Sociology

TRADITIONAL HINDU SOCIAL ORGANISATION Conceptualized in terms of ‘order’ & ‘change’: Theory of society & cultureHierarchy Cynical Holism • Hierarchy Continuity Dynamics Varna System Ashrams Purusharthas Guna Time • • Holism: Each Hierarchy in one way or other is related to other leading to inter hierarchical connection & dependence of value together. Continuity: heavy of Karma - Transmigration of social, till Mokash, through Right conduct (Dharma) Right Knowledge (Gyan) Right devotion (Bhakti) • Transcendence Its sociological significance: - Not only a theoretical, philosophical or ideological modal, but has practical behavior, and social ramifications:1. A systematic scheme to perform an Dharma to ____ ultimate goal of life i.e. Mokash 2. Provide for division of labor & functional specialization 3. Reinforced interdependency between individual& individual and between individual & society. 4. escalation of ____ wart duties and obligations _____ from him ~ 1 ~ 5. Means of education & _____ _____ of traditions from one generation to another. 6. Simultaneously development & progress of individual & society 7. Harmonization & doing away of ________& _____ 8. Means of social control & constraint 9. Maintain power balance in society. 10. A _____for establishing relationship bd. This _____& other ______ ________. BASIC TENTS OF HINDUISM: Continuity & Changes: 1. Value themes - Hierarchy Holism, Continuity, Transcendence Varna system Ashram system Purusharthas Karma & Transmigration of society Dharma Purity & _____ Sanskars Idol worship Theological ideas Not a _______ character Religious tolerance Non violence  Selective & segmental _____  Old traditions not completely replaced  Synthesis 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. What has accrued? Reasons for the same _________: 1. Structural conservative initial conditions __ Constitutional an____ between pd____ & varna system------- (Eisenstadt, Leavy, Myrdol) 2. Inter structural antimony ------- (By Y Singh, M. Sagar) ~ 2 ~ 3. Contentious interaction between G & L Tra_______ ( By R. Redfill) 4. Modern innovations Hinduism facing value system of G Tan_______ ( By M N Singh) 5. Adopting of traditional ______________( By M. Singh, R D Lombart) (I). Orthogenetic Facts: (A). i) Liberal religious reforms movement ii) Devotional liberal traditions Called for accretion & reformation in initial cultural phases (B). Break away traditions of Buddhism & Jainism Change in cultural shapes only not stinctunaly Nature of changes (C). Sankritisation (II) Heterogenetic Facets:1. Impacts of Indian Islamisation & Sankritisation - Cultural _____ & parti_______ Changes in little traditions only Changes without implying modernity Theoretical value system 2. Westernization------ Nature of changes (III). Planed changes & Modernization Selective & segmental i. Factors ii. Changes iii.Syncreti VARNA - ASHRAM - DHARMA • • • • The base of Hindu social organization Repulsions has individual & society was interactional ch____ viz Ashram & Varna system This was possible only be carrying ___ ____ obligations & duties -Dharma It is because of his , it is “ Dharma as a way of life” Essential element of Hindu social organization _ initially meant ___ to distinguish between A system of stratification based on once ‘Gunas’ (Physiological disposition) & ‘Karma’ VARNA SYSTEM:• • ‘Aryas’ & Drwin’ ~ 3 ~ Tamer. black Internally differentiae functionally interrelated i.Moksha. Hierarchy of a unique kind of coexistence It was based on the principal of karma & transgression of soul i. Kshatriya: . 2. Such was required into perform its own Dharma . trade & comers. Reinforced inter dependency between individual & individual and individual & society. 7.e. 8. 10. service. Means of education & cultural transfusion of tradition from one generation to another. Brahmin: .____ the ultimate goal of life- Moksha 3. Satva. Red Color.duties & obligations. Maintains power balance in the society.Arms.Legs. obligations expected from him. 4. 9. Residential dominate of Hindu social organization. 6.Month. Knoladge & teaching. society & culture. white color. Socialization of individual with respect to duties. 5. Rajya. A systemize scheme of performing once ‘Dharma” to ach. Means of social control & social constraint. Yellow color Shudras:. ~ 4 ~ . Harmonization & doing away of conflict & tension. It significance 1. Vashnav:. Simultaneously development & progress of human capabilities as well as that of society. Provided for division of labor & functional specialization.Things.• • • • • • • It lead to functional division of society into four-fold groups – B K V S It first apprised in Rig Veda X mandalam in ‘Puras s_____ hymen. • fact that ever today Jaties & sub Jatis are seen as a part of it at own existential reality. Antimony. ASHRAM SYSTEM • • Fundamental element of Hindu social organization.e. Explain how being a member of society performs his duties and obligations (Dharma) & family achieve the ultimate aim of life . power & administration. Thus leading it in the K M Panikar Change it existed principal at theoretical p_____ but its significance has in the of parts to form a whole (H______) • • social welfare & progress of the society. 3. Sanyas.____ purusharth are pursued at G________ stage .Mental. Grhestha . it fully developed during Upnished period. Such to be pursued chronologically at appropriate stages. ~ 5 ~ . 4.Dharma.Complete detachment from world relations. 3. Thus by performing Dharma at appropriate stages of life and by pursuing the appropnant pursharth at each such stage one true achieve Moksha. Simultaneous development of individual and progress of the society Cultural transmission of traditions from one generation to another DHARMA Control to Hindu social organization. It provides for once fulent development . Ashram. Brahmacharya .• Their ithological foundations though were lead during Vedic period but at a substantive level. • For fully developing once life. Significance:1.Marriage & family relation Once cannot fully go to the last stage without fully completing the province stage. 2. Reach at a________ stage of life cycle.Varna. Purushart. ‘Jabali’ Upnished for the first time systematically expounded the four Ashram’s of life. Moksha. Interdependency between individual & society. • At a wider place & contract. • The four phases are 1. 4. • The Dharmshstra principal gets full humectation under the ashram system. Sanskar. physical. Kama. Kamas. Arth. it provides for four stages of life style 1. That shows the important of each stage of life Hierarchy of a social kind for fully achieving Moksha. Social control & constraints and thus awards conflict.Student 2. Dharma. Map. it contains one duties & obligations which one is required to pursue in different intention & stages of life .Free from wordily desire but not relation 4. Artha. society & culture. 3. 2. moral & ideological. Vanprasth . Karma. based on once Karma and the dharma.V. • One is required to perform _____ Dharma & fulfill once duties & obligations. • Thus. these reflect ideological& philosophical values. It provides interdependency between individual & society. • It is based on Karma.Goal of life. we say that Indian social system is based on Dharma. For it regulate our daily life & social relations. • It provides for once fluent development in terms of duties towards the family. achieve the ultimate goal of life . Radhkrishnan calls it a way of life. Mr. reduces tension & conflict & heads to social control. P. • Thus.• Generally. social interaction system developed ultimately heading to the Moksha.Mokha. . • It is because of this. nation & world. Dr. it regulates once behavior & development. society. • It provides the basis for the welfare & progress of the society also. KARMA & REBARTH ~ 6 ~ . • It provides for the basis in which people belonging to four Varnas during their life stage pursue appropriate Purusharth. thinking of right & wrong.Kane improved upon it behavioral dimensions says that it is control in regulating once behavior as an individual member of society. A way of life. but especially it contains. ~ 7 ~ . ~ 8 ~ . ~ 9 ~ . ~ 10 ~ . ~ 11 ~ . • • Both exist simultaneously. • ~ 12 ~ . we can say that Indian tradition had a unique social heritage and existential situations. causality and sequence of events through which modernization has made its impact on the traditional Indian society. and ashrams). It takes into account the histoncity of the exceptional Indian traditions.N. The other principal of holism. The above view. though in a transformed manner. This was relevance for analyzing the direction. during the later-Vedic period. both normative and social. it provided for the functional basis of “Dharma” which was conceptualized in terms of moral obligations to fulfill the assigned duties directed at the community at large. This was conceptualized in terms of organization of order. traditions and modernity are interwoven: where. gunas. based on the principal of hierarchy (of Varna’s. Initially.A prospective for analyzing the nature of social changes which occurred in traditional Indian society. through orthogenetic formulations and modifications in the times of Epics and Dharmashastras. thus transforming hierarchy from a functional to religious phenomena. Singh & M N ____) The perspective for Analysis: As such. This has real_____ for understanding the continuity of traditional reforms in a transformable manner (By Y. and The traditional features can be found even today. a functional criterion was accorded a ritual status.singh is arguably supported by mckim Marriott. Note: . “Tradition” and Modernity” as heuristic concepts are easy to formulate but to separate them at existential levels is rather difficult. Gusfield has said_ “The modern comes to the traditional society as a particular culture with its own traditions” And especially in the Indian society.Srinivas. M. which together determined the historicity of circumstances. As Joseph R. However.“ Traditional Social Organization: Continuity and Change” Traditional Social Organization: By tradition we mean value themes encompassing the entire social of Indian society.as highlighted by y. purusharthas. and transcendence were subsumed in the notion of hierarchy. Caste as a cultural system based on institutionalized inequalities emerged. the ethos of traditional social organization. continuity. it did not actually bring about an acceptance of higher status by the upper caste Hindus (in the case of sanskratisation) and in Islam (through conversion). As such. where the coverts retained their skills and calling.The Nature Of Social Change in Traditional India and Continuty: in traditional India . failed to contribute to modernization. unlike that of the west. these changes could not alter the social system as a whole as: (1) They also served as a major communication-channel for interaction between little and great tradition. The orthogenetic changes which occurred were basically of two types: (a) Firstly changes through accretion and reformulation of the various ritual and cultural spheres of Hinduism. However. Of Islam. Moreover. They both represented a form of cultural response to higher status mobility as a protest against ideal-typical value syndromes of the great tradition. ~ 13 ~ . This also explains why the heterogenetic Islamic impact. especially those of caste and Brahmin orthodoxy. through • Protests against rigid formalism tyrannical ritualism and ossification of the value-system of hierarchy into exploitative institutions.there where continual instance of social change without implying modernity. changes through differentiation in terms of break-away traditions of Buddhism and Jainism. (b) Secondly. and social change and continuity: These processes had contextual significance and were particularistic in origin. These existential adaptations were contained only at the cultural level and not at the structural level. and----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(2) They preserved in one form or another hierarchical views of time and the conception of cyclical periodicity in culture. and Growth of devotional liberal traditions. in the heterogenetic impact. These changes called for. • • The introduction of more equalitarian and non-hierarchical value system. in both the cases the earlier orthodoxy was retained. a hierarchical gradation in the ritual and social status thus crept into the social structure of Islam. and Liberalization of hindu tradition. thus leading to continuity of the Hindu great tradition. However. • • Through the emergence of liberal-religious reform movements. The process of sanskratisation and visualization. it encouraged the values of equality. mass-media and communication. Though the basic direction was towards. but it has done so through assimilation and not replacement. equity. The factor which was chiefly responsible for this was the nature of network of relationship which was characterized by a high degree of relativeautonomy. Along with these modernizing norms. etc. These new innovations posed a serious challenge to the two cardinal attributes of the Indian tradition-hierarchy. educational. I led to acculturative and innovative changes in the social and cultural structures of the Indian society. through its innovative changes in the fields of legal. Its basic tenets were based on legal-rationalism. These were not only modern but also pan-Indian in nature. and structure. and Similarly. a variety of traditional institution also got reinforced. Viewpoints: • Rudolph and Rudolph call this phenomenon “Modernity of Tradition” and conclude with Edward Shils that “modernity has entered into Indian character and society. This inner-structural autonomy helped in selective syncretism of new cultural modes. structural also took place having uniform character throughout the country. forms of behavior. justice. There occurred a selective and segmental process of. however. and social change and continuity: The process of modernization started especially with the advent of the British rule. urbanization. What follows is an accretion and transmutation of forms.The process of modernization. It led to emergence of new middle-class professional groups and groups of social-reformers.” ~ 14 ~ . tradition does not necessarily retard the process of modernization. and universalism and not those of status and hierarchy. it led to reformatory theistic movements in Hinduism and propagated the discontinuance of harmful social usage and customs prevalent in the contemporary Indian society. The above feature gets highlighted in comparative studies on which have shown that contrary to stereotyped belief: • • Old traditions are not completely displaced by modernization. This paved the way for adaptive transformations towards. As such. and civil rights. Reason for the resilience and co-existence of tradition and modernity: This can be traced to the historicity or the initial conditions of society. Kin-based entrepreneurial function continue to coexist with and support modern values and forms of social action. Lambert.the functioning of democracy in India has further vindicated the extent to which it is rooted into the particularistic values represented by caste. As such. which accordingly determines the adaptive patterns. Kapadia. Singer. both cultural and structural. This viewpoint has been supported by K. which otherwise could be used for transmission of modern values tend to reinforce the value-system of the Great Tradition. however. They both are relatively autonomous. ~ 15 ~ . singer. where articulation of interests is done and caste acts as a pressure group. • Richard D. Structural & normative initial condition institutional autonomy between Pd. at the same time. Y.Traditional institution like joint family. Factors responsible for continuity 1. These initial conditions of both tradition and modernization can be conceived of as a set of ‘values and role structures’. & value system 2. though in the instrumental types we find a shift from tradition to modernity. Therefore. Milton singer.