Longino_Gender Politics Theoretical Virtues

Gender, Politics, and the Theoretical Virtues Author(s): Helen E. Longino Source: Synthese, Vol. 104, No. 3, Feminism and Science (Sep., 1995), pp. 383-397 Published by: Springer Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20117439 . Accessed: 11/01/2011 13:57 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at . http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=springer. . Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. Springer is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Synthese. http://www.jstor.org HELENE. LONGINO GENDER, POLITICS, AND THE THEORETICAL VIRTUES* ABSTRACT. as values Traits internal like simplicity to the sciences, and explanatory power have traditionally rather than contextual. constitutive As been such treated a traditional set of such virtues with virtues. This essay contrasts cognitive about the sciences. In certain virtues drawn from feminist writings the theoretical contexts, a traditional or an alternative for preferring virtue are socio-political. This only reasons undermines the notion that the traditional virtues can be considered purely cognitive. they are a set of alternative I In the 1970's Thomas entific Revolutions who Kuhn to critics of The Structure of Sci responded claimed that Kuhn's analysis made theory choice In his essay 'Objectivity, Values, and Theory Choice', entirely subjective. use to guide their judgments Kuhn discussed five values that scientists in choosing between theories. These are accuracy, competing simplicity, internal and external consistency, breadth of scope, and fruitfulness. Kuhn his overall had a lot to say about these values and how they functioned; for theory choice. My claim was that they constituted objective grounds them here is that most of the elements on the list (with point inmentioning are the sorts of considerations that the possible of fruitfulness) exception end up in philosophers' lists of what, besides agreement with observational and experimental of a theory data, counts for the truth (or acceptability) or hypothesis.1 when drawing a distinction between what I called Indeed, constitutive and contextual power simplicity, explanatory matic examples of constitutive the footsteps The items on Kuhn's I used items like empirical adeguacy, (a cognate of breadth of scope) as paradig in In this I was simply following values. of other philosophers of science. values, values because list have qualified as constitutive the likelihood of the have been considered characteristics enhancing they truth of a theory or hypothesis. My point in Science as Social Knowledge (Longino what we the distinction, mainly by arguing that values - social or practical interests values. That is, social or practical could and did function as constitutive what in determining values interests function as do so-called cognitive Synthese 104: 383-397,1995. ? 1995 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands. 1990) was to complicate identified as contextual 384 counts as good HELEN E. LONGINO and how rethinking or acceptable scientific interests do so judgment. Which on other features of the overall context. I have been depends this distinction that what I was longer convinced a solely epistemic or constitutive values have to shake your confidence in what follows (if you rather than forward. ones. I and am no treating as paradigmatic basis. I hope cognitive have any), too. My strategy will be crablike: moving sideways an alternative want first to examine set of values I will elements context, scientific then use I want that examination of the traditional to the traditional as a lens through which to reexamine set. To place this in a more general philosophical relevant bits of the account of first briefly to summarize to my thinking. inquiry that forms the background I've argued for a view I call contextual while experience empiricism constitutes the least defeasible of observation) (experiment, legitimator relevance of particular assump by background the role of background in criti interaction consisting the evidential claims in the sciences, knowledge to hypotheses elements of experience ismediated at many controls levels. What tions operating is interaction among scientists, assumptions in observation, in involved of assumptions cism of assumptions involved a given hypothesis involved in thinking of assumptions reasoning, plau to in the application involved of particular methods sible, of assumptions To be successful of particular problems. from a variety criticism must proceed assumptions, as many as are available. ideally the solution in uncovering such of points of view, I maintain, has at least two consequences. This account, 1) It allows us to see that the same process accounts for both the suppression and the in the sciences. of social values, interests and ideology expression Idiosyn are invisible cratic values are suppressed, while values held by all members for interests, or ideology). These are, therefore, not available (as values, in the con and are free to be expressed control by discursive interactions 2) It identifies the producer of by those members. rather than the indi the knower, as the community knowledge, structure