Improving Resident Assistants: Female and Male Chief Housing Officers in Christian Colleges and Universities

This article was downloaded by: [New York University] On: 06 December 2014, At: 14:23 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Christian Higher Education Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uche20 Improving Resident Assistants: Female and Male Chief Housing Officers in Christian Colleges and Universities Tiffany Roussel a & Russell K. Elleven a a University of North Texas , Denton, Texas, USA Published online: 14 Oct 2009. To cite this article: Tiffany Roussel & Russell K. Elleven (2009) Improving Resident Assistants: Female and Male Chief Housing Officers in Christian Colleges and Universities, Christian Higher Education, 8:5, 393-404, DOI: 10.1080/15363750902973519 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15363750902973519 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uche20 http://www.tandfonline.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1080/15363750902973519 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15363750902973519 This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions D ow nl oa de d by [ N ew Y or k U ni ve rs ity ] at 1 4: 23 0 6 D ec em be r 20 14 http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions Christian Higher Education, 8:393–404 Copyright C© 2009 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 1536-3759 print / 1539-4107 online DOI: 10.1080/15363750902973519 IMPROVING RESIDENT ASSISTANTS: FEMALE AND MALE CHIEF HOUSING OFFICERS IN CHRISTIAN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES TIFFANY ROUSSEL and RUSSELL K. ELLEVEN University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, USA The resident assistant (RA) position on many college and university campuses is extremely important for the learning, safety, and cultural engagement of stu- dents. This study examined the training and performance improvement tech- niques of resident assistants as perceived by chief housing officers at institutions affiliated with the Council of Christian Colleges and Universities. Differences between male and female responses are noted. Residence halls have a positive influence on the educational achievement of students who live in them and on the student’s personal growth compared with students who do not live in resi- dence halls (Blimling, 2003). Furthermore, residence halls have the potential to challenge and educate students as they con- nect their learning experiences to their living realities (Schroeder & Mable, 1994). The foundation of nearly every residence hall program across the country is the resident assistant position (Blimling, 2003). Whether or not the resident assistant is pre- pared to accept this responsibility is directly related to the quantity and quality of education in preparation for the position (Blimling, 1995). Resident assistants have the opportunity to leave a lasting impression on the residents they work with. With this in mind, the resident assistants of Christian colleges and universities have the opportunity to relate more than solely academic and work- force realities to residents. With additional training supplement- ing the usual resident assistant training, resident assistants of Christian colleges and universities themselves are more prepared for life after their college career. This study aims to show the Address correspondence to Russell K. Elleven, 6120 Comfort Drive, Fort Worth, TX 76132. E-mail: [email protected] 393 D ow nl oa de d by [ N ew Y or k U ni ve rs ity ] at 1 4: 23 0 6 D ec em be r 20 14 394 T. Roussel and R. K. Elleven differences in training philosophies, if any exist, of male and fe- male chief housing officers of Christian colleges and universities. Living in a Residence Hall Residence halls are not a product of the 20th century. They reach back as far as the 13th century to universities in Bologna, Ox- ford, and Paris (Blimling & Miltenberger, 1981). Concerns for the personal, social, and academic development of all students are considered to be the basis for the overall philosophy of col- lege and university housing professionals (Bierman & Carpenter, 1994). Furthermore, student’s interactions with their peers and their exposure to a social network reinforce higher aspirations and goals (Pascarella, Terenzini, & Blimling, 2003). Students spend a limited amount of time each week in classes, laboratories, and discussion sections. Most of their time is spent outside of the classroom and much of it within the residence halls (Lowery, 