• Milton singer in his book ‘when a great tradition modernizes’ opines that there occurs traditionalisation of modernity in India. where traditional features influence modernity. This explains the possibility of the unique combination and coexistence of traditional values with the modern ones. 4. MN sr. 3. Modern innovation themselves reinforced the value system of great tradition M. Adaptability of traditional features forces of modernity -M. and are differentiated into -independent/categorical. as such it leaves its mark on modernity. Singer. and Ramkrishana Mukherjee. kinship and other parochial values. Studies: • Rajni Kothari-caste association which are otherwise typical symbols of tradition. • Milton singer in ‘traditional India’ emphasizes that modern innovations in the media of communications. Lambert.M. M. have increasingly been found to serve tends of political modernization. and instrumental. people tend to retain their categorical values of tradition instead those of modernity. Singh. and Myron Weiner.Singh refers to such a process as the ‘modernization of Indian tradition’. • Rudolph and Rudolph. Inter structural autonomy Y. Hindu religion. 6. Empower. Continuous interaction bet. It was more egalitarian in nature vis-à-vis. Singh. On other world ) Salvations to problems Of this world through middle . It was of an organized nature.phyche & philosophy. Talks of value of righteousness of action. • Three aspects emp. A monastic religion similar to Christianity of western society. People retaining the traditional categorical values though in instrumental values these are a shift from tradition to modernity (Y. Some of the peculiar aspects of Bhuddism. Redfield. Gusfield. ~ 16 ~ . This was in sharp contrast to the Hindu religion. On control and not repression.path. As such the difference between the king and the supreme authority of religion got blurred. chiefly under Asoka’s patronage.5.duties B) Sangam . • • • • Atheistic Spirituality (EMP.) 7.* BHUDDISM: Its impact on Indian society Around 600BC it emerged in India however it proliferated only after 40 BC.R. It chiefly arose an aftermath of reaction against Brahmin orthodoxy or domination of those times.community C) Buddha . Great & little tradition took place R. which chief proliferated under protection. The ability of traditional values to support the process of modernity G. Are A) Dharma . Earlier was a period of domination of puests (Brahmins) over the state (kashalriya). On non. yoga. and Provided an alternative philosophy of egalitarianism. and nyaya. There occurred concretization of name and Dharma which had a functional basic was now accorded a religious sanction and a new class of untouch ables emerged. But now since the followers of Buddhism.Sankhya. ~ 17 ~ . With its exclusive emp.. Earlier only Brahmins were responsible to interpret and expound religious principal. This not only made the state more open in nature besides the state became more oriented towards welfare of its people.Basic tenets: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- It had a far reaching impact on the Indian society. Thus more prominence to status of women was given.in this attempt to counter the impact of Buddhism epics like dharmashashtras and Arthashstra were written. Thus where status got more integrated with the day to day life of the people. PHILOSOPHY: Initially began as an intellectual movement & is of teeny categorized as enlightenment. Were in the ranks of middle & lower classes. which introduced rigidity into Hindu religion. It traced to mitigate the difference between the religious intelligentsia and the common people.violence it transformed the very nature in which the ritual practices were performed. vaisheshika. CIVIL SOCIETY: Women were considered as function arise of religion at par with man. they also started influencing the nature and function of state. A negative fallout. STATE: It influenced the foundational structure of state and it changed the very nature of state. This influenced Hindu philosophy in a very significant way as Four non -Vedic philosophical trends dev. a ban on ‘bali’ was proclaimed. At times. rather opposition was the moving force. B. continues to be a dynamic mechanism of cultural movement. Thus we can say that democratization took place within the dimensions of state and religion. did not accept either philosophically or socially the hierarchy principal wrt social organization. where it talks of hierarchy of consecutions and moral progression to the ideal of salvation. Of common mass which tried to establish an appropriate place for lower sections of the society . Orthogenetic factor of social change. Its continued relevance: can be seen where it has re emerged in the form of new Buddhism movement. A new cultural outlook ------------------------------------------It was the first protest movement of an organized nature and under pol. Chiefly comprising of egalitarian social forces. Besides its emp.Buddhism made possible the teaching of religious scriptures in people’s language. was also preserved. It also shared with H. it opposed ‘hierarchy’ the main bases of traditional Hindu social organization.prakriti. On egalitarianism. With its emp. but also wrt the goal orientation as project by the Buddhist religious world-view. BUDDHISM AND SOCIAL CHANGE Y. which shows the egalitarian vision and aspirations of the down trodden people of our society. On non. We can categorize B. Donald engine smith in India as a secular state. where it was of a revivalist in nature. Michael M. as a movement. The conception of ‘transmigration of soul’ in Mahayam Buddhism. Ames also demonstration the existence of hierarchy not only in the role insitutionalisation of the members in the Buddhist society. it was an intellectual and a religious movement.violence also led to the dev. Ames The principal of hierarchy was preserved in B. This is supposed to be finally redeemet by an ‘Avtaar’ in H. In modern times. the rise of Shudras is associated with it.. In India. It also strengthened the other -world aspect of Hinduisum.a devotionary view on the direction of cultural movement. Patronage. as such B. Of economy and commerce within and outside India.Michael M. Singh opmes that it was an imp. Why it got absorbed within the four folds of Hinduism? It could not extricate itself from the hierarchical value systems of traditional Hinduism. and bodhisattva in Buddhism. and was consequently integrated within its many fold . ~ 18 ~ . • Provided an alternative religious philosophy of egalitarianism ~ 19 ~ . Since such a differentiation of roles was segmental. Structural changes were Very few and those which took place were limited in respect to the types of roles. FRAME WORK • • • • • • • • Introduction Basic tenets Nature Impact Significance Reason why? Nature of social change Its re-emergence Break away Against Buddhism Indore of new cultural value Not a v________ Rash_________ Sociological Its impact an Indian society A sociological analysis Introduction: It had an atheistic world view It was purely orthogenetic in nature (form within the Hindu tradition) and Represented the formation of new antonymous tradition though differentiation change though fission -arose as an aflirmath of reaction against Brahmin orthodoxy & domination of those times. Besides. As such none of them had a meaningful impact on the political System. it did not alter the system as a whole.Nature of social change The changes which occurred were confirmed to differentiation within the framework of traditional social structure & values. Basic tenets: Its distinctive contribution It introduced some new cultural values againt the ideal typical attributes of the Hindu great tradition hierarchy. as were led by members of upper caste -class. the role differentiation also had an elitist character. the stratification system or caste order against which they propagated. cultural protest against Rigid formalism Tyrannical ritualism. This also led to the dev. Instead of coercion (as in the case of Christianity & Islam) . Michael M. On non-violence it changed the V. It undermined the significance of hierarchy the basic of jati or caste sub division . State became more oriented towards the welfare of its people With its emp. Of trade & commerce within & outside India .• • • • • • • Membership open to all casts & both the sense An appropriate place for the lower section of the population / socity . as an important orthogenetic factor of social change Not revivalist in nature. How & why it got integrated within the fold of Hindu Hierarchy found in. • Its natureIts revolutionary contribution: Represented the first beginning of social . goal mentations and role institutionalization of the Buddhist socials---------. It had a revolutionary appeal to the masses in general Because of his Y. Ames Consciousness & moral progression Devolutionary view on the direction of cultural movement ~ 20 ~ . and because of witch it proliferated outside India also. • • Its nature: Its intellectual strength where knowledge player a for important rde.Could not extricate itself from the hierarchical value system of traditional Hinduism. but opposition or protest was the moving force . natures in which ritual practice were performed.Singh considers B. • Its Membership open to all casts & both the sense. Thus democratization took place within the sphere of religion & state. More prominence to the states of women. Made possible the teching of religious scriptures in peoples language . and Ossification of values system of hierarchy into exploitative institution especially those of caste & Brahmin religious orthodoxy. i. Anticipatory socialization ~ 21 ~ . These --------here them one harden of insulation (dominate cast ) 4. Because thus continues to be a dynamic mechanism cultured movement. 3. it could not finally extricate itself from the hierarchical value system of traditional Hinduism & was comeqnently interrogated within its many ford Michael M. Introduction: It is considered as an important orthogenetic factor of social change in India (Y. Its re-emergence in modern India Donald engene Smith in India as a secular state. As a process enhance status of a group within stratification system board on Hindu caste system. Differentiation renamed segmental. Acculturation way of life high .Y. Buddhist movement Shows the egalitarian vision & aspiration of the down trodden people of our society.e. changes chiefly renamed orthogenetic . Or egalitarianism for the first time opposed hierarchy the -----of traditional Hindu social organization . Arose as an after math of reaction against Brahmin orthodoxy & domination of those times. Ames . As a neo. Renamed ideational & not existential Rde. 2. differentiation within the traditional Hindu GT. With its emp. piquantly upper caste group . Singh. Singh ) It represented the formation of new antonymous tradition through different ration change through fission.Transiniigation of soul. However . SANSKRITISATION: 1 INTRODUCTION 2 DEFINATION 3 CHARACTENSTIES OF SANSKRITISATION 1. Strengthened other world aspect of Hinduism Buddhism & nature of social change. Besides having elitist character Therefore . ~ 22 ~ . -B. 5. ------------------------------4. 3. Conclusion -----------------------Broad framework -for westernization . --------------------& bundle of concept.sanskritic elements ignored. 6. these is change in & not of the caste system . (2) Historical connotation.S. Analysis1 nature of society. 2. 7. but group. 2 the process of social change. Contemporary aspects cannot be explained.Beteille. 8. Critical evaluation 1. -------------------------model. Unit of mobility is not -------or family. 6. --------------. Commercial middle class.Conh 2 tribes such as Bhils ---------------KS. Cultural system.change accusing within the caste . not structional. Y. Non. 3 reason for continuity of tradition. Singh talks of (1) contextual specific reason for cultural iminiutation were essential. Reason ------existential. Indicates positional & not structural change. (3) Endogenous factor of social change . Example of sanskritisation : 1 Nonie low caste of Madhopur village in UP. Other ---------of social immunity ignored. 3 Lohan & sonan in Mysore calming for vishavkarma Brahman caste status. 7. 4 jatawas of agra -lynch 5 mohers of Maharashtra-A . Singh .5. Besides a politico. ~ 23 ~ .C served invariably as reference models.adm. Growth of nationalism Aspects of legal. changes occurred within the status of castes its leadership .stage of cultural meternisation. discontinuance of harmful social usages & custom . Commented the hierarchical foundation& Negated the chases of mobility due to closure of avenues of mobility (other ------accullisation) The resulation process of (cultural) change: Unique historical expression of the general process of acculturation as a means of vertical mobility of groups. ritual priority & pollution . Framework for sanskritisation Definition (1) contextual specific . Thus attack on hierarchy holism transcendence. Analysis: nature of society Relative closure of Hindu social system Where status in caste being ascribed by birth &where caste with ritual superiority had dominate eco. Unification of country .religious reframe movement. A cultural response to a set of empirical existential socio cultural situation whore D. Emergence of middle class. (2) historical. On new education Cultural renaissance &birth of an enlightened intelligentsia (movements.etc.Emp. education & its impact Impact of industrialization & urbanization on city life erural material culture . nationalism) Socio. However .& in cultural patterns in different periods of history. it.where in the process of cultural mobility . what we observe is prismatic .a process of cultural imitation -------causal factor were existential & not sacerdotal. Position is status summation. & pd. A.as such people valued high status & not hierarchy .Y. and contradictious in various contextual specific connotation of S. Often cancel forces ---------S. as introduces structural elements in a cultural model . it explain the dynamic aspect of traditional India society. H.Thus it had a contextual significance . contextually) Logically (1) Complete heterogeneous and a bundle of concepts . but also provided for the leveling of culture among the masses in general. showing challenges & revolts against the socio . Singh . were existential and not sacerdotal . Gonld . ------fail to account for many accpect of part & contemporary India as it highest non. ~ 24 ~ . It also explain why break movement like Jainism . 