1. 2. Thearchitecture of Africa , like other aspects of theculture of Africa , is exceptionally [ clarify ]diverse. Many ethno-linguistic groups throughout thehistory of Africahave had their ownarchitecturaltraditions. In some cases, broader styles can be identified, such as theSahelian architectureof an area ofWest Africa . One common theme throughout traditional African architecture is the use of mathematical fractals. Architecture of Africa3. TheGreat Pyramids of Gizaare regarded as one of the greatest architectural feats of all times, and one ofSeven Wondersof the 'Ancient World'. As with most architectural traditions elsewhere, African architecture has been subject to numerous external influences from the earliest periods for which evidence is available.Westernarchitecture has also had an impact on coastal areas since the late15th century , and is now an important source for many larger buildings, particularly in major cities. Architecture of Africa4. Probably the most famous class of structures in all Africa, thepyramidsofEgyptremain one of the world's greatest early architectural achievements, if limited in practical scope and originating from a purely funerary context. Egyptian architectural traditions also saw the rise of vast temple complexes and buildings. In Nubia we have the Steo carved out of Rocks. By the Meroitic period, houses were of two rooms, forming large complexes. Notable buildings include theMeroitic Western PalaceofFaras , built of sun-dried brick. Little is known of ancient architecture south and west of the Sahara. Harder to date are the monoliths around theCross River , which has geometric or human designs. The vast number ofSenegambian stone circlesalso evidence an emerging architecture. Early architecture5. Egypt Early architecture Egypt's achievements in architecture were varied from temples, enclosed cities, canals, and dams. Nubia Nubian Pyramids at Meroe6. Early architecture When theAssyriansinvaded Egypt, in 671 BC,Kush , as the kingdom was known, became an independent state until 591 BC when the Egyptians underPsamtik IIinvaded Kush and sacked and burned Napata. Little is left today of the original city, but excavations have brought to light some thirteen temples and three palaces. In 350 BCE, partially in response to Egyptian pressure, the kingdom’s capital was moved to further south toMeroë , and the city became an important iron producing center. Around 300 BC, the monarchs began to be buried there. The city - on the east bank of the Nile about 6 km northeast of the Kabushiya station near Shendi, Sudan, ca. 200 km north-east ofKhartoum- is marked by over two hundredpyramidsof different sizes in three groups. The pyramids were built of sandstone, and ranged from 10 to 30 m in height. Around AD 350 the area was invaded by theEthiopiankingdom ofAksumand the kingdom collapsed. [1]7. Early architecture Aksumite The ruin of the temple at Yeha, Tigray region, Ethiopia.8. Early architecture The best known building of the period in the region is the ruined or eight century BC multi-story tower atYehainEthiopia , believed to have been the capital ofD'mt . Ashlar masonry was especially dominant during this period, owing toSouth Arabianinfluence where the style was extremely common for monumental structures. Aksumite Architectureflourished in the region from the 4th century BC onward, persisting even after the transition of theAksumite dynastyto theZagwein the 12th century, as attested by the numerous Aksumite influences in and around the medieval churches ofLalibela . Stelae ( hawilt s) and later entirechurcheswere carved out of single blocks of rock, emulated later at Lalibela and throughoutTigray . Other monumental structures include massive underground tombs often located beneath stelae. The stelae is the single largest monolithic structure ever erected (or attempted to be erected). Other well-known structures employing the use of monoliths include tombs such as the " Tomb of the False Door " and the tombs ofKalebandGebre MesqelinAxum . Most structures, however, like palaces, villas, commoner's houses, and other churches and monasteries, were built of alternating layers of stone and wood. The protruding wooden support beams in these structures have been named "monkey heads" and are a staple of Aksumite architecture and a mark of Aksumite influence in later structures. Some examples of this style had whitewashed exteriors and/or interiors, such as the medieval 12th century monastery ofYemrehanna Krestosnear Lalibela, built during the Zagwe dynasty in Aksumite style. Contemporary houses were one-room stone structures or two-storey square houses orroundhousesofsandstonewithbasalt foundations . Villas were generally two to four stories tall and built on sprawling rectangular plans (cf.Dungurruins). A good example of still-standing Aksumite architecture is the monastery ofDebre Damofrom the 6th century. 