2000). The personal development of college stu- dents has even been linked to residential programming (Elleven, Spaulding, Murphy, & Eddy, 1997) According to Blimling (1995), students who live in residence halls perform better academically, develop social and interper- sonal skills more rapidly, and come closer to a level of self- actualization than students who have not had this experience. Also, students living in residence halls are less likely than com- muters to drop out and more likely to attain a baccalaureate de- gree in four years (Upcraft & Pilato, 1982). Resident Assistant Staff and Training Most housing departments at colleges and universities employ stu- dents to serve and assist other students. Since these resident assis- tants (RAs) are also students, it is important to assist them in their own growth and development process (Bierman & Carpenter, 1994). Staff members are the critical variable in the success of the student affairs program. Thus, it is essential that student affairs ad- ministrators devote time and attention to the processes of staff se- lection and subsequent training of selected individuals (Stimpson, 1993). According to Upcraft and Pilato (1982) it is the parapro- fessionals in residence halls that are the most critical people for D ow nl oa de d by [ N ew Y or k U ni ve rs ity ] at 1 4: 23 0 6 D ec em be r 20 14 Improving Resident Assistants 395 creating a good educational environment. With proper training and supervision, residence assistants can complete job tasks, but without such support, they may be unable to do so and residence halls will merely be locations for eating and sleeping (Upcraft & Pilato, 1982). RA training tends to be multifaceted and depends upon fac- tors such as time and degree of intensity, topics needing to be covered, RA maturity and experiences, and residence life mission and staff attributes (Bierman & Carpenter, 1994). Regardless of the institution, RAs are expected to (a) provide personal help and assistance, (b) manage and facilitate groups, (c) facilitate social, recreational, and educational programs, (d) inform students of or refer them to appropriate information sources, (e) explain and enforce rules and regulation, and (f) maintain a safe, orderly, and relatively quiet environment (Upcraft & Pilato, 1982). Blimling (1995) identified the following four basic roles assumed by resident assistants: (a) role model, (b) counselor, (c) teacher, and (d) student. Below is a more inclusive focus on each area. Role Model When placed in a living unit within a residence hall as a staff per- son, the very fact that one holds this position declares to every student that the RA possesses certain characteristics that the uni- versity respects and considers important. An RA models behavior others will come to assume is appropriate for students in college. RAs are expected to live by the rules, regulations, and policies that the university has set. The RA position extends outside of the resi- dence hall and onto the campus. The role-modeling responsibility is, thus, carried beyond the living unit. Counselor The RA might be considered to hold a helping or advising role. Students undergo many adjustments, many stresses, and many crises throughout the academic year. Students are asked to live among peers whom they do not know and are asked to study and D ow nl oa de d by [ N ew Y or k U ni ve rs ity ] at 1 4: 23 0 6 D ec em be r 20 14 396 T. Roussel and R. K. Elleven produce more than they ever have before. It is the RA who is ex- pected to provide assistance through this unique experience. Teacher The RA provides general information about the university, teaches group-process skills, and facilitates group planning activi- ties and elections. The RA also teaches values through his or her own personal behavior. Student RAs should be students first. However, RAs often find their studies relegated to a secondary priority and the RA position becomes all- consuming. Though some RAs find the additional responsibilities require them to better budget their time, many find they enjoy being an RA to such an extent that excelling as a student loses its appeal. According to Blimling (1995) the RA serves the most compre- hensive role in the entire student affairs division. This job is be- yond question one of the most difficult student positions to hold and to perform well. Christian Higher Education Prior to the 19th century, every college started in this country— with the exception of the University of Pennsylvania—was a Chris- tian college committed to revealed truth (Dockery & Gushee, 1999). Christian higher education is not obsessed with approval from its peers, but it is focused on introducing students to God’s purposes through shared sacrifices to the common cause of Christ (De S. Cameron, 1999). Christian education is not secular educa- tion plus chapel. It is a both a worldview and a life view (De S. Cameron, 1994). The purpose of Christian institutions is to educate students so they will be prepared for the vocation to which God has called them (Adrian, 2003). Students are enabled and equipped with the competencies necessary to think in a Christian manner and to perform skillfully in the world (Ma, 2003). These students are D ow nl oa de d by [ N ew Y or k U ni ve rs ity ] at 1 4: 23 0 6 D ec em be r 20 14 Improving Resident Assistants 397 equipped to be servant leaders who impact the word as change agents based on a Christian worldview (Dockery & Gushee, 1999). According to Dockery and Gushee (1999), education at Christian colleges and universities will not only mean the pass- ing on of content to the students, but will also shape character. It should move toward the development and construction of a convictional worldview and life view by which the student can see, learn, and interpret the world from the vantage point of God’s revelation. These institutions must seek to build a Chris- tian liberal arts university where men and women can be intro- duced to an understanding and appreciation of God, creation and grace, and humanity’s place of privilege and responsibility in the world. The uniqueness of a thoroughgoing Christian approach to higher education is its commitment not only to content but also to value-added education, to character development, competencies, and to a Christian worldview that challenges the predominant sec- ular way of viewing life and work (Dockery & Gushee, 1999). These institutions view themselves as training the mind by inculcating truth and developing graduates who will go out and influence the world with what some call a “backyard apologetic.” Professors, staff, and students are competent in their professions, caring in their relationships, but also confess and, if necessary, contend for the truth of God that is foundational for life and liv- ing (Dockery & Gushee, 1999). The goals of Christian education are: to enable men and women to be prepared for their chosen vocation in such a way that they can be a “light” in the marketplace; to help students be- come servant leaders and change agents in the world; and to be prepared for work and to see it from God’s perspective in a way that will not merely be job training, but a calling to work, a vocatio (Dockery & Gushee, 1999). U.S. News & World Report named 11 Council of Christian Col- leges and Universities (CCCU) institutions as “best values” in their respective regions (U.S. News & World Report, 2003). Furthermore, U.S. News & World Report recently recognized nearly all U.S. CCCU institutions in their 2003 guide to the best colleges, ranking 36 in the top tier of their respective categories. Additionally, the fol- lowing are notable findings on quality from studies conducted in 2000 by the UCLA/Higher Education Research Institute and D ow nl oa de d by [ N ew Y or k U ni ve rs ity ] at 1 4: 23 0 6 D ec em be r 20 14 398 T. Roussel and R. K. Elleven Indiana University (National Survey of Student Engagement, 2000): 1. CCCU students are significantly more likely to engage in the following academic behavior compared to other similar schools: making class presentations, using e-mail to commu- nicate with a professor, working collaboratively with classmates outside the class, participating in service learning, and working with faculty on activities other than coursework. 2. CCCU students spend considerably more time preparing for class, reading more books, completing more assignments, and writing more papers during a semester. Further, they are more likely to read additional books on their own than are students at other institutions. 3. Compared to 35% of first-year students in other private col- leges, 47% of CCCU first-year students had an A− or better grade point average in high school. 4. First-year CCCU students perceive their institution as being sig- nificantly more committed to the following objectives than do students at other colleges: academic quality, providing support for students, encouraging contact among students from differ- ent backgrounds, and providing the support needed to thrive socially. 