6. MN Shrinivas (2) Confusion of using the concept of DC. (3) Does not to a consistent --------of social change. Shrinivas 2. Limitations critical evaluation: (logically.eco. where the causal forces in empirical process of cultural change were essentially existential & not sacerdotal. Sinha Beteille 3. Thus. Contextually in terms of its limited /partial applicability to explain the nature of social change in traditional & contemporary Indian society 1. as the most pdential endogenous source of social change.sanskritic tradition -Mckim Marriott .Beteille opines that it fails to take into account the confects& lassion aspect . Explain only cultural and not structural change -MN. Buddhism& Sikhism appeared took place in India . Various other aspects avenues of social mobility & change were also prevalent Silverberg . The reason for the continuity of tradition: Where though it tried to challenge typical cultural attribuites of Traditional H. Sanskritic influence was not conversal to all parts of India Chanana --------as -----------in the version contextual specific cannottaion of S. As such is a disguised form of modernization. 4. 5. Deprivation . it not only tropically owed for its genesis to the orthogenetic tradition . AR.g. KM. Not a comprehensive theory . is primarily a represent group behavior sa it only highlights process of social mobility and not social change -RK. Explains mainly cultural & not structural process of social change . 2.R.Y. substantively . accrued to only chits & not people /masses in general. Describes cultural mobility in traditional social structure . Kuppushamy . WESTERNISATION Critical evaluation of the process of westernization: theoretical level . as fails to highlight the contribution of histinciaspect in social change & sees W.D. 5. Srinivas A process of cultural immnitation Has a local iced and specific rather than a pan-Indian char. 2.7. Unit of mobility is the group not individual. Fails to account for aspects of Indianisation the group ability (isolationism and natavistic revivalism ) for e. Only a perspective not a theory MN. A disgainst reference to protest against the basic ideal typical value syndrome of the great ------------------------------------In tenetform a response of India’s little tradition to modernity. Pannikkar. Mukharjee. 1. Srinivas for it does not lead to a consistent theory of social change. Desai . 4. Conclusion 1. ~ 25 ~ . Sanskritisation Proposed by MN. Desai . Singh. The contemporary processes of social change could not be explained through it . Lerner. 6. The benefits of W.B. An endogenous sources of social change. S. --------identity tnbal identity and Muslim national identity in Kashmir . It fails to explain the process of Indianisation -Devraj Chenana 3.A. as a one-way process . A selective & segmental process of cultural change .Singh .Y. 4.7. Changes under the impact of westernization: 1. so and tech urbanization communication .AR.AR. the forernere -of democratic ---------------.Y. Introduction of new values of rationalism. Which posed serious challenge to the two cardinal attributes of traditional social values . Mukharjee.the way for the process of nation state &emergence of nationalism . Introduction • • Introduced by MN. At best only a perspective & not a theory. 3. Desai . Creation of such hard works of culture & social structure . 5. DP. Mukharjee.which ------. An important heterogametic factor of social change.hierarchy &--------.MN. Singh. Srinivas for changes which occurred as a resent of 150 years of British rule in India. which were • • necessarily modern & pans-India new education & legal system . Changes in the way of living .Gould. humanism.Singh 2. A well knit hrenohth& pan . And laid the foundation for culture modernization of India. Desai. Sociological significance: ~ 26 ~ . 6. H. The traditional social --------of organic Indian economy was -------leading to the emergence of exploitative system DP. Growth & proliferation of new classes commercial & middle classes . equality.Indian ----------------emerged . Srinivas. Impart dynamision to the relatively static traditional Indian social structure. However in the end its impact was only selective & segmental. Srinivas. The enlightened intelligentsia called for new religion reform movements & legal ------. Thing took the lead in forging ahead freedom struggle . Impact of educational & cultural renaissance.& universalism - Y.MN. 10.historical 1.-family dve to feeling of -------------- 2. 9. Provision for dunce. Impact an -------. 7. Ancient process iii. 4. 2. Weakening of ideas of pollution & purity. hot a theory. 5. 6. Social status -----------. Growth & proliferation of low social classes. One-way &-------directional Ethnocentric Cultural & not structural selective & segmental contemporary processes & highlighted At best a perspective. Sanskritisation & westernization: • Concept given by srinivas Both are related to each other However differences are there: • • Sanskritisation i.based on achievement & not ascription. Religious values ii. 5. 4. Impact an caste system. Marriage low seen -----. Low caste typically Indian iv.education. Critical evaluation of westernization: 1A. Indian society & culture ~ 27 ~ . 6. New basic for stratification . 3. More --------for social mobility. 3.as an agreement than a sacrament. Processes of indatralisation & urbanization. Status of women. 11.1. 8. iv.Srinivas. social change 9. The process of change was selective & segmental. Typically process of cultural mobility viii. Multiple reference vi. Orthogenetic factor x. Two way process ix. though in Pd. Localized vii. western orientation & out-look 6. ~ 28 ~ . Micro-aspect westernization: 1. Continuous interaction themselves -------------the value system of People reteaming the traditional categorical values. Reasons for such a nature of change: i. & value system eiseustadt. G. foreign 5. Micro-aspect Nature of change: - There occurred sycereticisim accretion & transmutation of forms.Singh . single 7. instrumental values these is a shift from tradition to indemnity Y.Y. ii.India 8. great tradition MN. pan.Myrdal.v. heterogenic 11. iii. one-way process 10. Inter structural autonomy.Singh. - Structural & normative initial condition institutional antinomy bet. relatively modern 3. secular values 2. every class 4. Tradition was not completely displaced. • • MJ lovy :the char.Y. Modernization What its means? The bases of such an ---------analytical paradigm is . Modernization of Indian tradition . 2. 3. A Universal cultural phenomena. Srinivas . • • A rational attitude towards issues Commitment to scientific world new 7 not merely the volume of technological advancement. Singer The ability of traditional values to support the process of indemnity . Of all modern societies relict an emp.Riggs.gos---. which is based on rational & an experimental approach . vi. Prismatic society . Adaptability of traditional values to forces to indemnity .prof. RD. Growth of which industrialization & urbanization are its conconpmltants . Gusfield Conclusion 1. On - meriasing emphasis on rationality universalism functional specificity objectivity sewlaraisatin an important process which contributes to the growth of such structures is that of eco.v.R. F.M. Lambert.Singh. MN. modernization is a process where scientific knowledge is introduced into the society . T & M coexists Rudolpho .W. . - ~ 29 ~ . institutionalization of values attitude of openers & apathy. 7. 2. Increasing differentiation of structure . . market eco. Modernization: refers to an analytical paradigm providing an explanation for the process of transition of a relatively traditional society towards modernity industrial with increasing social & structural differentiation. Transition from ascribed to achieve status. Expansion of the media of communication. & secularism. Cultural . Installation of democratic & populist pd. Changes.Eisenstaedt. Pre-requisites for modernization: 1. . use of set opportunities of work &employment generation. Social . Indicators / measures of modernization: ( rustow & ward ) 1. 6. It’s various dimension are: 1. Economic . or outlook of progress &dev. free press & judiciary. urbanization. Adoption of scientific technology 2. James o’ connell. High proportion of working force employed in secondary & tertiary instead of primary occupation. bureaucratic adm. Parts & pressure groups. 4.structures capable of adopting to continuously changing situation .Ruston &ward opine that the basic process in modernization is the application of modern science to human affairs . 2. 4. 5.associated with profound eco. Marked increased in geographical & social mobility.MJ. 3. 8. Increasing industrialization & urbanization. Structural differentiation . ~ 30 ~ .development of institution which support participation decision-making. Spread of scientific secular & technical education. industrialization. 9. 10. Achievement orientation. A new cultural outlook 7 important on progress & improvement.secularization.a temper of science reason & rationalism . Political M. Levy .increasing literacy quality of life slandered of life scientific & technical knowledge a venues for mobility achieved status. Capacity for internal transformation . Institution. 3. modernization : planned social change. Opportunity structure .Myran Weiner. Tradition (past & contemporary). 5. India’s instruments of development strategy . Parliamentary form of gont. 1. 4. Cdp. ~ 31 ~ . 3. However. which however. Little & great tradition. Motivation structure for which karl deutsch used the term social mobilization. 6. Macro & micro structure. Socialistic pattern of economy. land reforms green revolution new agricultural policy . The trends of socio cultural changes. Assessing the process of modernization in India : The above analysis can be had on the basic of the following changes in cultural spheres. A comprehensive strategy which seeks to abolish discontinuity bet: 1. 8. has lagged behind leading to what ogburn. new eco. Future course of modernization in India would depend much on the manner in which these tensions are resolved as modernization galhirs momentum.3. 4. 7. called cultural lag (bottomox) . Policy . Policy of protection discrimination & fundamental rights . The pertinent question is will the Indian society be able to avoid structural breakdown & progress towards smooth institutionalization of modernity. Points: 1.equal opportunities work. this has generated inter structural conflicts & tension bet. Secularism. Democratization of polity & power structure -prls. 2. 2. Adul suffrage. Legal reform -equality before law & equal opportunities of work. such a comprehensive process of modernization has necessitated adaptive changes in the tradition culture values & norms. WTO. Macro structure was created & initialed from above without concomitant changes in tradition. Changes result in both structure & culture. was occomodated & assimilated within it. Implicit scientific outlook & rationality of goals. • • A constant coordination of mobilization which conciliation Simultaneously reinforcing democratic values and institution. A two way process. its impact renamed elitist & not mass based. Impediments a modernization 3. As. Chances of institutional breakdown are --------------. Westernization • • • • • ~ 32 ~ . In Indian renaissance (socio religious reform movements) there was a limited effort to synthetics religious with modern western values. despite contradiction & kin ions 4. An important conditional assumption. Takes into account the peculiarities & specificities of each & every society.• • • Changes in structural spheres Contradiction have emerged Structural in conoestancis 2. where. Difference -modernization & westernization Modernization • A deliberate strategy of development. such tradition renamained intact as M. The Indian process of modernization after independence was sudden & not gradual. Value free. OBC. 9. Continuous neglect of the social aspect of economic development. 5.• • • • • • A process of acculturation -----. 3. 3.British contact It refer to behind imitation Value loaded Changes only at cultural level A unidirectional approach What is unmitated many not necessarily be rational. System of imbalanced polity centimes to prevail gap between old & new pd. 2. There have been some positive development . AIDWA. Verbalization of welfare idedogy without its diffusion in social structure & its implementation as a social policy. Planned economic growth has not trickled down to the masses in general & the drive towards market economy & liberalization has further accentuated inequalities. 2. besides industrialization at the cost of rural economy. SHGs. PUCR.73&74 acts. ~ 33 ~ . besides NC for women SC. Over-urbanization without industrialization. Rise in aspiration without significant increase in institutional framework of opportunities & resources. Leadership inhibited from going at the root of the prob. institution. Democratic values have been fairly institutionalized. Elites on one hand & between pd. Leading to populism & soft state. NGOs.some positive trends 1. Association. mobilization & identity formation continues to take place in traditional norms & values. There is broad consensus on the ideology of modernization. & permanent elites on the other. 4. organization such as SAHMAT. Chance of breakdown are minimal . Impediments to modernization: 1. 8. The growth of institutions supporting democracy has not taken place. 6. ST. 7. of the approach paper pr. new exam policy. CVE. the social obj. Problems of modernization: structural contradiction & breakdown of modernization •In Indian renaissance (socio-religions reform mov. •Leaders were not trained in democratic ethos. Macro-micro structures could not be forged. •Effective interlink ages bet. Traditional institution has shown tremendous adaptability in promoting eco. where diversities which is primordial & partivenlanstic has weekend the process of nation state building. •Macro structures were created & initiated from above without the concomitant changes in the tradition. There has been gradual have towards strengthening curl society -women empowerment right to imp. & Lokpal.) there where limited effort to synthesize religion with modern me stern tradition. ~ 34 ~ . • Institutions for furthering democracy have not worked properly. New eco policy has been ushered . • Democracy without secularization has taken place.4. binds parliamentary ethics & commotion were absent. •Democracy is being used as an active agent of industrialization & development but instead of rational measures. 7. Judicial activism & PIL. etc. Citizen character. disinterment. The recent UPA gonts has called for reforms’ with human face. etc. WTO. consensus has broken down. • This has lid it populism & soft state region. •Tradition renamed intact a modernization was accommodated & assimilated within it. • Its impact was elitist & not mass-based. • As culturally homogeneous back ground of elite has later termed hits political fragmentation . with the implicit ideology of promoting growth with equity social welfare. 5. populist measures are being implemented. 10 FYP. •The Indian process of modernization after independence was not gradual.new agricultural policy. • Caste based politics along with politics of opportunism & expediency. 6. Development & modernization. • Gap in orientation between political & permanent executives. Logistics view which conceived ‘dharma’ as a moral under. the nature of change was only cultural & not structural. • • • • However. Hierarchy & quality rather than on performance. which emphasis a set of values beliefs & practice. it is not averse to social change. •A general absence of participative culture. A relatively static crew of society. . • There has been over urbanization without industrialization leading to urban decay. But. •Expansion of growth opportunities have not matched peoples expectation. Thus.