Reducing Gender Stereotyping in Kindergartners

This article was downloaded by: [The Aga Khan University] On: 27 October 2014, At: 00:32 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Early Child Development and Care Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gecd20 Reducing Gender Stereotyping in Kindergartners April B. Rainey a & James O. Rust b a Vanderbilt University , USA b Middle Tennessee State University , USA Published online: 07 Jul 2006. To cite this article: April B. Rainey & James O. Rust (1999) Reducing Gender Stereotyping in Kindergartners, Early Child Development and Care, 150:1, 33-42, DOI: 10.1080/0300443991500103 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0300443991500103 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. 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Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http:// www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gecd20 http://www.tandfonline.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1080/0300443991500103 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0300443991500103 http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions Early Child Development and Care, 1999, Vol. 150, pp. 33-42 © 1999 OPA (Overseas Publishers Association) N.V. Reprints available directly from the publisher Published by license under Photocopying permitted by license only the Gordon and Breach Publishers imprint. Printed in Singapore. Reducing Gender Stereotyping in Kindergartners APRIL B. RAINEY1 and JAMES O. RUST2 1 Vanderbilt University, USA 2Middle Tennessee State University, USA (Received 18 January 1999) Children's gender stereotypes can affect their learning and performance of gender- typed behaviors and possibly their learning in general. Perceived competency also is linked significantly with children's gender roles. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate that gender stereotyping and perceived competency could be influenced by the 'Words Can Hurt You" anti-bias curriculum. The participants were 36 kindergarten students from a rural Southern town. The first author implemented the program to a kindergarten class for 8 weeks. Another kindergarten class received an equal amount of experimenter attention, but did not receive the anti-bias curriculum. Each child had his or her gender stereotyping and perceived competency tested before and after the intervention program. Scores from the Gender-Stereotyped Attitude Scale for Children (GASC) and the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Young Children were the dependent variables. Analysis of variance demonstrated that the anti-bias curriculum increased androgynous responses in kindergarten students. A dramatic change was shown between the experimental-contrast groups and the pretest-posttest measures on the GASC, but perceived competency and social accept- ance failed to show significant changes. Key words: Kindergartens, gender, stereotyping REDUCING GENDER STEREOTYPING IN KINDERGARTNERS Gender stereotypes are socially validated general beliefs that certain activities, items, traits, and occupations are appropriate for only one gender (Liben & Signorella, 1987; Turner-Bowker, 1996). Although organized societies have always favored separate roles for males and females (Schaffer, 1981), it has been shown that highly stereo- typed children may be hindered developmentally by their narrow views of what is appropriate in school subjects, play, and occupations (Kohlberg, 1969; Martin & Little, 1990). Gender roles have been conceptualized as masculinity, femininity, androgyny and undifferentiated (Bern, 1975). Some authors have discussed which gender role is most adaptive (Bern, 1975; Whitley, 1983). Bern is the foremost proponent of the Androgyny Model (Bern, 1975). This model asserts that it is highly adaptive to 33 D ow nl oa de d by [ T he A ga K ha n U ni ve rs ity ] at 0 0: 32 2 7 O ct ob er 2 01 4 34 A.B. RAINEY and J.O. RUST possess both masculine and feminine traits. Androgyny leads individuals to adapt according to the situation and to respond with whatever behavior is most effective, regardless of whether it is thought to be masculine or feminine (Bern, 1975). The Masculinity Model recommends a masculine gender-role orientation, regardless of one's gender. Whitley (1983) concludes that masculine individuals have the most psychological well-being. The third model is the Congruence Model. It defines psychological well-being as high masculinity and low femininity in men and low masculinity and high femininity in women (Lubinski, Tellegen & Butcher, 1980). Women who are highly feminine are thought to experience psychological well- being, while men who are highly masculine are thought to be well adjusted. By selecting roles which are perceived as appropriate for their gender, children