5. CCCU seniors are significantly more satisfied with the follow- ing academic aspects of their education, compared to students at other private colleges nationally: relevance of coursework to life, academic advising, and service learning. What is most important to most students attending Christian colleges is the valuable course content and excellent instruction in their majors with knowledgeable faculty (De S. Cameron, 1999). At Christian schools, there are typically faculty who enjoy teach- ing and who then specialize in teaching as opposed to research. Rarely does one encounter large classes taught by research assis- tants at these institutions (Frame, 1997). The integration of faith and learning entails more than opening class with prayer or compulsory chapel attendance. For these institutions it begins with a concern for the whole stu- dent: mind, body, and spirit. These ideals are inculcated through- out the curriculum of most Christian colleges—the humanities, D ow nl oa de d by [ N ew Y or k U ni ve rs ity ] at 1 4: 23 0 6 D ec em be r 20 14 Improving Resident Assistants 399 natural science, social science, and professional programs—even in extracurricular activities such as sports (De S. Cameron, 1999). Method At the time of this study 105 institutional members comprised the Council of Christian Colleges and Universities. An instrument was used to obtain data concerning the administrator’s perceptions relating to resident assistant training competencies. An explana- tion letter, an instrument, and a return envelope were mailed to each chief housing officer of the CCCU. A follow-up letter, an instrument, and return envelope were sent to nonresponding officers. Instrument The instrument used in this study, which measured the percep- tion of chief housing officers at institutions affiliated with the CCCU, was based on Winston and Anchors (1993) and con- structed by Elleven, Allen, and Wircenski (2001). The instrument was considered valid by a panel of six experts in the field. Three of the individuals on the panel held advanced degrees in the field of student affairs. The remaining three members held ad- vanced degrees in the field of training and development. Any errors in the construction of the instrument or in the clarity of the language and form used in the test found by the panel were revised. Winston and Fitch (1993) have identified seven areas of training that should be addressed in residence life training by hall directors and other administrative staff: (a) role model, (b) community development, (c) system maintenance and control, (d) leadership and governance, (e) helper/facilitator, (f) educa- tional programming, and (g) general skills. While some of these areas are distinct, many of them overlap one another. Means and standard deviations were employed for data analy- sis. T -tests were used to detect differences in responses from male and female CHOs. D ow nl oa de d by [ N ew Y or k U ni ve rs ity ] at 1 4: 23 0 6 D ec em be r 20 14 400 T. Roussel and R. K. Elleven Results Data Analysis The questionnaire was sent to 104 chief housing officers em- ployed by the institutional members of the Council of Christian Colleges and Universities (CCCU). Demographic data collected included gender, highest level of education, number of years in current position, number of years employed at current institu- tion, number of years employed full-time in residence life, and the approximate number of residents housed within the institu- tion’s system. Many similarities between female and male CHOs were iden- tified in this study. The majority of female CHOs (53.3%) hold a master’s degree while 71.4% of the male CHOs hold a master’s degree. Female CHOs (26.6%) have been employed full-time in residence life for 10 years or more, and 28.5% of male CHOs have been employed full-time in residence life for 10 years or more. Both female and male CHOs work in a system with an average of between 869 and 987 students. Other similarities existed between female and male CHO re- sponses. The groups primarily responsible for resident assistant training, as reported by female chief housing officers, were hall di- rectors (73.3%) and central administrators (33.3%). The groups primarily responsible for resident assistant training as reported by male chief housing officers were hall directors (80.9%) and cen- tral administrators (33.3%). With regard to training of resident assistants, there were very few differences between female CHOs and male CHOs. The two areas of the survey that posted significant differences were plan- ner and executor in the educational programming dimension and group