• Process of liberalization & market economy drive has accentuated iniquities. • We have ignored rural industrialization ie. which emphasized upon: 1. ~ 35 ~ . It is based in the ideology of purity & pollution of L. leading to fragmentation. Primary focus is on the changes in the basic themes of the Indian cultural structure.Nations of hierarchy were predominant even in pre-modern western tradition. conflates & separation. • Gap between over urbanization of welfare ideology without its implementation leading to over expectation & frustration among people. 2. all these lead to unevenness in the process of modernization & the resultant contradiction.Traditional Indian social system did recognize the legitimacy of cultural & social innovation through institutionalized role of sanyasis. industrialization at the cost of rural economy. Dumont. as . CULTURAL AND STRUCTURAL VIEW OF CASTE CULTURAL VIEW• A cognitive historical approach. Ishawaran . westernization. Hierarchy Hereditary specialization Repulsion & social distance(bougle) Organic reality & Segmental reality (F. • • Such a conception of caste inherently posits that caste in future would change & finally whiter away Its criticism 1. interaction & role performance in terms of: 1. 3. it analyses caste in terms of: 1. Accordingly .A. Bailey) It chiefly analyses society in terms of prevalence of statues summation-A. 2. • ~ 36 ~ . - This can be done through formulation of a series of abstraction on cultural theams for comparative study (ideal types) for studying historical stages. 2.Y. may not be acceptable to all & applicable to all parts of the comlry . 4.Betalle. 2.Islam. Such a nature of change was evident under the impact of sanskritisation. Helpful in understanding cultural & not structural aspect of caste. A brahamanical model which. Therefore limited in scope & applicability. Danel & Lynch.G. Structural viewFocuses on the nature of social relationship.K. Singh. 3. Beteille. It is highly abstract & different to operationaitlise. & - This shows its utility for both synchronic & diachronic type of studies. - Through which cultural changes have occurred in India. • • It example the existential reality aspect of caste. It proposes that these will be change in such structural relationship; however, caste as such is not R.D. Lambert emphasizes its direct relevance for the processes of modernization. Statuses to contract From primary group production processes to more complstursion labour. Ascribed to achieved statuses. Statuses immobility to mobility. Organic to segmental reality. going to wither away. • 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. VARNA SYSTEMS: DEFINEING VARNAVarna was the division of Hindu society into four classes 1. Brahmin - priests -white 2. Kshatriyas - warriors- red 3. Vaishyas - traders- yellow 4. Shudras - service - black • • • • Varna system also provided a system of social stratification. Each Varna was placed in the system at a particular position in the hierarchical order and was assigned specific tasks & duties. Varna organization refers to the work one would ---------------- in the society according to his nature, tendivices & disposition. The division of society into four Varna’s was based on the division of labour where each group had to different objects according to its occupational role. Later on however, the four Varnas come to be arranged hierarchically, with the Brahmins at the top & the Shudras at the bottom. How Varna come to be associated with caste? • ~ 37 ~ During the times of epics. & dharmashastras functional spescalisation & hierarchical order in terms of the functions performed petrified in the shape of rigid tattoos . nation of pollution & purity emerged. The hierarchical order because more rigid & non- equalitarian sanctions emerged, whereby functional criteria were accorded a ritual sanction or complesion. Thus, hierarchy which was a functional principle became a religious phenomenon. This led to emergence of caste accordingly; hierarchy & mobility in the Varna system came largely to be associated with castes. Differences between Varna and caste: 1. 2. 3. Varna represuits an all India category whereas caste varies from region to region. Varna can be placed in a strick jank order, which may not be possible with castes. Varna is more like a nation or a model rather thau a social practice whereas caste is more of a Varna exists more in lernis of theoretical ------------------whereas caste has a existential Varna division of society is macro-structural in nature, whereas caste exists as a macroBasic to the Varna concept the idea of gunas, dharma, karma, whereas basic to the caste social practice & an institutional mechanism in real life situations. 4. 5. 6. reality. structural rality. concept is the idea of pollution & purity. In sociological analysis why do we prefer caste analysis to Varna analysis? • • • Varna is some sort of a nation, which is empirically non existence but caste besides being a nation is also a reality at different levels, though not of a inform nature. Aspect of mobility can be better analyzed in terms of caste as it is quite difficult to place the mobile community in a Varna hierarchy. Clavus and cometer claimes and ---------------& unflicts regarding status evaluation have been found -----------the caste No village or town can be understood in terms of the Varna frame of reference because a single village has number of castes & sub castes. Caste ranking also various forms region to region, because the same caste is not dominant in different regions • • ~ 38 ~ However , during the tunes of pics. & dharmashastras functional specialization & hierarchical order in terms of the functions performed in the shape of rigid taboos. the hierarchical order became more rigid & non-eqnelitarion sanctions emerged whereby functional criteria was a functional principle became a religious phenomenon . This led to the emergence of castes. Thus the hierarchy of the castes and the mobility of a caste come to be stated in Varna system. • The importance of Varna system: faraichesan all India frame into which the jaties occupying the lower rungs, have throughout tried to raise their status by taking over the costumes & rituals of the top jaties. This has helped the spread of a uniform culture throughout the Hindu society. • Caste is tied to locality but vernal function on an all India basis. Varna is more conceptual scheme for the Hindu society as a whole, while caste is a description of a • real situation in the Hindu society. Caste and tribe -differences: 1. Religion: of tribal people is animism & that of caste people is Hinduism. 2. Geographical isolation: tribes live in geographically isolated region (we hills and mountain) whereas caste people live in plain region. 3. Language: each tribe has its own language whereas caste people can speak or knows a number of languages at the same time. 4. Economic back wondness: tribes are relatnchy more economically backhand, as they have how income use primitive methods of agriculture & income cases still use buster system of exchange. 5. Organization of societal leving: tribes are organized on a segmentary system larger propertun of pupu have direct access to land. Whereas, caste people are organized around organic system hierarchically organized group through is interdependent relationship. Caste and class - difference They both are status group. A status group is a collection of indiovdnals who share a distractive style of life & a certain consciousness of a kind. 1. 2. 3. Castes are perceived as hereditary groups with a fixed ritual status, while classes are defined Caste is an endogenous group but class is not. Caste is a unique phenomenon but class is univocal. in terms of the relation of production. ~ 39 ~ astrictive norms. there is ritual superiority of Brahamins (status) over kshastriyas (power). whereas status in class system is determined by economic & political privileges i. Caste has an organic character but class has a segmentary character. CASTE . As such society is durded in terms of unequal distribution of economic. Social mobility is not possible in caste system. Besides. education.gender. It is chiefly referred to as class basis of stratification. Hierarchy implies an elaborate and rigid form of vertical division of society based on the religious principle of purity & pollution. caste. It is basically a horizontal decision of society into unequal status groups where people have freedom to more from one stratum to another depending upon their possession. this can be explained through the concepts of social stratification and hierarchy.. right and obligation. It chiefly posits a society which has a relatively closed system of social stratification. class. 6.4.HIERARCHY OR SOCIAL STRATIFICATION Social inequality is found in each & every society in various forms. Caste works as are active political force but class does not. quality & performance. power & status. possible. whereas non ------or shudras are impure. competition. Caste occupations are traditional whereas class occupations are optional. kshastriyas. & a secular feature of modern society which is based on income. where people have less chance of social nobility & status is ascribed ~ 40 ~ . in which hierarchical division based on ritual superiority is suigenaris. but in class system there is In caste system status is determined by rilialistic ligitimatim of -------------traditional belief & 5. knowledge. but in the class system change of status is 10. achievement norms. It implies Bharamins. Social stratification implies ranking of people (or groups) on the basis of differential distribution of goods & service. etc. In caste there is cooperation and economic interdependence. 9. It decides the ranking of people in different status groups in a hierarchical order. etc. It accordingly also provides for the occupational division of labour of various groups. as twice born and -------are pure. Caste is static whereas class is dynamic. 11. A caste based stratification system. occupation.e. Caste is religious whereas class is secular. authority. 8. age. political & social condition of existence. 7. vaishyas. A. Such an approach ignores the application of socio-economic categories to the study of verna & caste & emphasis only upon religious conceptions-A.Desai. 2. 8. called organic reality of caste by F.(based on birth).Y. Madan. Based on limited sources & is a historical . Baily. chenana. Shrinivas. AN Das. 4.G. The caste ranking various from rigion to region because the same caste is not dominates in different region . backward class movements etc. will continue to existent future . However. Baily calls it the segmental reality of caste.sufficient & a static village. Kothari.G.marrwtt.Romila Thapar. KM. When we consider caste as a hierarchy.A. K. ~ 41 ~ .Betille.R. it chiefly explains only one of its dimensions of ritual (cultural) aspect. Such a framework posits a self .MN. it explains only the partial reality of caste. 6.Davis. F. Betailly 3. Rudolphs. 3. Though it tries to highlight the essence & the basis of caste and explains why caste is regarded as unique Indian Hindu phenomena. 2.TN. The obvious limitation of such an approach is as follows: 1.MN. 1. It explains why caste in a transformed from.Shah. It fails to recognize the existential & operational reality of caste. caste & politics. It facilitates in the understanding of the emerging contemporary reality of caste such as caste association. The brahaminicaly cultural view point is unduly emphasized . caste as a source of gaining power & social mobility emergence of various caste-class conflicts. Betailly.Singh. A. It fails to account for the tension & conflicts aspects of caste. The inherent dynamic reality of mobility & conflicts taking place from historical ancient to contemporary times . 5. R. caste & democracy.parrathamna. 4. The economic & political aspects of caste can only be understood when we consider caste as a system of social stratification. 7. Pannikar. Superiority of status to power is not always right. which is divorced from the existential reality of village. Srinivas. Such a society is visualized as being based on reciprocity & cooperation. G. The dynamic reality of caste mobility cannot be evaluated from such a framework . It facilitates in understanding.-Rudolphs. W. North India• • • • • A person marries outside the village. instead of caste. patrilocal & patrilineal The four . because of which a person marries within one’s own caste or sub caste.Singh. a class caste-class nexus framework should be adopted .Riggs calls a prismatic society. In reality. However various variations in this pattern are found in India.The two approaches are essentially supplementary & complementary to each other. occupation. for its highlight that: • • There is closed link between Caste link & class link feature & not that caste is transforming into class. which specially widens the range of ties Patriarchal. for analytical purpose. 2.Sharma. its regional variations can be studied along there dimensions . A person awards marriage with kind who are related to him or her five generation from the mothers side & seven generations in the fathers side ideally. the in numerable variation of caste is found in India. However. great diversity exists between region as well as within region. CASTE: Dimension of regional variations As an existential reality. having features of both fused (traditional) & diffracted (modern) society. To understand the dynamic Indian social reality. Y.Kinship. The caste structural has several variations functioning in different region in India. Alone or class alone approach. called ‘the rule of -----------------. Central India - ~ 42 ~ .’ Hyper gamy is practiced . • Y.Singh opines that it is only then we can understand why tradition modernity coexists in India leading to what prof. F.L.clam rule of marriage is followed. & power. 1.K. (A) Caste structure and kinship The sole reason for this relationship lies in the endogamous nature of caste system. For eg. where the Brahmins were the land owners & adi shudras worked as landless agricultural labourers. the congruence between high caste status & land ownership was an important feature (A. of marrying mothers.Beteille). etc. brothers. Haryana & N. ahir. parts of UP.W. but marrying fathers. wealth & land invested with high ranking caste groups. in Punjab. sisters. Middle ranking caste such as jats. political & ritual ----------. ~ 43 ~ .Gough of tanifourdistt.Beteille). lack of clarity in caste ranking result in a diffused power structure. Nayar matrilineal house is called ‘tharavad’. In any such framework. Bailey’s study of Bissipara village in Orissa had worrier caste owning most of the land whereas other castes including the Brahmin were in a position of economic dependence & political subordination to them. where the order of dominance among caste parallels the order of caste rank. This led to status summation (A. 3. daughter is a taboo. Similarly. Coromandal region of south caste coastal India. ( Mckin Marriott) this was reflected in the jajmani system of framework. Thus where caste & power hierarchy overlap. This was reflected in the study of K. numerical & ritual preponderance made a caste dominant. with no single caste groups wielding economic. waild substantial amount of power & position of dominance. besides being numerically pond rent in some regions. (C) Caste structure and power The control of land & economic resources along with political. cross . However. daughter. (B) Caste structure & occupation Traditionally. there is a definite concentration of power. there was an association of caste with an occupation which determined its rank in the local caste hierarchy. However.