vidual scientist. This means that certain features of community are important to the knowledge of a community. I've capacity productive accepted scientific discussed (a) (b) (c) four such features. avenues uptake There must be: of criticism; tent of theories for the expression and dissemination to, criticism; of, or response by reference to which standards public assessed; equality theories, etc. are (d) of intellectual authority. AND THE THEORETICAL VIRTUES GENDER, POLITICS, This the social of values authority diversity last condition is intended to correct for the fact that imbalances mean that certain 385 in sets composition will escape criticism. The to all qualified participants of the scientific in the community. the diversity of substantive assumptions senting evidential reasoning, and would hence be among community extension of equality of intellectual is intended to require representative I originally thought of this in terms of repre that could play a role in the public standards men tioned in the third condition. But, as I said, I want now to raise questions for cognitive about the more usual candidates standards or values. ii that public standards are required for a knowledge productive I am not claiming that there is a single set of standards that community, all scientific communities. I'm claiming characterizes instead that there is - that such com a pool of standards - formal, substantive, and practical munities draw upon in regulating themselves. Criticism and endorsement In claiming and explanatory models, to a given tives, are made germane more of the standards it recognizes. facie reason of theories as the profferring of alterna community by appeal to some one or as well of a standard is a prima Satisfaction for accepting a model or theory. As prima facie, its probative value, of course, can be overridden by failure to satisfy another standard in that context. Different, sets but overlapping, greater weight assigned from this pool characterize different communities. Sets of standards of are related by family resemblance, one might communities say, rather than by identity. Kuhn's values constitute one (or part of one) such set. I want to think about a different different set, drawing on work that has been and philosophers of done by feminist and feminist historians scientists science. Here one finds empirical adequacy but also nov (a.k.a. accuracy), to of interaction, applicability elty, ontological heterogeneity, complexity or decentralization human needs, diffusion of power. There are undoubt edly others, but (as Kuhn said about his list) this list is enough to make the points I want to make. are generally three and for the most part become The traits listed invoked evident singly or in groups of two or as values in the context of their in Kuhn's use.2 Like the elements list, they function as virtues, qualities or model of a theory, hypothesis, that are regarded as desirable and hence I shall refer to them as virtues, val guide judgments between alternatives. between those concepts ues, standards, criteria, ignoring the differences for purposes of this discussion. in defense of the Kuhnian One might say set that they conduce to truth. Kuhn didn't say so, but less cautious advo 386 cates have. But HELEN E. LONGINO set offers grounds for accepting if an alternative theories that do just as well as those validated by traditional standards at then this argu of the phenomena, and generating organizing explanations me begin by offering some interpretation ment is shown to be hollow. Let or models of the elements been deployed. ment of this alternative Then I shall offer set based on the contexts some reflections inwhich they've on their status. 1) Empirical agree adequacy. Empirical adequacy generally means a theory or model with observational of the observational claims of or predictive. A good deal and experimental data, present, retrospective, research programs that pur of feminist effort has gone into discrediting for differences ascribed on the basis port to show a biological etiology sex. The (feminist) in this effort - scientists scientists involved such of as Ruth Bleier, Anne Fausto-Sterling, Richard Lewontin, Ruth Doell have concentrated of empirical adequacy, statistical methodology. context dard. Empirical on showing that such research fails minimal standards either through faulty research design or improper I take their appeal to empirical in the adequacy to constitute is valued an implicit endorsement of the stan other things, its power when for, among of their critiques adequacy guiding inquiry to reveal both gender and gender bias. It is, of course, a as well standard shared with race and class sensitive research communities as with most mainstream communities. Failure to meet the standard in a of statements about what will or has been strong sense, i.e. the generation is observed that are incompatible with what has actually been observed, or theory in ques in most cases for rejection of the hypothesis grounds is not, as I shall argue below, and empirical adequacy is not a sufficient straightforward of theory and hypothesis choice. So, other values come into play assessment. and model hypothesis tion. Application of the