dynamics/leadership from the general skills dimension. Furthermore, female CHOs reported using an academic credit yielding class (40%), and 40% trained returning resident assis- tants differently than newly hired resident assistants. Male CHOs reported using an academic credit yielding class (52.3%), and 38% trained returning resident assistants differently than newly hired resident assistants. Educational data was extremely similar among the groups re- sponsible for resident assistant training. Female CHOs reported D ow nl oa de d by [ N ew Y or k U ni ve rs ity ] at 1 4: 23 0 6 D ec em be r 20 14 Improving Resident Assistants 401 the director of student/residence life (33.3%) as the primary person responsible for training, with 59.9% holding a master’s degree or higher. Male CHOs also reported the director of student/residence life (28.5%) as the primary person responsible for training, with 85.6% holding a master’s degree or higher. Finally, it was interesting to note that the most important competencies perceived by CHOs in the survey were very differ- ent. Female CHOs considered 10 out of 32 areas as most impor- tant while male CHOs considered 6 out of 32 as most important. Of the 32 competency areas, only 1 was noted by both female and male CHOs: dealing with difficult circumstances/conflict (under the general skills dimension). Further research is necessary to de- termine the reason for this disparity (see Table 1). Discussion of Findings and Recommendations The problem addressed by this study was to recognize and distin- guish the areas of resident assistant training currently confronted by departments of housing in Christian higher education and to discern any perceived differences as viewed by female and male chief housing officers. The perceived differences in resident assistant training is- sues confronted by female and male CHOs were very small. Only two competencies (Planner and Educator; Group Dynam- ics/Leadership) were found to be significantly different. Female chief housing officers value the planner and executor and the group dynamics/leadership competencies more than male CHOs value these competencies. Hall director staff is more involved in resident assistant training as reported by both female and male CHOs. Educational levels of female and male CHOs are extremely similar. Male CHOs (52%) affiliated with CCCU utilize the RA class for academic credit while less than half (40%) of female CHOs affiliated with CCCU utilize the RA class for academic credit. Both female and male CHOs affiliated with CCCU place high value on formal evaluations for resident assistant training. The majority of both female and male CHOs reported they do not use different training for returning resident assistants as com- pared to newly hired resident assistants. D ow nl oa de d by [ N ew Y or k U ni ve rs ity ] at 1 4: 23 0 6 D ec em be r 20 14 402 T. Roussel and R. K. Elleven TABLE 1 Comparison of Female and Male Responses of Chief Housing Officers Female (N = 15) Male (N = 21) Survey dimensions and areas Mean SD Mean SD ROLE MODEL Student achiever 4.4286 0.6462 3.6842 1.0569 Extracurricular organization leader 3.7857 0.6993 3.5789 0.8377 COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT Socializer 4.1429 0.5345 4.0500 0.6048 Organizer 4.2143 0.5789 3.8571 0.9103 Environmental manager 4.0714 0.7300 3.9524 0.8047 Planner/Executor of social activities 4.0000 0.8771 3.9048 0.9952 SYSTEM MAINTENANCE AND CONTROL Clerical work 3.3571 0.7449 3.1500 1.1821 Rule enforcement 4.1429 0.6630 4.1905 0.9284 Disciplinary processes 4.0714 0.4746 4.0476 0.9207 Informational dissemination 4.2143 0.5789 4.0952 1.0443 Custodial tasks 2.7692 0.8321 2.7143 1.1892 LEADERSHIP/GOVERNMENT Hall unit leader 4.0000 0.6794 4.2857 0.9562 Campus leader 4.1429 0.6630 4.2381 0.9952 Hall council functionary 2.2000 0.6325 2.4286 1.0757 HELPER/FACILITATOR Diagnostician 3.0000 1.0000 3.1579 1.0679 Counselor 3.8667 0.5164 4.0476 0.5896 Conflict mediator 4.3333 0.4880 4.2381 0.8309 Crisis intervener 4.4000 0.5071 4.1905 0.9284 Referral agent 4.4667 1.0601 4.0000 1.0000 EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMMING Promoter 3.9333 0.7037 3.7619 0.7003 Sponsor 3.6667 0.6172 3.3810 0.8646 Advisor 3.7333 0.8837 3.2381 0.9952 Planner and Executor 4.2000 0.5606 3.7143 1.1464∗ GENERAL SKILLS Basic helping skills 4.5333 0.7432 4.1500 0.9333 Values clarification 4.1333 0.6399 4.2857 0.9562 Knowledge of cultures 4.2000 0.7746 4.1905 0.6796 Group dynamics/leadership 4.0667 0.7037 3.8571 1.0142∗ Student development theories 3.4000 0.7037 