• • • • Caste endogamy Hypergamy Village exogamy Among some caste communities. kwmi. Southern region- • • • • Basically preferential rules of marriage Village intermarriages takes place Chiefly matrilineal matrilocal & matriarchal.cousin marriages are being practiced. This was found by I Karve in her study of Malabar caste. Singh perspective for the analysis of L. Ideology. 3. • Y. The relationship between these binary opposites is not that of fundamental opposition.r.t. He emphasized the importance of the search for latent & underlining structure ‘hierarchy’. The opposition is w. • • • Thus. we can song that this dialectics is of a complementary nature. Dumont’s views: Y. who terms Dumont’s views on caste as cultural -partienlaristic.Hindu social organization & caste is based in the overriding principle of ‘hierarchy’.hierarchy’.Singh. The opposition between pure & impure gets reflected in Varna & jati. wrote magmim-opus ‘hono. the opposite of equality. • ~ 44 ~ .DUMONT’S analysis of caste in India Introduction: L. Dialectics• • The most important distention with in overall principle of hierarchy is that between “purity & pollution”. He provided a new prospective for the study of caste system & its implication for the understanding of the Indian. Hindu society. rather it is dialectical. found upon the necessary consistence of the two. anthropology & ideology. where. An organic model where the whole is founded upon the necessary & hierarchical coexistence of two opposites. •Elements are ranked in relation to whole •Nature of relationship is which encompasses & that which is incompossed •A holistic view 2. where. We can understand his theory on the basic of the perspective provided for by Y. values or is ideational. Trance formational relationship• The principle of hierarchy as manifested in purity & pollution proviedsfor the diversion of labor in society.L. Dumont’s a French scholar & an expert in sociology. Singh highlights four parts of his theory: 1. which are immutrally interdependent. etc. kinship groups. Within the Durg jaties.homo equal is. • It also provides for the distinction between status & power. • The nature of changes taking place in the caste system acc. The inequality as found in India is of a special kind which precisely gets manifested in the principal of hierarchy. based on equality as found in the west. & (b) Oriental tradition . to L.L. • L. Dumont’s accordingly presented a model to make his agreements more explicit. He however argned that the opposites of equality is not inequality. More specifically. Dumont’s further proposed that the Varna system based on the distinction between purity & pollution later led to the proliferation of various castes. Brahmins kshatriyas vaishyas shudras N.A. ~ 45 ~ . 4. he proposed • distinction between: (a) Oxidental tradition .homo-hierarchical. the traditional interdependence of caste is being replaced by competition among the caste. Comparisons . gotra. where status(of Brahmins as related to intellectual field) is more pure than power (of king & kshatriyas) • L. Dumont is that the changes are ‘in’ & not ‘of’ the caste system. Dumont proposed his theory to compare the nature of equality found in the west to that of inequality as was found in India. called substantialisation of caste by Dumont. Accordingly. based on hierarchy as found in India. subcastes.• This distinction leads to the division in terms of during & a_ ______jaties. who pursue economic activities are more impure in comparison to those who perform religious activities. This is in consonance with the reality that there are also varying models of emulation which castes employ for purpose of upward mobility.N. Where his A.• In Indian society collectivity aspect of social lik is more important than the individual phenomena of the west. Srinivas opines that he fails to distinguish between Varna & jati. 2. Singh considers his analysis as highly abstract to operationalise & is not T. Dipankar gupta opines that Dumont fails to pay attention to the principle of differences in the caste system. M. because of which the Hindu caste system is presented as one without internal dynamisan & tent ion 5. 6.power dichotomization based on the principle of hierarchy is incomplete until we consider it along with dominance an empirical reality of Indian caste system. together with the neglect of political . Y. G. However he equated individualism of west to renunciation as found in the Indian society.parvathamma.economic dimension of Indian reality. it is a historical. conflicts aspect of caste. opposite of true hierarchy of Dumont. As such. similarly. the status. leading to multiple hierarchies. Omvedt provides for an ideological antique by arguing that Dumont has tried to Barreman opines for the following: accord an ideological superiority to the Brahamanical model. Madan & Barreman argue for limited nature of ethnographic evidence empirically applicable. Betailly argues that his organic model failed to account for the tensions and conception that jaties emerged from Varna is not true. This leads to caste conflict. Conclusion: ~ 46 ~ .N. As such. (1) The correspondent between purity (ritual) & high status (of Brahmins) was not always true as power (of kings) also determined high status. (2) Moreover if we look at castes dozily we find that each maintains its own tradition & costumes zealously clearly distinguishes itself from others accompanying by a unique hierarchical or doing of castes. • • critical evaluation: 1. 4. 3. this view has been supported by leach. L. Gould. R. caste is not a unique Indian phenomena.because of its religious significance. Hurye analyzed the elements of caste outside India by reviewing Egypt. 3. it must be confused to a single are .India moreover castes attempts to integral Indian society & a unique phenomena.because castes system permeates Hindu society to a level unknown elsewhere. G. Hulton & Bougle. castes denote a particular species with panIndian cirtisation. Dumont’s emalyas of caste. But these groups are not based upon any theological ideas as in the case of Hindu religion. there are groups in Muslim (Shias & Sunnis) & Christian (catholic & protestant). M.S. Lewis. ~ 47 ~ . Srinivas. 4. Hurye & Fredrick Barth as such. .K. This shows the utility of L. These scholars are chiefly G. Mukherjee contradicts this by arguing that caste system is a typical Indian institution rather than being a peculiarity of any religious group. Japan. as such.N. The above views are proposed by the scholars who chiefly view caste as an ethnographic category & in this from it refers exclusively to a system of social organization peculiar to Hindu India Leach & Dumont argue that both as cultural & structural phenomena.because of its complex origin. he proposed that caste in not only unique Indian phenomena. both cultural & structural.L. Bougle. & Tribal Europe. 5. Hutton. H. CASTE: UNIQUE INDIAN PHENOMENA The different dimensions of caste as unique Indian phenomena1. but it also a unique Hindu phenomena. Dumont. loestern Asia. Bailey. Dumont provides an alternative view of caste to understand the Indian social reality. However there are scholars who regard caste as a sociological category denotes almost any kind of class structure of exceptional rigidity. 2. Accordingly. O. China.because it is based on the most crucial theological idea of purity & pollution. Shrinivas.castes system in its fullest sense is an exclusively Indian phenomenon. Rome. it is also a unique Hindu phenomena. The above is determined by the structural constraints w. at least. The opportunity structure. • • • Frustration either objectively or subjectively existing. & not as cultural reality. the closure of openness of the stratification system. Leach & Dumont opines that caste exists in Indian both as a cultural & structural social reality. as related to. indissolubly linked with pen.t. Barth in his study of social stratification system of Muslims in swat.He founds elements of caste in well marked status group of this society. “Social stratification. the same condition were found by F. it is doubtful to maintain that tension & conflicts did not exist in traditional India. & change. The above instances are however cases where caste exists. The structural differentiation & mobility results from urges for social mobility. Such statusgroups and condition were prevalent in other civilization also. North Pakistan even Risley’s Racial theory posits that caste system should not be confined to India but it should be found in all those societies which have faced the conquests by other racial groups.r.India civilization. we can say that social mobility reflects the direction in which structural changes in the society are taking place. Here we many refer to the analyses of Cooley who opined that when status in a class is somewhat strictly hereditary. such a conflict did exist & often on a large scale ( in the form of social movement) As such. are present in every society. to some extent. mobility. we may call it caste. only as a structural phenomena. The closure of caste-stratification is associated with the principal of status summation. Kroeber opines that castes are special forms of social classes which in tendency. • • • • • Historically. The nature of the communication system.” • • Social mobility is directly linked with the system of social stratification. “Nature of mobility in traditional India” ~ 48 ~ . Mobility in stratification is also related to the possibility of structural changes. and • Besides. Indeed they were exceptional. it may be difficult to establish historically that the caste system of ranking. Where the closure of caste stratification is associated with the principal of “status summation”. • There is substantial evidence to suggest that even in the past the caste system was not absolutely closed. wide divergences in the status ranking of families within the same caste on the basis of sub-caste division. • integration and no conflict was the focus of study. Besides. but in social relevance were quite significant. • The misplaced conception & ideology of the classical literature which over-emphasized the element of continuity. • having a closed system of stratification This was chiefly because of. the avenues for mobility in traditional India were: (a) Though conquests & accumulation of power & wealth (orans. it did not preclude upward or downward mobility of individual castes in the local hierarchy. in the single-village studies of the social anthropologists in the framework of functional theory.sinha) (b) Vast tracts of land available for settlement & enterprising families could move from one region to another & settle down as rajas or feudal lords & establish peasant settlements. • An ideological bias of a moral sense of superiority felt by most western scholars over the Indian society & culture.. and • The jajmani system within the caste framework led them to over emphasis the element of reciprocity & underplays the inherent tension in the system. though in limited & exceptional cases only chance for status mobility. Occupational sub-specialization & accumulation of wealth. • The tradition. (c) Mobility through promotion to higher positions of office or patronage during the Mughal & British period. • the position of caste in the system of ranking was itself subject to changes due to external or internal forces operating in the social system(Silverberg : barber) • Besides.It was contended that in the social system of traditional India • mobility was absent. Srinivas correct this perspective by arguing that while traditional India was somewhat stationary in character. ~ 49 ~ .N. was ever fully closed. • M. The caste system did offer.modern dichotomy in the studies of status mobility in India. (a) The tradition-modern dichotomy in the studies of status mobility in India. (F. Silverberg opines that it is doubtful to maintain that such forces & processes accounted for a significant degree of social mobility. Here the social segments interact through competition. & (B) Organic.(d) Mobility through accidental factors. through the jajmani system Bailey named this caste principle of stratification as ‘closed organic system’. However. Stein). social distance & social inequality. “Mobility and conflict in traditional India” • structurally. an institutionalized scheme meant only for the twice born castes. ~ 50 ~ . famines or good harvests. Bailey) • the thesis that the caste system being closed or harmonic is probably overdrawn chiefly because of the following factors. both in the village & towns (Dumont. Accumulation of property & technological changes leading to emergence of new occupational groups (Barber).where the caste segments are mutually interlinked by principle of reciprocity.where each caste or: sub-caste tends to articulate mutual repulsion. Harper. (e) ) Mobility through renunciation or by becoming sanyasis. such as. in the single-village studies of the social anthropologists in the framework of functional theory: • integration and not conflict was the focus of study. & (d) besides. Bailey refers to this as the class principle of ‘segmentary stratification’.G. through in practice member of the lower caste also become sadhus or sanyasis. (f) Among the internal structural forces was fluctuation in population. (b) The misplaced conception & ideology of the classical literature which over-emphasized the elements of continuity.& • The jajmani system within the caste framework led them to over-emphasize the element of reciprocity & underplay the inherent tensions in the system. (c) An ideological bias of a moral sense of superiority felt by most western scholars over the Indian society & culture. the caste system simultaneously manifests two tendencies or realities: (A) Segmental. it is doubtful to maintain that tensions & conflicts did not exist between castes in traditional • India. The conflicts in the system of stratification emerge from the frames of reference in the ranking of castes from one level of category to another. the motivation) & communication structures are highly active but the opportunity structure remains closed & shows dire inequalities. such the system of stratification is expected to generate tensions & conflicts if its reference group context is such that the aspiration levels ( i. the several units being characterized by distinctive values.the aspirations the members to move wards.the extent of relative deprivation influencing people’s motivation for social mobility. the three levels in the ranking system related to the Indian mobility pattern are based on the distinction between: (a) Rural from metropolitan types of ranking system. where sanskritisation can be seen at least in principle violating the basic tenet of accepting the • principle of hierarchy. The social development in India corresponds more or less to this situation. • sanskritisation & westernization can be viewed from a reference group theoretical perspective to explain & analyses the structural aspect of mobility in the stratification system.. As. ~ 51 ~ . which results because of the peculiar structural constraints of the Indian society (Gould: Leach).the eligibility or ineligibility of the members to move in the desired direction & finally (c) The communication structure. But this process has also contributed to the dynamics of the stratification system. • besides. such conflicts did occur and often on a large scale in the form of: Large scale social movements.e.village. The zones are. therefore. by focusing upon (a) The motivational structure. (b) The opportunity structure. many sociologist have seen in the process of sanskritisation a latent form of class conflict. linguistic region & the whole civilization. (b) Individual or groups from corporate units of ranking. & (c) A series of successively wider zones of reference for the unites in any local system.