standard matter always a criterion in theory, or theories that differ in signifi Imean models 2) Novelty. By novelty, cant ways from presently accepted theories, either by postulating different of explanation, incor entities and processes, different principles adopting porating phenomena alternative or by attempting to describe and explain metaphors, been the subject of scientific inves that have not previously thinkers have endorsed the novelty of a model or theory tigation. Several seems to do so explicitly when she calls both as a value. Sandra Harding science" and for "deconstructing the assumptions for "successor upon which ing are grounded anything that resembles 1986b). And she has interpreted Donna the science we know" Haraway (Hard as supporting "an insofar as they arise humanism" one can read that justifies epistemology from enthusiastic violation (Harding 1986b, p. claims only knowledge taboos of Western of the founding going that far, certainly 193). Without AND THE THEORETICAL VIRTUES GENDER, POLITICS, Haraway's an appeal suggests, invocation 387 for or endorsement of the visions of certain science fiction writers as of a departure from entrenched assumptions, less, she (or new frameworks). Nothing new circumstances for the of twenty-first reflects a doubt that mainstream theoretical for the sake of a new framework will be appropriate life (Haraway 1992). century as a virtue Treating novelty frameworks picion are adequate of any frameworks to the problems us, as well as a sus confronting context of modern in the exclusionary developed science. Since mainstream traditional frameworks European and American to pro that either neglect female contributions have been used in accounts cesses biological and social or that treat as natural alleged male superiority dimensions, something new will be required to address phenom ena in a non-androcentric could, of course, have stronger and way. Novelty The strong interpretation demands new frameworks weaker interpretations. in various and theories rently be sought neglected to replace current ones in the domains in which they are cur new frameworks are to On the weaker interpretation, employed. in satisfying a demand for scientific understanding of hitherto phenomena. 3) Ontological heterogeneity. Any theory posits, implicitly or explicitly, an ontology, what that is, it characterizes is to count as a real entity in its domain. A theory characterized is one by ontological heterogeneity that grants parity to different kinds of entities. Ontological homogeneity, theories that posit only one sort of causally characterizes by contrast, efficacious entity, or that treat apparently different entities as versions of a as of the domain, or that treat differences standard or paradigmatic member eliminable criterion that we of entities into a single basic kind. This through decomposition sorts of discussion in the feminist is found in two quite different literature on the sciences. Feminists about biology have urged writing take account that constitute difference and among the individuals the objects of study.3 Although she was not herself a attention to the individual kernels of a cob Barbara McClintock's of individual samples feminist, of corn (which helped her to recognize an underlying pattern of mutability) has been taken as a paradigm of what a feminist attitude to nature ought to be. Primatologist Jeanne Altmann has insisted on methods of observation that descriptively Treating abstractions heterogeneity, one's theories models preserve the differences among the primates and groups of primates that she studies. (Altmann 1974) individual or idealizations as important and not to be elided in smooth out heterogeneity is valuing if not of the natural world, of taking it as a basic aspect, of it.4 One may have a variety of reasons for so valuing differences which heterogeneity. The reason feminists have embraced that preserve 388 HELEN E. LONGINO this aspect of the work of McClintock, Altmann, I draw on here: think, to the second discussion inferiority. Theories of inferiority are supported must be ordered, one type chosen as the standard, Difference heterogeneity. and all others seen as failed or incomplete versions. Theories of inferiority male the free male citizen) as the take the white middle-class which (or is then treated standard grant ontological priority to that type. Difference a failure to fully meet, as a departure the standard, rather than from, difference. Ontological heterogeneity permits equal standing for simply different Difference of the details of such difference. types, and mandates investigation is resource, not failure. the prior criterion values theories While 4) Complexity of Relationship. that are pluralist with respect to entities, this criterion values theories that and others is connected, I the rejection of theories of in part by an intolerance of as mutual, treat relationships rather than between entities and processes rather than single factors. Many and as involving multiple unidirectional, interaction as a fundamental feminist scientists have taken complex princi (1983) account of the work of Barbara Evelyn Keller's ple of explanation. in her (1985) and her defense of an interactionist