show signs in their play as early as one-and-a-half years of age, even before they can label the genders. Studies show that kindergartners have an appreciable degree of knowledge of adult stereotypes (Serbin & Sprafkin, 1986; Williams, Bennett & Best, 1975). The importance of gender stereotyping for child development in general is evident from the amount of research completed (Bigler, 1995; Fagot, 1977; Mischel, 1970; Serbin & Sprafkin, 1986). Gender stereotyping is an important issue because it can limit children's exposure to peers of the opposite gender, nongender-typed toys, and hinder the development of gender-inappropriate emotions (Martin & Little, 1990). These limitations can affect children's perceived competencies by limiting what they believe to be their potential in cognitive and social skills. Parsons, Adler and Kaczala (1982) found that traditional feminine gender typing often has a stifling effect on female academic and occupational achievement. In boys, high masculine stereotyping may lead to school-adjustment problems such as being overly aggressive and disruptive (Locksley & Douvan, 1979). The present paper is written from the perspective that the school can and should be important in the abolishment of gender stereotyping in society. One way to battle against gender bias is through employing a curriculum that makes children aware of stereotypes and contains suggestions about how to respond to those stereotypes. A good curriculum may help children reduce stereotyping, thus possibly increasing androgyny and, in so doing, perhaps improving perceived competence (Thomson, 1993). Scott (1984) found success using a curriculum that stressed expanding the pupils' gender-role flexibility by exposing children to nontraditional roles. Another study (Flerx, Fidler & Rogers, 1976) examined the changes that can be made through exposure to nontraditional gender-role materials. The researchers exposed their participants to literature that depicted models in flexible, egalitarian roles. These portrayals resulted in a significant reduction of stereotyping after a 5-day instruction period. Bigler (1995) showed that elementary classroom environment can be manipulated with a resulting impact on gender stereotyping. Taylor, Turner, Underwood and Franklin (1994) improved perceived competency with a curriculum intervention. The goal of the present study was to determine if gender stereotyping could be changed through employing an anti-bias curriculum and, if so, whether those changes modify the children's perceived competency. Harter and Pike's (1984) D ow nl oa de d by [ T he A ga K ha n U ni ve rs ity ] at 0 0: 32 2 7 O ct ob er 2 01 4 GENDER STEREOTYPING IN KINDERGARTNERS 35 definition of competency is used here. It includes physical and cognitive confidence as well as peer and maternal acceptance in the overall view of competence. It was hypothesized that children who have increases in androgyny will also have increased perceived competency. This hypothesis was based on findings by Alpert-Gillis and Connell (1989) who found that children who possessed androgynous characteristics were more positive in their perceived competency than nonandrogynous children. Androgynous children were found to regard themselves as significantly more con- fident and independent than children with traditional gender-role characteristics. Thus, it was hypothesized in the present study that children endorsing the androgy- nous point of view would describe themselves as more competent than the other children. The overall goal of the study was to reduce stereotyping and improve perceptions of competence by making the children more androgynous. METHOD Participants The participants were 36 kindergartners from a rural, Southern, public elementary school. The demographic variables of gender, socioeconomic status (SES; free-lunch status); and Brigance (1982) cognitive scores were obtained from existing school files. The participants were from two separate classrooms. The experimental group consisted of 19 participants (7 females and 12 males). Six of these participants were classified on SES as free lunch, and 13 were classified on SES as regular payment. Cognitive skills were measured with the Brigance: K and 1st Screen for Kindergarten and First Grade (Brigance, 1982). The average total score on the Brigance was 84.82 for the experimental group. The contrast group consisted of 17 participants (7 females and 10 males). Four of these participants were classified on SES as free lunch, and 13 were classified on SES as regular payment. The average total score on the Brigance was 82.12 for the contrast group. One of the participants from the contrast group was a 2nd-year kindergarten student. Table 1 displays the demographic similarities of the experi- mental and contrast groups. Materials The anti-bias curriculum used