3.1429 1.0142 Crisis intervention 4.6000 0.5071 4.1429 0.7928 Providing accurate information 4.5333 0.6399 4.3000 1.1286 Making effective referrals 4.4000 0.7368 3.7619 1.2611 Difficult circumstances/conflicts 4.5333 0.6399 4.2857 0.9562 Note: ∗ = p < .05. D ow nl oa de d by [ N ew Y or k U ni ve rs ity ] at 1 4: 23 0 6 D ec em be r 20 14 Improving Resident Assistants 403 Recommendations for Further Research The field of higher education will continue to require adequately trained resident assistants. Additional research could be con- ducted in order to determine if there is a difference in resident assistant training among various religious denominations. Further research should be conducted to determine regional differences in resident assistant training at CCCU member institutions. Sim- ilar research should be conducted at all-female and all-male col- leges and/or universities. References Adrian, W. (2003). Christian universities in historical perspective. Christian Higher Education, 2, 15–33. Bierman, S., & Carpenter, D. (1994). An analysis of resident assistant work moti- vation. Journal of College Student Development, 35, 467–474. Blimling, G. (1995). The resident assistant: Working with college students in residence halls. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt. Blimling, G. (2003). The resident assistant: Applications and strategies for working with college students in residence halls. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt. Council for Christian Colleges & Universities. (2003). Mission and organization. Retrieved August 1, 2006 from http://www.cccu.org/ De S. Cameron, N. M. (1994). Christian colleges’ urgent mission. Christianity Today, 38, 18–20. De S. Cameron, N. M. (1999). Why Christian colleges are booming. Christianity Today, 43, 28–28. Dockery, D., & Gushee, D. (1999). The future of Christian higher education. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman. Elleven, R., Allen, J., & Wircenski, M. (2001). The training of resident assistants: A comparison of public and private differences in the United States. College Student Journal 35(4), 609–615. Elleven, R., Spaulding, J., Murphy, S., & Eddy, J. (1997). Wellness programming: Does student choice relate to recognized development vectors? College Student Journal, 31(2), 228–234. Frame, R. (1997). Boom years for Christian higher education. Christianity Today, 41(1), 80–89. Hughes, R., & Adrian, W. (1997). The Christian university: Maintaining distinc- tions in a pluralistic culture. In R. Hughes & W. Adrian (Eds.), Models for Christian higher education (pp. 445–455). Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Lowery, J. W. (2000). Walking the halls of ivy with Christ: The classroom and residential experiences of undergraduate evangelical students. Unpublished doctoral disserta- tion, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio. D ow nl oa de d by [ N ew Y or k U ni ve rs ity ] at 1 4: 23 0 6 D ec em be r 20 14 404 T. Roussel and R. K. Elleven Ma, S. (2003). The Christian college experience and the development of spiritu- ality among students. Christian Higher Education, 2, 321–339. National Survey of Student Engagement. (2000). The NSSE 2000 report: Na- tional benchmarks of effective educational practice. Bloomington: Indiana Univer- sity Center for Postsecondary Research and Planning. Pascarella, E., Terenzini, P., & Blimling, G. (1994). The impact of residential life on students. In C. Schroeder & P. Mable (Eds.), Realizing the educational potential of residence halls (pp. 22–52). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Schroeder, C., & Mable, P. (1994). Residence halls and the college experience: Past and present. In C. Schroeder & P. Mable (Eds.), Realizing the educational potential of residence halls (pp. 3–21). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. U.S. News & World Report. (2003, September 1). 135(6): 60. Upcraft, M., & Pilato, G. (1982). Residence hall assistants in college. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Willimon, W., & Naylor, T. (1995). The abandoned generation: Rethinking higher ed- ucation. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Winston, R. & Anchors, F. (1993). Paraprofessional staffing. In R. Winston & S. Anchors (Eds.), Student housing and residential life (pp. 315–343). San Fran- cisco: Jossey-Bass. Winston, R., & Fitch, F. (1993). Student housing and residential life. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. D ow nl oa de d by [ N ew Y or k U ni ve rs ity ] at 1 4: 23 0 6 D ec em be r 20 14