McClintock perspective the best known examples, but scientists from icons like Ruth may provide Bleier have and Anne eschewed to much less well known practitioners Fausto-Sterling that incorporate for models factor causal models single as domi in which no factor can be described interaction, models dynamic nant or controlling in which all active factors and that describe processes in areas rang has been employed influence the others. This perspective to cell biochemistry self-consciously by scientists ing from neuroscience as well as, of course, by non-feminists. science as feminists practicing to reflections in texts devoted mainly about has also been endorsed sciences. It the The rationales offered metaphysical the criterion certainty expresses for embracing this criterion that this is the way the world have ranged from a is to the notion that are less antecedently that simple models interaction of female accounts context models a passive gametes of social Some rationales quality of apprehension. than others. In particular, one might note problematic one party to an of single factor control often makes a female object rather than an agent. This has been the fate in and of female organisms in accounts of fertilization structure. Asymmetry in the physiological of agency in the social. Replacing is used to naturalize asymmetry simple of single factor control in social contexts with more complex mod els of social interaction makes visible the role of gender in the structure of social institutions and the role of private, domestic (traditionally, women's) inmaintaining the activity and institutions of the "public" sphere. work VIRTUES AND THE THEORETICAL GENDER, POLITICS, 389 to Current Human Needs. This and the next are more 5) Applicability about what theories or theoret criteria, and relevant to decisions pragmatic that to work on. This criterion favors research programs ical frameworks can ultimately generate applicable knowledge. Many, but not all, feminists in the sciences in improving of its misery. have Scientific stressed the material role of scientific understanding the potential some of human life, or alleviating conditions directed at reducing hunger (by improving inquiry soil preservation, of sustainable etc.), promoting agriculture, techniques or reversing of the the destruction the infirm, protecting health, assisting is valued over knowledge either for political domi environment, pursued or for knowledge's sake. As expressed nation, i.e., science for "defense", not just a call for more applied science, but for in feminist contexts, this is the human and social needs towards meeting to by women. The applicability criterion could be traditionally as requiring research into hitherto neglected areas and understood, then, hence triggering the novelty criterion in its weaker interpretation. research ministered version of the is the practical This criterion 6) Diffusion of Power. that incorporate interactive rather fourth criterion, the one favoring models in explanatory models. This one than dominant-subordinate relationships arcane exper to research programs that do not require gives preference or that otherwise to utilization limit access tise, expensive equipment, as a value in a number of This feature has emerged and participation. and in economics have con in engineering different contexts. Feminists far beyond what is achievement of mathematical requirements such as in these fields. Other feminists, engaging required for successfully Rose and Ruth Ginzburg (1987), have urged a revamping (1983) Hilary demned distributed such as practices that such practices be used as midwifery practices. They urge for feminist science practice. Feminist health professionals models urge a the individ that empower for medical practices and procedures preference about her health or to retain control ual woman either to make decisions of traditional distinctions to include widely as scientific over her own body. And ecofeminists of technologies urge the development (Sen and Grown locally implemented and feminists in developing regions are accessible and that can be that that can be directed or decentralization 1987). Diffusion the above cited elements of the applicability criteri of power interprets on as knowledge small-scale sustainable intensive of soil conservation, measures such as improved by preventive available only to the interventive measures and widely dispersed of the environment by conservation technologies. health agriculture, promoting rather than high-tech hygiene few, protection renewable energy 390 The various how they work of a community criteria proposed HELEN E. LONGINO of these standards have had different ideas about proponents or ought to work in inquiry. If we treat them as components set of public standards as I am suggesting, we take them as for the assessment of theories, models, and hypotheses, and rejection in the their formulation, (or perhaps acceptance, guiding case of the last two, what Allen Franklin calls theory pursuit). As Kuhn to be these require further interpretation noticed for the values he discussed, a given research context, they are not simultaneously maximally applied in satisfiable, application. and they are not subject