• Historically. away under the impact of . it can be either. • M. Social mobility as a process has become more active in recent time. (a) Vertical or structural . • However. It has resulted from sets of endogenous and exogenous factors that have loosened the summation The congruence of ritual. Beteille. srinivas. Omvedt. Bailey. Leach). Srinivas highlights the new role of castes in India by concluding that the contemporary • of caste hierarchy: processes in the structure of caste is that of fusion in contrast to the past trends which were in the direction of continued fission. Breman.social legislation. (b) Horizontal or positional .“Social stratification and mobility in modern times” • • • • The term ‘castes & classes’ are used as conceptual dichotomies for the analysis of change. economic. Social mobility in Indian society It refers to the change in the status of indi’s or groups in relation to a given system of social stratification. Harris. Rudolph. as a result of this growth of autonomy and divergence among the determinants of traditional system • Caste is getting more rationally organized into caste association and federations & assuming to itself the function of rational corporate groups. and power status as in traditional caste stratification is withering status principle which the traditional caste stratification represented.N. education.Bhadra.Marriott. • Mobility thus causes ‘status-in congruency’ or inconsistency (Barber. fission & fusion are also taking place in the caste organization in different parts of the country (R. • Some have even speculated about the transformation of caste system into the class system of social stratification (Davis. Singh.Gould). Desai). democratization. as a consequence of increased social mobility. Silverberg. Kothary. • major sources of SM are: -policy of protective & is crimination -land rectomes & GR ~ 52 ~ . H. Ram). is evident in the ever increasing violation of traditional criteria of status namely hereditary occupation. & SM. . . Narayan. -education -urbainsation & industrialization • major trends of change: -displacement of old political-leadership by a new set of leaders drowns from the advanced rural segments’.panchayati raj & ULB. -the most important testimony of SM can be found in the challenge thrown by SC.R.-adult franchise . OBC.Several studies indicate limited & uneven impact of the various state radiated schemes of social transformation (Mahar. Caste based mobilization by the middle caste in favor of policy of reservation of jobs has sharpened & intensified class contradiction. Srinivas). Singh) structural . education. jajmani obligation reacceptance of modern seen occupations. -the growth of literary & emergence of small structure of educated elite is a testining of SM among SC. Shah). Weiner. . Sharma)KG. following considerable degree of socio-political awareness. s have become a political force which in political party could afford to undermine.Shah. Ramas wanny). Chiefly possible due to political consciousness & democratization of politics.M. new patterns of social stratification have emerged (Bose. Kamet. and N. Sengupta. Spheres of social life. OBC to the dominance of upper caste & classes particularly after independence.eco.s ST.The movements for political antinomy agrasion & forest based movement & cultural movement based on script and language has immushy contributed to SG.Since the late 1970s. Offat. -S. Ras. ST. ( A. -A. among tribes in middle India. Sachchidananda) initially lower castes uninitiated higher caste in non. it non symbolizes aspiration for higher status as well as desire to over throw the existing system ( Omvedt. Sharma talks of the process of down ward social mobility. cultural & social transformation have occurred among ST’S -out grown of various organization & groups leading to various social movements ( Sharma. Beteille talks of emergence of new status groups taking precedence over traditional upper &middle caste. (Singh. M. ~ 53 ~ . position of power is formal political bodies.s (Sachchidananda. New forms of inequality have emerged along with new bases of stratification. Bremen opines that a new form of casteism has emerged due to such a process of change.Structural Autonomy of the Traditional Indian Social Structure” • An important historical element in traditional Indian social structure was that of inter sub-structural autonomy.Y. Bendix. the autonomy between polity & stratification. Ishwaran). . caste is becoming work & strong simultaneously. “The Contemporary Processes of Social Change” • The Contemporary Processes of Social Change have now ceased to be segmentary they have become The structural autonomy of the social sub-system is gradually breaking down with the erosion of traditional organic. Y.Through class has lost its. This is because: • structural insularity. etc. native ‘initial condition’ or ‘historicity’ of social processes must not be overlooked. what matter most in formulating conceptual categories for the study of changes is that: • • each society due to its pre-existing systems of social institution & ideologies. such as. Stratification & culture and polity. Singh. Singh). it learn on caste to further its interests for mobilization. Thus. • This resulted in the acceptance of much social & cultural innovation at one level of the sub-system without affecting the other. ~ 54 ~ . Beteille. (Eisenstaedt. • The nature of this process was segmental. & The researcher should try to observe the dialectical relationship between the system interaction & social change (Eisenstaedt. haziness.. “The historicity of social change” • • Social change processes even though structurally similar assume historically different shapes & positions in as such. “The Inter-Sub. class and communal identities are inadvertently reinforced. The caste association. consciousness in these identities is not the same as existed in traditional society with its autonomy of sub-system. The urge for equality. caste has evolved adaptive mechanisms for assimilation of and coexistence with many structural changes. Srinivas. However.MN. faction. growth is symbolized by the emergence of Indian nationhood. economic security. GS. Change and persistence in caste It is a perspective for the analysis of the nature of change taking place in the contemporary Indian society. the changes are occurring through role differentiation and functional diversification. • Various rural development & poverty reduction programmers. But the quality the Now all social segments tend to be activated because of the constraint towards organic social growth. Fusion and instances of change: 1. & panchayati raj institutions. Such changes have been so fundamental that is of only debated if the new emergent phenomena are indeed manifestation of caste or class properties. ~ 55 ~ . fission & fusion & structural entities manifest the diverse ramifications of this process.• • • • This takes place following various institutional changes in the society which affect all other systems and The mechanisms for such mobilization are economic or existential. This activate most of its segment for participation in a wider national scene. mobility& No wonder of the caste. Force of change• federal parliamentary democracy based on universal adult franchise • socialistic planning • policy of protective discrimination • social legislation • urbanization & industrialization • education • Land reforms & green revolution. Weakening of the norms of pollution and purity . Ghurye. Patwardhan) 2. 4. Traditional interdependence replaced by competition. show fusion of caste. providing: (a) Opportunities for power & (b) Social mobility feasible (Rudolph’s. Caste . Lynch. economic & political features have became more important . 9.2. jajmani system.Caste endogamy • caste associations. Das. • • • • caste no longer determine occupation occupational mobility cut across class lines occupational diversification has taken place Greater avenues for social mobility. A. a significant break in the traditional hierarchical structure of caste . Changes in traditional power structure & leadership patterns. Das DN. Dumont for eg.AN. 5. Contradiction and conflicts on a scale which never existed before. 3. 7. Dhanger. through fundamental democratization of caste. Bailey. A shift from organic to segmental reality. Changes have occurred in the traditional mode of interrelationship. ie. 8. Emergence of Dalit consciousness. Conflict in Bihar . Bailey.K. Instead of ritual aspects. thus assuming class like forms. called substantialisation of caste by L. S. Fusion and persistence of caste-caste association -caste clustering’s -political mobilization of caste -politicization of caste -sharpening of caste identities -backward class movements -communal tensions .clustering is still a predominant feature: ~ 56 ~ . Marline. emphasizing horizontal solidarity.Raghav Raj & Laidi. 6. Changes have occurred in status summation. Beteille. esp.FG.AN. Kohli. Singh. Y. Omvedt. access to officials in various governmental agencies and in labour recruitment .Panini.(a) Lower caste classes are still wesking as agricultural menial labouress. Gadgil. MN. The socialist planning strategy with the government regime of economic regulation & control. which sharpened caste identities at the national level. Srinivas.Gough. providing the basis for politicization of caste. Social consequences- ~ 57 ~ .G. people sought to cling to whatever economic opportunity they initially had. Baviskar. G.Backward class movements 1. Kothari. (c) Social background of industrial entrepreneur’s reveals that most of them hail from trading & business castes & communities . Panimi. 2. Lerches.Brass. (b) Upper & middle caste dominate elite position in country’s administrative as well as modern profession Navlakha. the above to factors together led to highly differentiated & unequal socio-economic development thus. A. Reasons for the same-slow pace of industrialization & economic stagnation -socialistic planning strategy . (d) Unorganized sector chiefly comprises of under privileged low castes . Thorat. Omvedt. Holmstrom. (4) Anti Brahmin movements in the south .Rudolph.Unequal socio-economic development -politicization of caste . JP. Lerches. Slow pace of industrialization & economic stagnation.John Harris. particularistic linkages of kinship affinity and caste proved vital in gaining business contract. G.R. Omvedt P. (3) Politicization of caste.Singer.Myrdal.N. chiefly through caste & kinship ties.Formation of sizeable middle class . MSA. T.Breman. Singh. It constrained the free flow of resource & into as such. 3. and Das. K.K. where caste is used as a means of political mobilization at all levels . Srinivas. because of this.M. Row . Deitsch. Paradoxically bourgeoisiefication has dual aspect: (A) Religious & political support to various party & organization which fan communal emboss. • Thus. • this will have dual impact.L Rao. reinventing caste movement.Growth of middle class of bourgeoisiefication . for the upper caste & professional liberalization has become more attractive proposition.adversely affect the poor & underprivileged.Thrawt the process of rapid economic development. K. Panini. ~ 58 ~ .Politicization of castes . P. The future course• With govt’s decision for job reservation. rural peasant castes & lower classes in the society. Formation of a sizeable middle class where its consumerist 7 instrumentalist has become a model of emulation by the upwardly mobile sections of industrial workers. there is every possibility of intensification of conflicts in the near future. As such.F.. Brass.sharpening of caste identities . Ommen. • But.K. 1. & . Singh.Rise of backward class movements. P. there will be considerable resistance & backward class movements. which set in process of political polarization at the national level. & (B) Also support economics liberalization by extending & deepening the market for consumer goods. asmarket forces are friendly to those who are endowed with skill & resources. Engineer. Gadgil.S. . Oonimen. 2. Brass. with sharpening caste identities• implicit refection of achievement orientation on one hand • Equality & social justice are translated in terms of getting secular status.conimmual tensions .K. T. Das.Y. Emergence of backward class movements.Intensification of conflicts . • consideration of equality gam precedence over efficiency.T. Rodolphs)  The traditional status summation of caste has broken down. This ideology of caste has become less pervasive (M. Boss.G. Omvedt)  A. Gould). (M. Beteille considers changes in the traditional power as the most radical change in the traditional social structure. leading to the emergence of Dalit consciousness & ‘Dalit literature’.  The traditional dominance of Brahamin’s in Tanjore village broke down. Desai. Gough)  The traditional caste panchayats & caste councils have lost their significance. jajmani system. (Y. AR. & doing away with what Deepak Lal calls ‘Hindu Equilibrium’ or Raj Krishana’s ‘Hindu Rate Of Growth’. & present the only alternative & possibility of annihilating caste. Provides opportunities for power 2.ConclusionEconomic liberalization in the long run is likely to weaken the hold of caste over economy.N. (A. (G. Singh)  Instead of earlier vertical mobilization.  The traditional caste ordering of occupation broke down ie. (H. AN. PK.  Traditional interdependence of caste organic being replaced by competition segmental leading to intensification of conflicts. Srinivas. Bailay)  Taking benefits from land reforms. middle caste peasants emerged as dominant & heralded green revolution. The reasons for continued existence of caste in the future1. (F. Makes social mobility feasible 3. Beteille)  Mobility has occurred among SCs & Dalits. Bailay.N.  The ritual aspect of caste is confused to personal affairs only. They have emerged as potential political force. (FG. Evolved adaptive mechanisms’ with the forces of modernity. Aspects of change/fission in caste  The nation of hierarchical gradation of caste groups drawing legitimacy from the concept of purity & pollution has changed. (K. Srinivas). leading to new avenues for social mobility & new source of social honors & prestige. Das) ~ 59 ~ . education.  The beginning of political consciousness on caste lines gets reflected in caste association (Rudolph’s.  