was "Words Can Hurt You" (Thomson, 1993). This curriculum contains activities for preschool through third grade. The first author chose activities labeled specifically for kindergarten. The activities of this curriculum center on awareness of gender stereotyping and how children can respond to stereotyping in society. The activities are interactive in that they allow the children to talk about and act out nontraditional roles. Some examples include reading about stereotyped roles and then acting out the story with the teacher deliberately assign- ing nontraditional roles to the children. In another lesson, the children play the D ow nl oa de d by [ T he A ga K ha n U ni ve rs ity ] at 0 0: 32 2 7 O ct ob er 2 01 4 36 A.B. RAINEY and J.O. RUST Table 1 Demographics of Experimental and Contrast Groups. SES Group Regular Payment Free Lunch Experimental Boy 9 3 Girl 4 3 Contrast Boy 8 2 Girl 5 2 Note: SES = Socioeconomic status Stereotype Game in which a short scenario is read which contains a stereotype. The children are divided into two groups and work together to recognize the stereotype and address alternative ways of acting. The last lesson is an overview of the previous lessons. The children draw pictures exemplifying what they have learned. The children are then asked to stand up in front of the class and discuss their pictures. The Gender-Stereotyped Attitude Scale for Children was used to measure gender stereotyping (GASC; Signorella & Liben, 1984). It is an individually administered test with 26 questions concerning activities and occupations that can be answered as "only men can do," or as "only women can do," or as "both men and women can do." Children respond by pointing to corresponding pictures. This scale is well suited for even the youngest participants, and also offers good psychometrics. The kindergarten sample reported a K-R 20 internal consistency reliability of .83 and well-founded validity. The normative data found by the test authors, Signorella and Liben, 1984, for kindergartners was as follows: Possible range: 0-28; Boys (M= 4.8, SD = 4.3), Girls (M = 6.0, SD = 4.2). Perceived competence was measured by The Pictorial Scale of Perceived Com- petence and Social Acceptance for Young Children (Harter & Pike, 1984). This is an individually administered test in which the child views two choices for each item while the examiner explains what is taking place in the situation portrayed. The child is then asked to pick the choice most like him or her and point to one of four circles (two under each choice) and designate the choice as "a lot like him or her" or 'just a little like him or her." The test purports to measure perceived competence and social acceptance in four areas including cognitive competence, physical competence, peer acceptance, and maternal acceptance. Two of the com- petence terms deal with running speed and skill with the alphabet. No total score is obtained. The test manual presents an average coefficient alpha of .88 for the four subtests. The normative data reported by the test authors for kindergartners were as follows: possible range for each (1-4); Cognitive Competence subtest (M= 3.45, SD = .70), Physical Competence subtest (Af = 3.33, SD = .85), Peer Acceptance subtest (M = 3.10, SD = .86), and Maternal Acceptance subtest (M = 3.00, SD = .86; Harter & Pike, 1984). D ow nl oa de d by [ T he A ga K ha n U ni ve rs ity ] at 0 0: 32 2 7 O ct ob er 2 01 4 GENDER STEREOTYPING IN KINDERGARTNERS 37 Procedure Prior to the start of the study, written consent was obtained from each child's parents, and verbal assent was obtained from each child. Children were permitted to withdraw from the program at any time. The groups were pretested on the GASC and The Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Young Children. The experimental group received weekly, 1-hour sessions for 8 weeks led by the first author. Although she was not a licensed teacher, she had worked as a part-time volunteer teacher with kindergarten-age children for 3 years. Her enthu- siasm for the curriculum was undeniable. The sessions were based on the anti-bias curriculum "Words Can Hurt You" (Thompson, 1993). The contrast group received the same amount of experimenter attention but no special curriculum. Instead, the first author spent time interacting with the children in the classroom assisting with regular activities. This was meant to help control for both the presence of the first author and the extra attention given to the experimental group. After the 8-wcek period, both groups were posttested with the GASC and The Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Young Children. RESULTS Raw scores from the Brigance, the Gender-Stereotyped Attitude Scale for Children (GASC), and the subtests of The Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Young Children were