9. Early architecture Berber Thousands of tombs were left by Berbers that were pre-Christian in origin and whose architecture was unique to north-west Africa. The most famous was Tomb of the Christian Woman in Western Algeria. This structure contains column domed and spiraling pathways that lead to a single chamber.10. Early architecture Tichitt Walata (Old Ghana) The oldest surviving archaeological settlements in West Africa and the oldest all stone base settlement south of the Sahara. It is thought to have been built by Soninke people and is thought to be the precursor of the Ghana empire. It was being settled around 2000 B.C. One finds well laid out streets and fortified compounds all made out of skilled stone masonry. In all, there were 400 settlements.11. Medieval Architecture North Africa The Islamic conquest of North Africa sawIslamic architecturedevelop in the region, including such famous structures as theCairo Citadel . Architecture inFes ,Morocco12. Medieval Architecture West Africa Islamic merchants played a vital role in the WesternSahelregion since theKingdom of Ghana . Kanem-Bornu's capital city Birni N'Gazargamu, may have have had a population of 200,000. It had four mosque which could hold up to 12,000 worshippers. It was surrounded by a 25 foot wall and more than 1 mile in circumference. Many large streets extended from the esplanade and connected to 660 roads. The main building and structure were built with red brick. Other buildings were built with straw and adobe. TheGreat Mosque of DjennéinMali , first built in the 13th century and reconstructed in 1906–1909, is the largest clay building in the world.13. Medieval Architecture West Africa Six important Hausa city states existed Kano, Katsina, Daura, Gobir, Zazzau, and Biram. Kano was the most important.The city was surrounded by a wall of reinforced ramparts of stone and bricks. Kano contained a citadel near which the royal class resided. Individual residence was separated by "earthen" wall. The higher the status of the resident the more elaborate the wall. The entranceway was mazelike to seclude women. Inside near the entrance were the abode of unmarried women. Furtherdown down were slave quarters. AtKumbi Saleh , locals lived in domed-shaped dwellings in the king's section of the city, surrounded by a great enclosure. Traders lived in stone houses in a section which possessed 12 beautiful mosques (as described byal-bakri ), one centered onFriday prayer .[2]The king is said to have owned several mansions, one of which was sixty-six feet long, forty-two feet wide, contained seven rooms, was two stories high, and had a staircase; with the walls and chambers filled with sculpture and painting. [3] Sahelian architectureinitially grew from the two cities ofDjennéandTimbuktu . TheSankoreMosque inTimbuktu , constructed from mud on timber, was similar in style to theGreat Mosque of Djenné . The rise of kingdoms in the West African coastal region produced architecture which drew on indigenous traditions, utilizing wood. The famedBenin City , destroyed by thePunitive Expedition , was a large complex of homes in coursed mud, with hipped roofs ofshinglesor palm leaves. The Palace had a sequence of ceremonial rooms, and was decorated withbrass plaques14. Medieval Architecture West Africa Drawing ofBenin Citymade by an English officer, 1897 Ashanti architectureis perhaps best known from the reconstruction atKumasi . Its key features arecourtyard -based buildings, and walls with striking reliefs in mudplasterbrightly painted. An example of ashrinecan be seen atBawjwiasiinGhana . Four rectangular rooms, constructed fromwattle and daub , lie around acourtyard . Animal designs mark the walls, andpalmleaves cut to tiered shape provide the roof. TheYorubasurrounded their settlements with massive mudwalls . Their buildings had a similar plan to the Ashanti shrines, but withverandahsaround the court. The walls were of puddled mud andpalm oil . The largest Wall edifice in Africa isSungbo's Eredo . It comprises of sprawling mud walls and