Increased competition among communities to get themselves listed as “backward”. Conclusion: it is clear that caste as a dynamic reality of Indian society has accompanied changes in the past. The wcakers sections (Woman.S. It is obvious that eradication of caste is a distant reality. jobs. Kolenda)  The forces of modernity have benefitted the wealthy upper castes. (P.  H. In the final analysis.  The coming of modern means of communication has increased the ‘horizontal stretch’ of caste. ~ 60 ~ . norms & structures it once had & acquiring new ones to suit the new demands & conditions of the people. Kothari)  The great business houses belong to the traditional commercial upper castes. (MN. despite the indication to the country. SCs. caste is losing the functions.  Candidates are being selected for political parties in the basis of caste. Srinivas). it centimes to exists as a dynamic reality even today. However.  Caste alliances are being formed for political games. & promotions. Cohn). Srinivas). because of its characteristic of adaptability to force of change.politics. This shows the political mobilization of caste groups. material welfare & social status (B. MN. Kothari)  Rudolph’s arrange that caste in its transformed form has helped the Indian masses (of which 70% live in the village) make a success of representative democracy. but in personal life the caste norms exerts itself. Gould’s study of rishawallas of Lucknow shows that in workplace the caste norms are set aside. (R.  Caste has come to term with the democratic political process. ASPECTS OF CONTINUTY/FUSION IN CAST  Caste & kinship and marriage links yet survives. (R. Dalits) have increasingly made their presence in new self-governing institutions of PRLS.  Even Supreme Court recognizes caste & communities as the basis of reservations . STs. cities. This can see wrt new kingdoms. Aspects of mobility & migration were quite normal. 5. throughout India -economic & political aspect becoming more prominent in comparison to ritual dimension. Material & cultural traditions existed with a sort of congruity. Pannikar. 6. of Bihar -emergence of Dalit consciousness -reservations for equality -equality of middle caste peasants as upper classes -shift towards horizontal mobilization -Indi & family mobility -no inform pattern of caste crke class. exp. class & power (Stein. Though at an ideal typical level & for analytical purposes we can differentiate between caste & class based stratification system.Present times: -caste association -Caste-class clustering -caste & politics -backward class movement -intensification of conflict. Had caste been merely a ritualistic phenomenon it would have crimpled language because of its amber some nature. Such confusion stems from the fact that western scholars looked at the caste system in India from the viewpoint of the class in the western societies. Even in ancient Indian these were classes. and banking & guild operations. caste and class are organically related. the understanding of existential operational & substantial dynamic Indian social reality calls for a close nexus between caste & class. “Caste incorporates class & class incorporates caste in the Indian contest”. ~ 61 ~ . Neither does caste refer to the totality of social formation nor is class the polar opposite of caste. Neither the caste alone view nor the class-alone perspective can help in a proper and fuller understanding of Indian society. caste based division of labor explains the economic dimension of the caste. 3. 4. However. this can be seen in the following points: 1. & Others) 2. These was never a perfect congruence between caste. settled agriculture. CASTE AND CLASS NEXUS In India. like class. marriage & family with farces of production & production relations. The process of sanskritisation also includes the phenomena of power & domination. ( AN. There were instances of conflicts & tensions in the institution of caste system even in traditional India. 8. The increasing shift from vertical to horizontal mobilization of various groups in modern day polity. 11. Religions also includes power 9. 14. Sharma) 8. ( R. The process of westernization & sanskritisation want on simultaneously moreover. The concept of jajmani & dominant caste are explaining the same. Some of the relatively recent phenomena: 1. Dalits. The Mandal commission of backward class considered caste as the basics for determining backwardness of members of group in a society. Bose) 5. 12. Sharma) 10. Hyper gamy explains the role of status & wealth within the caste system. Nexus can be seen when economic and political dimension are taken into consideration. DN. ~ 62 ~ . Oommen. kinship. a better comprehension of the term & simultaneous aspects of mobility upward & downward. Family position is marked as a class within a particular caste. The activisation of caste association for non-caste like functions. ( T. 10. The seemingly caste conflicts in Bihar are essentially class conflicts. 13. 13. The increasing nature of conflict of Behar. (PC. K. SCs. Kothari) 7. Lower-middle caste peasants taking benefits from LREGR have become upper class groups. Gough’s analysis of mode of production as a social formation having interconnections of caste. (Roudlph) 2. Role of caste & class in present day elections. (KL. 11. The increasing conflicts between the high caste & lower caste groups ( Harigens.7. 3. westernization did not retard the process of sanskritisation rather it accelerated the same. The nature of economic deprivation & exploitation of the various weaker sections. Greater attention to mobility at the level of family & individual. Das.K. 12.) & increasing conflicts within the lower caste groups speaks of the rising aspirations of equality. Dhangre) 4. (KL. There is no uniform pattern of caste structure throughout India. Joshi) 9. PK. ( Roudlph) 6. STs etc. Bailey). a whole some treatment of both these aspects of social stratification could provide a deeper understanding of India’s social formation. (A. history and culture. 1. structure & process have a combination of: 1. More specifically in the sphere of caste. system in • The structural aspects of caste (economic & political dimensions) remained underestimated whereas the cultural aspects (purity & pollution) have been over emphasized. Nexus should mean close link between the two and not that caste is changing to class. whereas 2. History: provides the substantial account of the conditions of human existence. • Moreover. Desai. based on competition. 1. where both are organically However. Sharma opines that for understanding of caste & class as dimensions of Indian social formation demands & approach whereby the theory.THE FRAMEWORK: • The caste & class are two principles of social starts faction which have persisted in the Indian social a dialectical relationship.& 2. based on cooperation & inter-dependence.(F. organic: caste principle of stratification. CASTE AND DEMOCRACY related in the system of Indian social stratification. culture: defines the nature of relations & Structure: is seen as a formation of the product of dialectics. 4. we should also remember that caste simultaneously manifests tendencies . • Dipankar Gupta argues that the essence of dynamic Indian social reality can be had by considering. Y. Caste as a basis of social stratification. • What is required is that dominant & not so dominant elements of a given situation should be discerned. • A perspective for the analysis of nature of changes taking place in the contemporary Indian society. Singh rightly comments that the situation corresponds to a “prismatic” model of change. 3. Segmental: class principle of stratification. K. the changes have been occurring through role differentiation & functional ~ 63 ~ . Class provides the basis of mode of production. where ‘traditional’ sentiments of caste & kinship under adaptive transformations without completely being diffracted into classes or corporate groups. Davis) • K. • Dialectics: the contradictory relations between unequal segments.G.R. caste & class represent to a large extant the same structural reality.L. 2. • As such. 2. The changes have been so fundamental that it has often been debated if the in argent phenomena are indeed manifestations of caste or class like features. equality. weakening of the norms of pollution & purity.Greater avenues for social mobility. India. Beteille. hieratical organization & hereditary occupation. civil society. Ghurye a significant break in the traditional hierarchical aspect of caste. • socialist planning • policy of protective discrimination & reservations • industrialization & urbanization • Thus. green revolution & prls. ascriptive norms. achievement. based on universalism. Mannheim. it is argued that through caste and democracy are fundamentally opposed to each other. caste based society essentially entails features of particularize. repulsion. Srinivas. However. Therefore.N. inequality based on purity & pollution. • social legislations • Land reforms. some of the “positive impacts” of democratization in especially caste were as follows: 1. Bailay 4. These measures were: • Federal parliamentary democracy based on universal adult franchise. we can assume that democracy essentially entails fen times of a modern society. fundamental rights. called ‘fundamental democratization’ of caste by K. orientation.Occupational diversification has taken place . on an ideal typical level. efforts were mode to bring about changes at the national regional & local level. on achieving independence. Therefore.diversification under the impact of democratization. 3. caste has evolved adaptive mechanisms for assimilation of and coexistence with the many structural changes & the force of modernity-democracy.S.M. A. undertook various measures to usher democratic modernization of the country. Changes in the status-summation. -caste in longer determines occupation . Changes in the traditional mode of inter relationship (jajmani)-F. whereas.G.Occupational mobility cuts across class lines . etc. which is chiefly regarded as a traditional caste based society. ~ 64 ~ . G. rule of low. the changes of social mobility are either absent or relatively less in a traditional-caste based society as a purely democratic modern society. India presents a unique case of largest caste-based democracy in the world. however. if we place democracy & caste along two opposite indo of a continuation. status-summation. who now make their presence felt in PRLs. Omvedt. intensification of conflicts among caste .Roudlphs. O. Srinivas in a review of emerging caste consciousness & its new organization & functions in Gujarat. 4. UP. Oommen. K. Das. ~ 65 ~ . Led to political empowerment of the Dalits in terms of crystallization of Dalits consciousness. leading to what he calls a “shadow society” which has modernizing impact without overly replacing traditional institutional of caste. matching caste by caste has been a common policy of political parties in general election of India. Roudlph characterize ‘caste association’ as having the hired attributes of both ascriptive & voluntary groups. STs. Cohn. However. Increasing claims for being labeled as “backward class”. Growth & proliferation of various political parties.PC. Class clustering is still a predominant feature. thus altering the traditional power structure. Considerable social mobility has occurred among SCs.. Increasing importance of caste association in the political process especially in elections it legislative assembles & diott. 4. 5. & GR. 9. PI. under the impact of LR. Instead of earlier attempts of vertical mobilization. various middle caste peasants have become dominant in various parts of the country. B. Joshi. Sharpening of caste identities. OBCs & women. Dhanagare 2. TK. Srinivas.S. MN. On the basis of the impact of the various efforts at democratization of the country. Bodies.5. MN. Brass. Mannheim. . 7. Levis. which set in process of political polarization at the national level. Oommen 8. which shows that castes not only unite on political front. 3.AN. but also have a tendency to sub-divide & from faction TK. 3. 2. Politicization of caste & use of primordial loyalties for political mobilization. the following trends of the dynamic interplay between caste & democracy can be seen: 1.Roudlph. AC. some of the “negative impacts” of the process of democratization on caste have also been observed: 1. Nayor. chiefly because of the emergence of backward class movements.G. the attempts are now for horizontal mobilization . The power & activities of caste has increased in proposition of the political power passed on the people. Y. 6. and Behar & Andhra Pradesh opines that the forces of caste instead of weakening are further strengthened. Singh. Orissa. we can say that the structural chancing occurring in the caste system under the impact of democracy.5. 7. “caste is not going to wither away”. Government has given preference in services & educational institutional to the OBCs. Now we have reservation in promotions too (77th constitutional amendment act). 9. 6. may not be essential to caste per send to some extant are assuming class-like forms. 8. However. 10. 5. STs. Caste association & political mobilization is essentially a micro-reality. we now have reservations in promotions too. MN. 8. Further. 6. New feeling of self identity of increased horizontal caste solidarity. This is because of the limitation of impact of democracy of caste. The caste association & political mobilization are still based a primordial loyalties. which imply role differentiation & functional diversification. 3. in pursuance of the decision of the Supreme Court. but in ritual spheres hierarchy still purists. Srinivas. Caste alone in India provided an unmediated & pre-existing structural framework for diffusing & mobilizing of new role structure. Increasing tendency of the groups to claim ‘backward statuses’. thus. caste has shown continued resistance by evolving adaptive mechanisms for assimilation of & coexistent with many structural ~ 66 ~ . which is as follows: 1. which challenged the position of upper caste as reference groups. This is reflected in the unity Brahmin movement in the south & SCs & STs in the eastern region. Absence of other fully differentiated voluntary structures & organization. The existential situation homogeneity & uniformity of groups determines the extend & level of mobilization. New modern means of communication are being used to propagate ascriptive norms. 7. The spill over effect of caste and the political economy on the future process of economic liberalization. 2. Though in political & economic realms hierarchy has been replaced by competitive ideology. 