to hierarchical ordering or algorithmic in Since is almost empirical adequacy since others of these characteristics as a value, and universally recognized have been endorsed as virtues by non is specifically in the texts in feminists, feminist.5 which One female one might well wonder what about these standards can be discerned Several answers to this question have been holds endorsed. that these these virtues approach orientation a feminine or characteristics express to the world, i.e. that women either because of biology or social experience are more likely to understand the world via theories and characterized by these traits. This is said primarily of the substantive pragmatic virtues. Women mutual influence perceive control, and to be more would be feminist, then, would be treating as theoretical virtues charac teristics of women's ways of thinking about the natural and social worlds. that The problems with this approach are, first, that there's no evidence women are said, for example, to be more inclined to and interaction than unidirectional single factor in research that will help others. What interested or culturally are inclined biologically to understand in the world these ways, and, second, that even if they were, we'd still need an argument and that these were traits that ought to be valued in theory construction as some advocates assessment. Of course, if one is antecedently convinced, are, that the world of heterogeneous really is constituted the need for such an argument will entities that interact in complex ways, be much less apparent than it is to one less certain. But if the world is such as to be more these virtues, via theories exhibiting understood adequately as general theoretical virtues and not just then they ought to be promoted as feminist theoretical virtues. are more that women suggests likely to value the approach tomainstream science of theories because they are outsiders to the values of the mainstream. But this and so less likely to be acculturated A second characteristics of these virtues VIRTUES AND THE THEORETICAL GENDER, POLITICS, is an even 391 the claim that the virtues candidate for grounding less plausible but be feminist.6 Neither female biology nor feminine conditioning, is the appeal of these virtues. Marginality, however, explains marginality so not common to any group excluded from the practice of science and would status may alienate or while marginal feminist. Furthermore, specifically from mainstream free those marginalized values, in some cases preference for alternative values may be the basis of marginalization. And, as is the case for the previous approach, the empirical data supporting the view that groups are likely marginalized to be brought forward. yet Rather than look that we to endorse facts these virtues about who in particular has uses them, I have can do for specifically these virtues suggested I In the account given above of each of the virtues, feminist inquiry.7 how inquiry guided by them would be thought to reveal gender, suggested or as a phenomenon in either in the form of bias about the phenomena to sociological look to the work the domain domain. or females in the of women itself, or to reveal the activities of women The aim of revealing gender and/or the activities is, I theoretical virtues will be feminist. Feminist what makes inquiry propose, those that serve this aim. Thus, satisfying it is a bottom line requirement I should emphasize that I am not arguing here of theoretical standards. so far are the theoretical virtues feminists that the virtues I have discussed and argument. adopt. I think such a claim needs further discussion I do propose is that the basis on which such a claim should be argued and disputed is the contribution any proposed virtue can make to furthering here are feminist goals in inquiry. If the virtues that have been discussed should this bottom or symbolic line requirement, and not with women association What it is because feminist, they satisfy because of any intrinsic, statistical, or cultural femininity. IV and structure of this list are My reasons for thinking about the elements to the feminist discussion of scien several. One of course, is to contribute In that spirit, I've argued that the bottom line requirement them amoment for critique of the standards as I articulated the and relatedly, I've argued that we should understand ago. Secondly, at particular moments values not as absolutes, but as contextually mandated in the framework of a kind of bootstrapping But my pur provisionalism.8 tific knowledge. gives us a basis pose here theoretical is to use virtues to the traditional set of this example of an alternative as a lens through which to focus on some of the latter's less-remarked aspects. 