109. 315. pi. coin of Gordianus 107. 6. xm/7) . pi. pi. Laodicea ad mare Eagle in shrine. Rossano Gospels (Haseloff. 656. Kleinasiatische Munzen. Phoenicia. Cat. 437.. Mus.cit. xxxi/7) under baldachin. pi. Mysia. 105. 25. pi. 1 Sagalossa. xi) over altars of Dioskouroi. (Brit. no. no. H. (Brit. Cappodocea and Syria. Altar of Zeus. Domical tent shrine. Caesarea ad Libanum (Brit. Coins. Tyre. xxxrv/3) of Tyche. (Coll.xiv/u) Domical tent shrine. no.pl. Gallus and Volusian (Imhoof-Blmner. Phoenicia. Canopus. in. op. Domical tent shrines Pisidia (Imhoof-Blumer. Dattari. Mus. 110 Pergamum. Cat. coin of Alexandria 110. Cat. coin o Trebonianus Callus (Brit. Cat. Mus. Coins. Coins. Coins. enthroned Virgin and Child. coin o J. relict. 11 8. Damascus.114 115 116 117 118 shrine of Tyche. pi. Women at tomb. ivory pyxis Baldachin over Ruweha (Lassus. xxin/2) . Domna 1 * and ChiM ' ^ ' Christj Murano book cover ' coin of 117. Inventaire archeologique. (Lassus. Shamm.Ka!ube. il-Haiyat (Butler. Syria. izo. plan. dome pi. 6) altered) zi. Kalube. and Other 142) . u2. Umm-iz-Zetum (De Vogie. pi.119 121 . fig. 7 | ll --_ ^ IirJ | * l ' l1 T " 122 123 124 119. Syria (after Heavenly home. 123. A. Shakka (De Vogue. plan.D. plan. fig. 6/1) Si' opit. Umm-iz-Zetum De Vogu^ with Temple of 124. Syrie centrale. Architecture Arts. 335) 125.Kalube.. possible restoration. Sf (Butler. 125 Querat&. plan and elevation. 6. 18) basalt lintel. Temple of H.Kalube of 282 A. Ba'al Ba'al Shamm. H. Cat. The Religion of Ancient Palestine. of Dioskouroi. vm/44) Alexandria (Coll. xxvii/ia) of Dioskouroi.C. optit. 6. Antiocn. xxvn/g) . Coins. 430. 1936. Piloi 54.etc. com xxvm/a) . no. Tyre. 221) on conoid form. xxvm) helmet. 132. pi.. pi. coin of Antoninus Pius 137. i. Pileus JCLV. coin of 134. fig. (ibid... Coins. coin (Brit. Mus.. Celestial India (Cambridge. Coins. 13 0. Emesa. Cat. no. pi. Galatia. no. Cook. pi. 111/5) Mus. bibl. Eagle (Brit. no. 136. 131. xxxm/ 15) . Baetyl of Zeus Kassius in aedicula.El-Gabel in temple. coin of Uranius ibid. i. relief. 494) of 175 B. A. pi. Samaria (Vincent. Ovoid Antoninus i28. coin of 135. Mus. pi. no. Phoenicia. Mus. xxx/i) coin of Gordianus (Bnt. 16. The god Dushara. History of India. Dalian. Coins. Herod I (S. Cook.. coin of Gallienus (Bnt. Rev.. A. Palace of Minos. Emesa. II tides o Eucra coin Conoid forms and tree. pi. Jtl-Gabel in of Caracalla temple. Emesa. 24. (>. Adraa. xxvir/ij) coin of Caracalla 127-El-Gabel in temple. Cat. no. from Minoan baetyl in rustic shrine. Arabia. pi. Emesa. engraved gem Crete (Evans. 15. pi. a.137 126. no. Conoid baetyls. Cat. 129. Galatia. 133. pi. . Domus Vesonlus fig. relief from 142. fol. relief of stupa balustrade. Throne of Theodosius. Throne of David. Pompeii grec. Museum. Sassanian deity under baldachin. pi. Mitt. Indian fig. fig. Rom. History of Indian and Indonesian Art. coin (Herzfeld. Lahore Museum (Foucher. Art Museum. relief. Transactions. Amaravati (Foucher. vn. i. Paris 510. MS opxit. opxiL. Temple of the gods in the heaven of Indra. fol. 409) 144. . relief. pi. 228) 139. r (Rostowzew. Manuscrits grecs. 