valley's that surrounded the town of Ijebu-Ode in Ogun state. Sungbo's Eredo is the largest monument in Africa, larger thanthe Great PyramidorGreat Zimbabwe .15. Medieval Architecture East Africa Nubia (Christian and Islamic) Swahili States Farther south, increased trade (namely with Arab merchants) and the development ofportssaw the birth ofSwahili architecture . Developed from an outgrowth of indigenous Bantu settlements [4] , one of the earliest examples is thePalace of Husuni Kubwalying west ofKilwa , built about 1245. As with many other early Swahili buildings,coralwas the main construction material, and even the roof was constructed by attaching coral to timbers. Contrastingly, the palace atKilwawas a two-story tower, in a walled enclosure. Other notable structures from the period include thepillar tombsasMalindiandMnaraniinKenya , and elsewhere, originally built fromcoralbut later from stone. Later examples includeZanzibar 'sStone Town , with its famous carved doors, and theGreat Mosque of Kilwa .16. Medieval Architecture East Africa Aksumite Bete Medhane Alem, Lalibela, the largest monolithic church in the world. Throughout the medieval period, Aksumite architecture and influences and its monolithic tradition persisted, with its influence strongest in the early medieval (Late Aksumite) and Zagwe periods (when the churches of Lalibela were carved). Throughout the medieval period, and especially during the 10th-12th centuries, churches were hewn out of rock throughout Ethiopia, especially during the northernmost region ofTigray , which was the heart of the Aksumite Empire. However, rock-hewn churches have been found as far south asAdadi Maryam(15th c.), about 100km south ofAddis Abeba . The most famous example of Ethiopian rock-hewn architecture are the 11 monolithic churches of Lalibela, carved out of the red volcanic tuff found around the town. Though later medieval hagiographies attribute all 11 structures to the eponymous kingLalibela(the town was called Roha and Adefa before his reign), new evidence indicates that they may have been built separately over a period of a few centuries, with only a few of the more recent churches having been built under his reign. Archaeologist andEthiopisantDavid Phillipson postulates, for instance, that Bete Gebriel-Rufa'el was actually built in the very early medieval period, some time between 600 and 800 A.D., originally as a fortress but was later turned into a church.17. Medieval Architecture Central Africa Mbanza Congo was the capital of the Kingdom of Kongo with a population of 30,000 plus. It sat on a cliff with river below and forested valley. The King's dwelling was describe as a mile and half enclosure with walled pathways, courtyard, gardens, decorated huts, and palisades. One early explorer described it in terms of a Cretan labyrinth. The Eastern Lunda dwelling of the Kacembe(king) was describe as containing fenced roads, a mile long. The enclosed walls were made of grass, 12 to 13 span in height. The enclosed roads lead to a rectangular hut openned on the west side. In the center was a wooden base with a statue on top about 3 span.18. Medieval Architecture Central Africa Burundi never had a fix capital. The closest thing was a royal hill, when the king moved, the location became the capital called the insago. The compound itself was enclosed inside a high fence. The compount had two entrance. One was for herders and herds. The other was to the royal palace. This palace was surrounded by a fence. The royal palace had three royal courtyard. Each serve a particular function one for herders, a sanctuary, kitchen and granary. Nyanza was a royal capital of Rwanda. The king's residence the Ibwame was built on a hill. The surrounding hills were occupied by permanent or temporary dwellings. These dwellings were round huts surrounded by big yards and high hedge to separate compounds. The Rugo the royal compund was made of circular reed fence around thatched houses. The houses were carpeted with mats and had a clay hearth in the center for the king, his wife, and entourage. The royal house was close to 200-100 yards. It looked like a huge maze of connected huts and granaries. It had one entrance that lead to a large public square called the karubanda.19. Medieval Architecture Central Africa The capital of the Kuba Kingdom was surrounded by a 40 inch high fence. Inside the fence were roads, a walled royal palace, urban buildings. The palace was rectangular and in the