392 One way to begin HELEN E. LONGINO is to pair elements Traditional from the two sets. Feminist list Empirical adequacy list Novelty Ontological heterogeneity Complexity of interaction Applicability to human needs Diffusion of power Accuracy Internal /External Consistency Simplicity Breadth of scope Fruitfulness There isn't a single neat pairing, but some rough links can be made. Of these only the pair made by the first in each list tend in the same direction, while the other pairs include elements pulling in opposite directions. As you will I see, I don't think this is a reason for thinking that empirical adequacy or scientific - value or accuracy in scientific is the real constitutive judgment, exploring while the more the rest are all contextual. contrastive theories pairs. are quite I want to start, however, by clearly and external consistency recommends Novelty elty criterion and models the criterion of external theories, while not contradict them. Different that do of the two criteria interpretations can produce different articulations of the contrast, but what interests me starkly opposed. The nov that depart from accepted recommends those consistency here is their socio-political valence. Obviously, the socio-political basis for is the need for theoretical the criterion of novelty other than frameworks - in those that have functioned directly or indirectly gender oppression. in a context in which theories have had that func External consistency, it. Those satisfied with tion, perpetuates and the effect of its endorsement criterion, in which currently accepted theories the status quo will endorse this is to keep from view the ways in the legitimation of are implicated how the reten (1986) has pointed out, for example, in Sarah Blaffer Hrdy's tion of a socio-biological framework feminist moves in liberal feminism, which per primatology replicates problematic the framing petuates assumptions human nature of liberal political limited about individualist In both cases theory. to claiming for females what has been reserved for males with out challenging the deeper assumptions about human nature involved in a similar and self-regarding turn is the feminist gender oppression. Donna Haraway both the scientific and the political program. And Susan Sperling (1991) and socio argument with respect to the functionalist in most of the feminist primatology she identifies frameworks biological of the last twenty-five essentialist and years. Her point is that it preserves develops VIRTUES AND THE THEORETICAL GENDER, POLITICS, determinist concepts the roles of females 393 primatologists to females, making them more central to the analysis, attention Paying corrects omissions of androcentric field work, but by leaving the theoret fails to challenge in place, the work under discussion the ical scaffolding the social relations of socio-biological analysis naturalizes a few women may benefit in such a system, the vast capitalism. While are impoverished. Even though it has been resisted in certain majority one reason the feminist primatology has been taken seriously is quarters, ways its conservativism Sperling, political Pursuing to Haraway and respect to basic theory. According also a cause of its its exemplification of this traditional virtue is with in which of gender, its feminism being restricted to revaluing in primate evolution. The models advanced by these virtue of external consistency. thus satisfy the mainstream of contrast, we can see how certain interpretations values. The interpre the simplicity criterion are laden with socio-political one: is an ontological tation that contrasts with ontological heterogeneity the simpler theory is the one positing the fewest different kinds of funda mental ways class us to find entities (or of causally effective entities). This encourages of treating putative entities which are not members of the privileged as constructions either as epiphenomena, that can be disassembled regressiveness. yet another molecules class (cells into molecules, of entities of the privileged of the privileged into atoms, etc.), as parts of members class, or as variants whose deviations To from the standard can be disregarded. suppose the social world into collections is composed of just one or a few kinds of basic in neoclassical individuals economic entity (e.g. rational self-interested erases the differences to how that are fundamental among persons theory) as the main act. Economics, treats the head of household for example, they - and actor - assuming economic in the household its (his) dominance that the interests of other members of the household spouse, assuming - are identical with those of the head. By children, elderly parent partner, erasing oretical the independent interests of other household members from the an oppressive structure (one these models view, prop up family to make "the benevolent is supposed the decisions) patriarch" the assumption by welfare legitimate that this structure is the primary etc., policy makers, and appropriate family family person and indirectly policy makers, structure in our society. One of the other interpretations with the virtue of simplicity is in the form of a contrast of complexity of interaction. A model causal involving relations going only in one direction is simpler than one in which elements in the model interact to produce an effect or in which elements mutually influence each other. As I suggested above, the former, which mimic social 394 relations natural of domination, order HELEN E. LONGINO naturalize to be one these in which relations. factors That can be appears or events the more such an organizational form seems to be processes - the nature. To