4. Sharpening of caste identities & intensification of caste conflicts. Provision for reservation in local bodies (73rd & 74th CAA) (9) talks of reservation in private sector In such in emergent dynamic interplay between caste & democracy. STs. Pannikar in ‘caste and democracy’ argues that to regards democracy as ushering equality and uniformity is the grossest of fallacies. But due to the past historical social condition of existence there exists a considerable difference regarding the capability of competing with success between the groups. The sociological analysis of the issue of equality and social justice requires an analysis of the difference in life changes caused by traditional values. for it negates peculiarities & historicity of a given society-CASTE.changes. “ISSUES OF EQUALITY AND SOCIAL JUSTICE” The principle of equality implies that all citizens should be treated as equals without any discrimination. the directed social changes as envisaged by the government clearly aim at the quicker realization of these two ~ 67 ~ . Nobody denies the value-consensus of today’s society that: • each citizen enjoys equal protection of low. caste will continue to provide an institutional foundation for the operation of modernizing social structure in the realms of politics. The defining feature of their condition was that they were in many important regards placed outside the bounds of the larger society. mainly on account of the segregation imposed on them by the rules of pollution and purity. This involves the principle of social justice. special care has to be taken to ensure that they are able to exercise their rights as full citizens in the new legal-social order. We have to critically assess the extent of realization of equality and social justice. which fusion and fission takes place simultaneously. they require special facilities to be brought in. For the same. The special claims of the backward classes arise out of the conditions under which they have been constrained to live from ancient times. as we are experiencing today. and social restriction imposed by the caste system. economy & culture. They have to be given special support to enable them to take rightful place as citizens of the country. As such. especially w.r.M. rather it would lead to a number of structural & institutional changes. For a long times to come. and • The acceptances of the principle that no individual should be permitted to live below human level.t. However the achievement of the same can never be achieved overnight. Rudolphs opines that such emergent relationship between caste & democracy implies that modernity has interned into Indian character & society through assimilation & not replacement. social practices. it in this context that K. The controversy arises regarding achieving the two value consensus as fast as possible. the vast majority of people living in the rural areas and those belonging to the lower castes. Such changes can only be brought about over a period of time. ~ 68 ~ . Such jobs are too few in numbers to materially alter the condition of any caste as a whole. occupation. without the mediation of his caste. • They compel us to take more & more account of the needs of the individual irrespective of his caste. The economic forces that push people below the line of poverty do not pay much regard to the finer points of traditional distinction of status. The direction of the policy of reservation cannot be questioned in fairness. • However. perpetuation of the caste system itself. The new legal order must provision for the individual to bring his needs to the attention of the state in his own right. We can highlight the following points in our analysis of the issue of equality and social justice: • Is that the reason why caste is taken as a criterion for equalization in order to bring about equality between individuals. Each of them is a very complex phenomenon and has to be examined in depth. the rigidities of caste are no longer as severe as they were even a decade ago. we should first bring about equality between groups. Various forces are at work today which increases the dissociation between caste and income. As such. the above situation is not applicable in the case of poverty. dismemberment of society. and education. it is fallacious to argue that the equalization of caste can only be achieved by means of job reservations in the government jobs. the area that needs to be debated is the correctness or otherwise of the means adopted for realizing these values one of them happens to be reservation.values. All the members of a caste are not equal-they are not homogeneous groups. The assumption of a perfect congruence between the collective ritual status of a caste and the actual material condition of its individual members does not hold good today. there is a basic difficulty in this approach. The only thing that needs to be debated is whether the policy of reservation is: • • • • leading to creation of new vested interests. • Moreover. for his caste tells us less & less about the total range of his deprivation. and probably never held good in the majority of the cases even in the past. • Moreover. Are we in that case not doing injustice to the individual by seeking to do justice to caste & communities? The ends of justice are hardly met if our vain endeavor to bring about equality between castes leads only to the increase of inequality among the individual members of every caste. Now. & Efficiency is really on decline in services and professions only because of these reservations. an attribute of group rather than of individuals. This gets reflected in their social. Initially it was only a socio- ~ 69 ~ . the situation gets compounded due to the fact that the provision for social justice on the basis of caste and community inevitably strengthens the divisive forces and weakness the sense of belongingness to the nation. The Satya Shodhak Samaj of joytiba phule played a pioneering role. Through the traces of the emergence of DC can be found in Buddhism. Sufism and Sikhism. of reflecting on their conditions at other higher castes. and not just in special castes. The Various Stages of Dalit Movement: 1. • The society made a terrible mistake in the past in believing that merit was an attribute of individual but of groups. which started articulating consciousness of exportation and urge for separate identity among the Dalits. it made the SCs conscious of their long standing exploitation and the urge for separate identity. economic. The do sure of the caste stratification and the entrenched position of the caste Hindus had been challenged. that being born a Brahmin was in itself a merit. As such. it led to the beginning of various socio-religious reform movements. The attempts to remove social inequlities on caste.• Besides. Especially. The advent of colonial rule and the process of westernization played on important role. and structural aspect of social reality. Emergence and Growth of Dalit Consciousness The term DC is chiefly a socio-psychological phenomenon of the consciousness of collectivity among the depressed and weaker sections of the society. This kind of competition creates a vested interest as it stifles the possibility of creating equality between individuals and it obstructs the natural process through which barriers between castes and communities can be affected. However. class or community basis creates frustration among some caste and communities resulting into various agitation and violent actions. but also where caste and jatis are divided into a number of endogamous groups at the regional or local level because of their rank differentiation. the prospects of material advancement through job reservation have led to a kind of competition for backwardness among castes. the interjection of modern democratic values and ideas and variety of innovative changes as a result of the heterogeneous contact with the modern west provided for fresh opportunities for status ascendancy in the body polity of the closed inscriptive traditional Indian society. We shall be making the same kind of mistake if we act on the belief that needs to be always. The heterogametic contact with the west and various socio-religious reform movements. which is not only pluralistic in nature. political. This has an important ramification for the Indian society. religious reform movement and was not economic & political in nature. Dalit partners & new Dalit movement was a defining moment & a new symbol of revolt taking the ideology for beyond. 6. Thus. Its political importance ides in its articulation as a symbol of identity formation. It took multifarious expression where of economic. Such instances were reposted from various parts of the country where delegations were sent to British officials and census officers. Movement against untouched ability especially by Gandhi ji & Ambedkar. it led to the crystallization of DC in an express way.provided fresh opportunities to the Dalits for articulation of urge for separate identity. By this time. Especially. In this contest. Ambedkar important upon the importance of constitutional guarantees. 5. called for political rights of reservation in government jobs and was founded upon the AryanDravidian ideological conflict. Its greatest impact has been on confronting. After independence. the challenge to caste and rise of low caste was sought to be put firmly on India’s political agenda. It led to a great psychological release raising their self image. It was chiefly responsible for the emergence of Dalits as a distinct political entity for the future times. They tried to get the under listed as upper castes by changing their names and claiming upper caste status. It not only radicalized the Dalit movement. aspect of Dalit movement was radicalized by the justice party movement and later the DMK movement. This was essentially a cumulative outcome of the various forces and dimension of Dalit movement before independence. was passed only in the act of 1935. Challenging and some extent raising their own self-image. political power and education along with conversion of the Mahars of Maharashtra. It was chiefly anti Brahmanical. 2. 3. This aspect of DM had to origin in SNDP movement of Kerala. the Dalit movement had also become anti-Brahministic in nature. It called for reforms within the Dalit community for doing away with their various orthodox traditions. Constitutional safeguards after independence and the policy of protective discrimination. It was only later in 1917 under the leadership of Shahuji Maharaj of Kolhapur that it called for their political rights and demanded for reservation in jobs. The census operations. ~ 70 ~ . He also demanded for a separate constituency under the act of 1919 which however. Republican Party of India and conversion to Buddhism was the first manifestation of the emergence of Dalit as a distinct political entity. Following these untouchables in other parts of India (jatavs of Agra) also converted to Buddhism. anti-caste & gender was interwoven. 4. but also got proliferated before and after independence. It not only called for socio-religious unpliftmeof the Dalits but it also increasingly protested against the Brahminical value system of hierarchy and pollution & purity. 9. M. Maher 10. G.7. replaced the urge for sanskritisation (Rudolph’s. 3. dalits and ethnic identity . Which actually led to the beginning of powerful poetry of protests in the form of dalit voice as dalit literature? Nandu Ram in beyond Ambedkar opines for dalit literature by dalit people. They have in a position of bargaining with larger political parties 9. They apparently tried to give dalit leadership to all oppressed. Oommen. S. Singh) emergency of dalits as a distinct political identity after independence TK. 8. Omvedt. Omvedt growth & proliferation of dalit political parties. their literatures and songs. 6. Gail Omvedt in dalit vision opines that it was the creative and transformatory potential of dalit panthers and new dalit movement. ~ 71 ~ .G. Kolenda Beteille. Nandu Ram Emergency of dalits as aggressive interest groups. Patwardhan and Zilliot opine that the aspect of identity was reflected in the literature of Buddhists. 8. the conscious attempts of dalits for status mobility. BSP& BRP. social disabilities of the dalits ( AR. 4.shows that they have tried to become ruling community by breaking its tag of being only dalit movement. However.RK. Jain on the basis of his study in UP has raised the issue that on the basis of the developments and emergent dimensions of dalit identity formation can use argue that “are dalits an ethnic identity”.more recently. dalit panthers. Shah.republican party of India. 7. MN. The rise of BSP and BRP: the jati identity politics . Patwardhan emergency of dalits literature G. a great psychological release saising their self image -S. Emergency of dalits as Ethnic groups. Positive outcomes of dalit movement: 1.P.generally it was an outcome of the effort of republic party of India and conversion to Buddhism.G. Jain 11. PF. Their achievement in parliamentary election let to the first dalit CM (UP) in India. 5. 2. Srinivas).A. dalit literature. where the urge for solidarity putting pressuse on the national leadership before independence for taking measures to do away wih the constitutional safeguards and policy of protective discrincivation ( Y. Desai). Omvedt It has challenged the closure of the caste stratification and the entrenched position of the caste Hindu. RK. It encouraged the process of horizontal caste mobilization and consolidation. Brass. VELLALAS. Separate representation and exclusive reservation.MSA.led by elite organization of rajas zamindars etc. VELAMAS . Benefits covered by few forwards communities. 2. Its chief features1. it was initially led by members of upper castes . 3. employment . who though the movement drifted away from what ambedker emphasized upon importance of secular forces are education and in the end proving to be a movement of dalits though changing some of the deepest aspects of oppression & sections of the society fragile remained active from the very begning polity for improving their status and position exploitation but failing to show the way to transformation Backward class movements Backward classes refer to shudras in traditional caste parlance and other backward classes (OBCs) in today’s language. it has come under eclipse bud is flowering without a total Irion gains have accursed only to few leading to emergence of alights within them limited to only specific jails among dalits and could not effectively articulate the demands of other oppressed it has failed to elaborate a constrictive socio economic program of social transformation it has in able to became a decisive political force & there political assertions have been highly to ambivalent & it has filled to give legitimate voice to its most pressing contemporary uses specially the women. 6.Limitation of dalits movement: 1. protecting the interest of non Brahmins in the spheres of education . 2. RAO defines BCM as organized efforts for social mobility by communities which are over whelmingly backward in the access to sources of power goods and services. KAMMARS and reddis nairs. 4. Demand 1. services etc. MottoEqual opportunities to all and injustices to none Ideology. a narrow social base . 8. 5.founded upon the conjecture about the non Brahmin Hindus as Dravidians and the Brahmins as the avyans and the loss of the glory of the former due to the invasion by the latter ~ 72 ~ . 3. 7. Significance of BCM 1. 1888. Considerably weakened the past status summation. ~ 73 ~ . along with changes in traditional inter caste relationships (jajmani). 5. madras provincial backward classes league. 2. 1935. whose caste no longer determines occupation.justice party. emerged as potential threat to hierarchical aspect of society. vanniyakula kshatriya mahasangam. 3. An important components of social mobility in contemporary India and a pointer of changing sources of social honour.Organization of parties. 4. madras. It led to the much needed adoption of reservation policy and appointment of backward classes commission by the government after independence. power of prestige. ~ 74 ~ . - ~ 75 ~ . ~ 76 ~ .