43) 140. Calcutta (Coomaraswamy.. Rock-cut sanctuary. 1 18) 146.146 138. Sudama cave near Buddha 143. XLI) Domical ciborium over fire altar. (Omont. fig. fig. 44) Bhirhut. Seattle 141. fresco. Enthroned Buddha. RJ. 239 145. 143 (Omont. fig. section.. xxxin) Primus. Iran. xxvi. Gaya (Simpson. MS grec. Buddhist fire temple. L'Art greco-bouddhique. 24) Paris 510. fire temple.BA. yrmm relief. Berlin (Wulff. La Peintures de la Synagogue. temple in temple com of Second Revolt 151. 1934. ivory Marco Polo. pi. etc. Jewish Ark Audience tent of Emperor Kienling from eighteenth cencathedral a Trier '5t. Jewish synagogue. S94) tury engraving (Yule edition. Palmyra (Seyrig. . Mar. relief. xxvi/ 3) Bildwerke. Altchnstl. Syria. ria of S ampul 153. Nineveh World"? the Tent of Assyrian 149.che und mMelalterhche BuisDoura (Du Portable Europa Ark. Lxrx) .. xv. t. ^ son. 148. Athenogme^ ^ Museum.148 ^u / \ /* 151 150 153 ) of Bel. "Shepherd . 1403. pi147. pi. 1. Pre-Islamic qobba. Martyrium.50. Jerusalem (Vincent and . Perm. 156. Rev. bibL. plan of excavations. (Vincent. Beisan (Fitzgerald and Nickson. Dumbarton Oaks Collection. ( Dome. Washington. Hagia Sophia. plan.v journal. Bethlehem T j no . 155) . 155. fig.C. n. Church of the Nativity. Bethlehem Women at tomb. plan. . 1936) Abel. Mus. D. 59 Church of the Ascension. 1924) 158. Istanbul Church.f 155 157 158 154. phial. Church of the Nativity in fourth a &er Vincent with dome added) century. \v. 159 157. Tomb of the Virgin. fig. Sim'an plan. Kal'at 163. plan. Hagia Sophia. p. 162. n. Jerusalem Gerasa 168. 164. plan. Church of the Theotokos.160 169 160. John the Baptist. plan. Hagia stantinople (E. Der Seta Con"Holy Calvary"? sixth century mosaic. Baptistery. Garizim 167. Sophia. plan. Midjleyya Octagonal church. Antoniadi. 201) Small church. Martyrium of S. Baptistery. 161. 17. proposed restoration. plan. Mir'ayeh . M. 165. Church of S. Babylas. Mt. Simeon Stylites the Arculph) Younger. "Capella del Crocifisso. Ad- mirable . Sichem (after 17 i." Cassino 173. Martyrium of S. Cruciform plan. plan.Roman cruciform tomb. plan.170 172 170. Antioch-Kaoussie 172. Roman 180 Tychaion.D. 180. Martyrium. Korykos. pro178. second century A. plan. i. fig. Martyrium of the Prophets. plan. Cilicia op. Church of 582/3 A.D.. Mismiyeh i75.. "Grave church.cit. fig. Resafa 179. Apostles and Martyrs. after Montana (Grabar.. Gerasa 176." plan.49) Gerasa (Crowfoot. Roman mausoleum. Martyrium. it-Tuba (after Butler with domes added) posed restoration. 8) . 177. Apostles and Martyrs.174 175 177 176 179 178 174. plan.Martyriura of the Prophets. 181 i&i. proposed restoration.Martyrium. Seleucia Pieria . Martyriura. plan. Seleucia Pieria 182. plan.^ssfflC. ...JH.. proposed restoration.71 -^j 183 184 183. Resafa Martyrium.af .psi wawa M3LaB. Resafa (after Spanner dome added) . 184. and Guyer with Martyrium.. 75 ^.1 . 89.dt. bibl 1892. LXV) Montano (Grabar. Der Dossi 1914-16. Weieand Bvz ' Zeit xxm." plan. 2) 191. Martyrium of with 186. Nebo (E.186 185 187 188 189 185. 