treat this form of simplicity as a theoretical natural way of virtue is to incorporate its socio-political valence into the justificatory of science. processes Heterogeneity with the virtue ing different can also be contrasted and complexity of interaction of breadth of scope. The former validate models contain the is, the more said to control in complex entities relations of mutual is compatible with only loosely related multiple models dependence. or phenomena rather than a quantity of models derived from (explained one or a very few basic principles, which is the situation envisioned by) here to the breadth of scope. I shall leave the political by interpretations This reader. sorts of fundamental Finally, the feminist the political valence for Kuhn, referred Fruitfulness, or puzzles to the capacity of a theory to generate problems demanding to solve them. This, of the resources with which solutions and to provide to articulate connections between the course, means more opportunities as well as other theories. established theory and putatively phenomena The feminist practical virtues favor theories and models that can be used to improve living conditions in a way that reduces inequalities of power. the immediate (internal) seriously requires looking beyond to the ways in which itmight or might not be developed. of research and economic This in turn requires taking stock of the social, political, context in which development is by contrast take place. Fruitfulness might Taking context conservative the social beneficial in that it is inward technological or harmful. and looking. It directs of attention applications research, away from whether they be them practical virtues of their counterpart. can also be used to demonstrate and accuracy? Why can't we treat Well, what of empirical adequacy them as the same virtue and the fact that it appears in both lists as evi candidate for a purely cognitive virtue? dence that here at last is a possible As someone who Let me is by instinct explain ing move. why the appropriateness Don't the data some kind of empiricist this is an appeal to make I hesitate it. Regina Kollek has of citing empirical adequa in different discursive change beg ele (in discussion) challenged criterion. cy as a feminist and research the question ment of a model she asks? If so, doesn't contexts, empirical adequacy with which data and with whose data the observational a feminist or theory ought to be in agreement? Shouldn't criterion consist in specific methods rather than the demonstrably vague Iwould not go so far as to specify particular notion of empirical adequacy? AND THE THEORETICAL VIRTUES GENDER, POLITICS, methods is more 395 as inherently feminist or not, as I think how a method is used itself. But the question than the method draws atten important in which empirical adequacy needs further interpretation or tion to ways specification. of modern methods One of the critiques experimental calls "context involve what Ruth Hubbard stripping". When a factor from the contexts in which it naturally is that they we detach to occurs, we are hoping to some process. of that factor's precise contribution achieve understanding But by taking it out of its natural context we deprive ourselves of under how its operation is affected by factors in the context from which standing This is, of course, a crucial aspect of experimen that it's not (or not always) tal method. I suspect the decontextualization as unimportant that is to be deplored, but the concomitant devaluation or ephemeral of experimental of what remains. The decontextualization it has been removed. to the way in which activity in the public domain is analogous of modern is analytically from the material industrial societies detached in the private domain. Resistance to the con conditions of its possibility variables stant marginalization sensitive lematic of domestic (and female) activity has made feminists to the processes and devaluation. These are prob of exclusion not only in our understandings of the social world but also in our of the natural world. The failure to attend fully to the inter understanding actions of the entire social group, including in studying the its females, males of a species has led to distorted accounts of the structure of animal In toxicity studies, the focus interactions. societies, including male-male on a single chemical's toxic properties fails to inform us how its activity is modified, canceled or magnified in by interaction with other elements Focus on gene action has blinded us to the ways environments. the genes must be activated by other elements in the cell. These models may well be empirically in relation to data generated in adequate but not in relation to potential data excluded by a laboratory experiments, its natural in which particular accuracy. A model may be accurate with respect range of possible data. But why should the data in that band be the relevant ones? Empirical adequacy and accu about to a narrow racy (treated meaningfully are likely to import the socio-political or practical dimensions that the search for a purely cognitive criterion seeks to escape. At the very least the burden of argument falls on those who think such an escape