analyzed. The subtests are Cognitive Compe- tence, Physical Competence, Peer Acceptance, and Maternal Acceptance. The pretest and posttest data can be seen in Table 2. A t-te&t was performed to compare the experimental and contrast groups' Brigance scores, Z(36) = .62, p = .542. Thus, no measured cognitive differences existed between the two groups prior to the beginning of the study. The raw scores on the GASC were analyzed with a 2 (male vs. female) X 2 (SES: Regular Payment vs. Free Lunch) x 2 (experimental vs. contrast) x 2 (pretest vs. posttest) analysis of variance. The group main effect was significant, F\ 1,28) = 24.31, MSE= 32.01, p = .0001. The results also show a significant interaction between the experimental-contrast and pretest-posttest factors, i^l.28) = 60.36, MSE= 14.87, p = .0001. The means are listed in Table 2. A Scheffe test was used in order to further analyze this interaction. Significant differences were found for the experimental posttest compared to the other three groups (p < .001). The raw scores on The Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Young Children's four subtests (Cognitive Competence, Physical Competence, Peer Acceptance, and Maternal Acceptance) were analyzed with 4 separate 2 (male vs. female) X 2 (SES: Regular Payment vs. Free Lunch) X 2 (experimental vs. contrast) x 2 (pretest vs. posttest) analyses of variance. No sig- nificant main effects or interactions were found for the subtests of Cognitive Competence, Peer Acceptance, or Maternal Acceptance. The means and standard deviations for these variables are listed in Table 2. D ow nl oa de d by [ T he A ga K ha n U ni ve rs ity ] at 0 0: 32 2 7 O ct ob er 2 01 4 38 A.B. RAINEY and J.O. RUST Table 2 Descriptive Statistics for Experimental and Contrast Groups. M SD Experimental GASC (pretest) 7.95 6.11 GASC (posttest) 23.74 2.90 Cognitive Competence (pretest) 3.64 .47 Cognitive Competence (posttest) 3.69 .25 Peer Acceptance (pretest) 2.76 .69 Peer Acceptance (posttest) 2.83 .59 Physical Competence (pretest) 3.26 .50 Physical Competence (posttest) 3.32 .43 Maternal Acceptance (pretest) 2.72 .57 Maternal Acceptance (posttest) 2.77 .71 Contrast GASC (pretest) 8.24 4.12 GASC (posttest) 8.41 4.58 Cognitive Competence (pretest) 3.56 .29 Cognitive Competence (posttest) 3.70 .22 Peer Acceptance (pretest) 2.99 .62 Peer Acceptance (posttest) 2.99 .64 Physical Competence (pretest) 3.48 .51 Physical Competence (posttest) 3.62 .38 Maternal Acceptance (pretest) 2.79 .78 Maternal Acceptance (posttest) 2.87 .73 Note: GASC = Gender-Stereotyped Attitude Scale for Children. The raw scores on the subtest of Physical Competence from The Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance For Young Children were analyzed with a 2 (male vs. female) x 2 (SES: Regular Payment vs. Free Lunch) x 2 (experi- mental vs. contrast) x 2 (pretest vs. posttest) analysis of variance. The group effect reached significance forthis subtest, f( 1,28) =5.90,MSE = .32,p = .02. The contrast group means were significantly higher than the experimental group means before and after this study (see Table 2). None of the other main effects or interactions were significant. No significant differences between the variables of gender or SES were noted for the experimental or contrast groups. These results can be seen in Table 3. Correlations were computed to analyze the variables' interrelationships, as well as their temporal stability. Stability correlations and significant between-test correlations are listed in Table 4. Non-significant correlations were omitted from this table. D ow nl oa de d by [ T he A ga K ha n U ni ve rs ity ] at 0 0: 32 2 7 O ct ob er 2 01 4 GENDER STEREOTYPING IN KINDERGARTNERS 39 Table 3 Means for the Variables of Gender and SES by Group. Group Experimental GASC (pretest) GASC (posttest) Cognitive Competence (pretest) Cognitive Competence (posttest) Physical Competence (pretest) Physical Competence (posttest) Peer Acceptance (pretest) Peer Acceptance (posttest) Maternal Acceptance (pretest) Maternal Acceptance (posttest) Contrast GASC (pretest) GASC (posttest) Cognitive Competence (pretest) Cognitive Competence (posttest) Physical Competence (pretest) Physical Competence (posttest) Peer Acceptance (pretest) Peer Acceptance (posttest) Maternal Acceptance (pretest) Maternal Acceptance (posttest) SES Regular Payment 5.50 23.67 3.40 3.55 3.30 3.20 2.85 2.73 2.62 2.45 8.00 7.50 3.63 3.75 3.86 3.83 3.30 2.83 3.00 2.93 Free Lunch 9.08 23.77 3.75 3.37 3.24 3.37 2.72 2.88 2.77 2.92 8.31 8.70 3.57 3.68 3.36 3.55 2.90 3.04 2.73 2.85 Boy 7.42 23.83 3.71 3.73 3.19 3.32 2.60 2.74 2.60 2.73 8.70 8.90 3.61 3.76 3.30 3.55 2.90 3.01 2.86 3.06 Gender Girl 8.86 23.58 3.51 3.63 3.37 3.31 3.01 2.97 2.91 2.86 7.57 7.71 3.54 3.61 3.74 3.71 3.13 2.96 2.70 2.60 Note: SES = socioeconomic status; GASC = Gender-Stereotyped Attitude