6) . Jerusalem (Vincent and Roman mausoleum. Abel." Mt.Theodosios Church. Church of the Theotokos. i. 190 (after 191 1 "Church of the Theotokos. 187. Church of Siyagha. a Sallerw th ( "Memorial of Moses. 48) igo. Rev. pi. n. ^ f Reliquary of Aachen. 188. ) op. Amida Guyer fig. from Antioch me dded Madaba (Sejoune.John the Baptist. Abb. fig. o j ^.. " dome added) after S. Church. 1930) 193.192 196 192 /'Grave memorial. "Cathedral. Koja Kalessi (after Head- Martyrium." tianus." 195- Church. Koja Kalessi (after (after Headlam) in Madrasa al-Halawiyyah. Aleppo Guyer) . longitudinal lam ) section. plan. Oriens Chris- 194. Meriamlik 196. Ed-dschunene (Schneider. 197 197. 198. Rusafa. Sergius. with dome added) . Resafa (after Spanner and Guyer. proposed restoration. Martyrium of S. Sergius. Resafa Martyrium of S. plan. Church No. ' Bosra (after Butler with dome added) 4 church 1938. il-Anderin (after Butler with dome added) added) 200. . 8. i. Abb. Oriens Christianus. j eri c J i) ho (Schneider. il-Anderin (after Butler with dome added) 203. Church No. il-Anderin (after Butler domes added) 201. Church o Bizzos. Ruweha (after Butler with domes _ 202. xxxv. Church No. or south church. with Martyrium. 7.n Q Q Q fr" U D D 199 b 201 202 204 199. Brad (plan from Butler with results of Lassus' excavation added) 206. Cathedral.10M- 205 206 205. Church. il-Firdeh (after Butler) . " church at Mir'ayeh Shem.I>. East church of 492 A.^/^/'/^^'^^^^^'^ >/> > //' <}>. Church.. 208. plan. longitudinal section. cross section.755M-TO * W-WALL* 208 207 ' f> 'T-'v 'if /^/^///^/^. "Place of Commemoration. 210. Kharab Kharab Shems Kharab Shems . Kalota 207. Church.f f FW>>> f?j\>^^7fhT l 209. 211 Church. north side-chamber.SCALE: o. North Africa Domical vault. 212 214 212. 215 214. 213. 2 15. Tolemaide Domical vault. south side-chamber. Tolemaide . Kalb Lauzeh Church. Church. Tolemaide. " plan.tt. "Place of tentative restoration . Resafa (after Lassus) 217. 216 217 216." S. "Place of Commemoration. Commemoration. Sergius. 228 227 . xvi/3) 221. Parthian cosmic house.. seal of Guy de (ibid. pi. 224. seal Holy Sepulchre glises of Amaury Les 225.. seal of Baldwin I. p. Schlumberger. Holy Sepulchre (left). 1168 (ibid. p. 1225I. v/9) seal of Prior of Holy Sepulchre. 1144-1162 (ibid. xvi/5) (right). throne room or fire on arch of Septimius 75. Ramah. relief (L'Orange. de la Terre Sainte. 1210-1212 (ibid. pi. 1186-1192 (ibid. xx/a) (left).. 1/2) 227. 1227 (ibid. Holy Sepulchre (left). pi. 1183-1185 Lusignan. seal of (right). pi xvi/i) 219. i) Rome temple. City of pi. pi. Holy Sepulchre Jean de Brienne. seal of Baldwin III. Holy Sepulchre. 9. pi. Serta Eitremiana.cit. . I. t 222.. nos.. 10) Holy Sepulchre Holy Sepulchre seal of Baldwin V.. pi. 454. 1110-1118 (Schlumberger. pi. 1169 (De Vogue. 1/3) 228.. (right). op. Severus. Abb.Holy Sepulchre (left). seal of Canons of the Holy Sepulchre. Sigillographie de I'orient latin. 1 xix/s) Holy Sepulchre.. seal of Baldwin Lord of Ramah (ibid. seal of Amaury II. 226. 2i 8. 172 and 1 223. xvi/2) 220. 175 (ibid. . . 116952 .