possible. as one or separate virtues) need further interpretation to be a context of theory choice. Those applied in interpretations set up. experimental remarks must be made Comparable 396 HELEN E. LONGINO V I've other values of a scientific argued that by identifying community than the traditional ones we can get insight into important features of I've tried to give some reasons for thinking that the latter. In particular, those traditional values are not purely epistemic (if at all), but that their in certain contexts socio of scientific judgment imports significant values into those contexts. Even the apparently neutral criteria of political can involve socio-political in dimensions accuracy or empirical adequacy use the judgment of which data a theory or model must agree with. I do not want to claim that the virtues or criteria I've discussed fixed valence criteria assigned in which and absolute At have the very least, whatever socio-political meanings. have will be modified their interaction with whatever other by they are brought to bear in a given situation and the relative priorities to the different members of a given set. And the social context also make a difference. it is not clear Thus, virtue would context which have the same socio diversity and and equality are granted diversity to more like order important social values and in which the physical and life sciences values they are used will as a theoretical that treating simplicity resonance in a social-political political in which equality. But in our context, to defer lip service but made and economic competitiveness, sources of a greater cognitive than other intellectual possess authority serve anti-progressive ends. Similarly, could, value, it does heterogeneity virtue with a in a context other than our own, fail to be a theoretical liberatory Finally, theoretical to develop, potential. a note of caution must virtues that could be sounded. those Simply articulating does not mean it is possible count as feminist them. that exemplify theories and models pursue, and establish are mainstream are opposed because The virtues to which they precisely in the social relations with values and relations they stand in reinforcing context of science. There may be pockets, in which it is possible "niches", to practice alternative science that satisfies at least some feminist criteria ones discussed or others). But these must be deliberately created and (the will stand in complicated relations to other sites of research. The practice of on its socio-political context is too materially dependent to be possible without in that context. changes significant change One cannot claim by looking at the theoretical virtues themselves science for that or neutral. One must feminist, masculinist, they are liberatory, oppressive, that are offered for treating them as virtues look instead at the grounds in which in particular scientific arguments their deployment and the ways in the social and political and research programs resonates with conditions context of the research. One must of look as well at the consequences AND THE THEORETICAL VIRTUES GENDER, POLITICS, 397 in a given context, and the grounds for doing their contraries employing so or not. Placing in this fuller setting of use and defense the virtues undermines the idea that we could separate out the purely cognitive from in any absolute or final sense. It depends on the context. the political NOTES on Social Values to participants I am grateful in the Indiana University in the Workshop on an earlier, of this paper. Context of Justification for their comments version spoken, 1 See Quine and external and Ullian with i.e., consistency (1978) for simplicity consistency, as a scientific has argued for unification (1993) presently theory. Philip Kitcher accepted desideratum. scope. Kitcher, This, for present allows. what purposes, can be considered measure as a variation in mind of breadth of of it might be argued, has a more treat differences I will I have called of than the notion * breadth of scope 2 I first discussed I used them The again precise in a later paper. theoretical the feminist virtues in a discussion of the next 3 4 1994). exposition the possibility of feminist several pages borrows from epistemology those earlier in (Longino 1993a). in (Longino publications. See Bleier (1984), Keller (1985), Fausto-Sterling (1985). F. Kellert has suggested that the value at work here is particularism. I shall defer Stephen to another occasion. consideration of the relation between and heterogeneity particularity 5 For example, Levins and Lewontin both heterogeneity and a strong form (1985) embrace as features of interaction of dialectical scientists they label "dialectical" biology. Literary Stephen Whatever as a principle Thomas and Lewis endorse interaction of explanation. with feminism that leads them to it is not feminism sympathies they may have, or interaction. or feminism Indeed Gould have says that gender heterogeneity explicitly to do with it. It's just a matter of good science. nothing 6 Ian Barbour this point to me in conversation. suggested 7 Cf. Longino (forthcoming). 8 Cf. Longino (forthcoming). J. Gould of Minnesota University U.S.A. Minneapolis, MN 55455