Scale for Children. DISCUSSION The findings ofthe present study partially support its hypotheses. The experimental students showed significantly reduced stereotyping but did not change their per- ceptions of competence. Kohlberg (1969) showed that children's gender stereotypes negatively affect both their learning and performance of gender-typed behaviors and learning in general. Studies show that androgyny leads to social adaptivity and higher self-esteem (e.g., Allgood-Merten & Stockard, 1991). It has been demonstrated that a curriculum can change both gender-role ideology and perceived competency (Scott, 1994; Taylor et al, 1994). Results ofthe present study showed that androgyny was significantly increased in the experimental group following the anti-bias curriculum. The present study also demonstrated that both D ow nl oa de d by [ T he A ga K ha n U ni ve rs ity ] at 0 0: 32 2 7 O ct ob er 2 01 4 40 A.B. RAINEY and J.O. RUST Table 4 Pretest-Posttest Stability Correlations Among Tests and Subtests. I p__ GASC (pretest) GASC (posttest) .14 .42 Cognitive Competence (pretest) Cognitive Competence (posttest) .40 .02 Physical Competence (pretest) Physical Competence (posttest) .57 .0001 Peer Acceptance (pretest) Peer Acceptance (posttest) .51 .002 Maternal Acceptance (pretest) Maternal Acceptance (posttest) .72 .0001 Maternal Acceptance (posttest) GASC (pretest) .35 .04 Maternal Acceptance (posttest) Peer Acceptance (pretest) .44 .01 Maternal Acceptance (posttest) Peer Acceptance (pretest) .45 .01 Maternal Acceptance (pretest) Peer Acceptance (posttest) .34 .05 Maternal Acceptance (posttest) Peer Acceptance (pretest) .62 .0001 GASC (pretest) Maternal Acceptance (posttest) .35 .04 Note: GASC = Gender-Stereotyped Attitude Scale for Children. genders and both social status groups could be equally affected by an anti-bias curriculum. The most important interaction examined was between the experimen- tal and contrast groups for pretest and posttest scores on the GASC, a measure of androgyny. The groups did not differ significantly at the start ofthe study, but the experimental groups made significant increases in androgyny. These results show that gender stereotyping can be altered with a curriculum, even when an untrained, but admittedly enthusiastic volunteer is leading the sessions. The results of this study were similar to those of Scott (1984) and Bigler and Liben (1992) who found interventions could change gender-role stereotyping. The present study expanded on the previous studies by using a readily available curriculum in a public school setting. D ow nl oa de d by [ T he A ga K ha n U ni ve rs ity ] at 0 0: 32 2 7 O ct ob er 2 01 4 GENDER STEREOTYPING IN KINDERGARTNERS 41 The research by Signorella and Liben (1984) found kindergarten children have an average of 6 androgynous responses on the GASC. The present study found the average was 7.95 before the anti-bias curriculum and 23.74 after the curriculum. This demonstrates that the children in this study were above-average in the pre- testing and dramatically above-average in the posttesting. The researchers believe that the pre-test difference of androgynous responses from the normative sample may be due to changes in society in the past 14 years. The GASC was normed in 1984. The present study did not find a significant pretest/posttest increase in the areas of perceived cognitive competence, physical competence, peer acceptance, and maternal acceptance. Competency scores were not influenced by the study (see Table 4). Research shows that children can be taught anti-gender stereotyping in a short period of time (Flerx et al., 1976). The present study added to these findings that children could be taught to be more accepting of androgynous ideas when pre- sented a curriculum aimed at diminishing gender stereotyping. Because of the success of this study, the researchers feel that an anti-stereotyping curriculum should be considered by school systems. Androgyny teaches children to question society's gender roles and to be more accepting of nontraditional occupations, behaviors, and toys. The study demonstrates some interesting implications for theory. It shows that a self-reported measure of androgyny can be altered and is not a fixed characteristic in young children. It also demonstrates that, contrary to some theories (Flerx et al., 1976), neither gender nor SES have to be critical intervening variables in regard to an anti-bias curriculum. Both genders and levels of SES were similarly affected by an anti-bias curriculum. Future research is needed to support the findings of this study. A problem with this study was that the students were in pre-existing groups and from a small sample. As such, the design is quasi-experimental and results should be interpreted with caution. 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