center of the city. The capital(kibuga)of the Buganda constantly change from hill to hill a description of the Kibuga of Buganda at Mengo Hills. The capital was divided into quarters corresponding to provinces. Each chief built a dwelling corresponding to provinces. Each chief built a dwelling for wife, slaves, dependents, and visitors. The city was a mile and half wide. Large plots of land was available for planting bananas and fruits. Roads were wide and well maintained. The Marave people built bridges called Uraro due to changing river depth. These bridges were made out of bamboo. Bamboos were placed parallel to each other and tied together by bark(maruze). One end of the bridge would be tied to an existing tree. The bridge would curve downward 80 spans when entering. A bamboo on top would serve as a balustrade.20. Medieval Architecture Southern Africa Great Zimbabweis the largest medieval city in sub-Saharan Africa. Great Zimbabwe was constructed and expanded for more than 300 years in a local style that eschewed rectilinearity for flowing curves. Neither the first nor the last of some 300 similar complexes located on the Zimbabwean plateau, Great Zimbabwe is set apart by the terrific scale of its structure. Its most formidable edifice, commonly referred to as the Great Enclosure, has dressed stone walls as high as 36 feet extending approximately 820 feet, making it the largest ancient structure south of theSahara Desert . Houses within the enclosure were circular and constructed ofwattle and daub , with conical thatched roofs. The conical tower inside the Great Enclosure inGreat Zimbabwe , a medieval city built by a prosperous culture21. Modern architecture Fasiledes's castle,Fasil Ghebbi ,Gondar .22. Modern architecture During the early modern period, the absorption of new diverse influences such as Baroque, Arab, Turkish and Gujarati Indian style began with the arrival ofPortuguese Jesuitmissionaries in the 16th and 17th centuries. Portuguese soldiers had initially come in the mid-16th century as allies to aid Ethiopia inits fight against Adal , and later Jesuits came hoping to convert the country. Some Turkish influence may have entered the country during the late 16th century during its war with the Ottoman Empire (seeHabesh ), which resulted in an increased building of fortresses and castles. Ethiopia, naturally easily defensible because of its numerousambasor flat-topped mountains and rugged terrain, yielded little tactical use from the structures in contrast to their advantages in the flat terrain of Europe and other areas, and so had until this point little developed the tradition. Castles were built especially beginning with the reign ofSarsa Dengelaround theLake Tanaregion, and subsequent Emperors maintained the tradition, eventually resulting in the creation of theFasil Ghebbi(royal enclosure of castles) in the newly-founded capital (1635),Gondar . EmperorSusenyos(r.1606-1632) converted to Catholicism in 1622 and attempted to make it the state religion, declaring it as such from 1624 until his abdication; during this time, he employed Arab, Gujarati (brought by the Jesuits), and Jesuit masons and their styles, as well as local masons, some of whom wereBeta Israel . With the reign of his sonFasilides , most of these foreigners were expelled, although some of their architectural styles were absorbed into the prevailing Ethiopian architectural style. This style of the Gondarine dynasty would persist throughout the 17th-18th centuries especially and also influenced modern 19th century styles and later. 23. Modern architecture Early European colonies developed around theWest Africancoast, building largeforts , as can be seen atElmina Castle ,Cape Coast Castle ,Christiansborg ,Fort Jesusand elsewhere. These were usually plain, with little ornament, but showing more internal creativity atDixcove Fort . Other embellishments were gradually accreted, with the style inspiring later buildings such asLamu Fortand theStone PalaceofKumasi . By the latenineteenth century , most buildings reflected the fashionable Europeaneclecticismand pastisched Mediterranean, or even Northern European, styles. Examples of colonial towns from this era survive atSaint-Louis, Senegal ,Grand-Bassamand elsewhere. A few buildings werepre-fabricatedin Europe and shipped over for erection. This European tradition continued well into the twentieth century with the construction of European-stylemanor houses , such asShiwa Ng'anduin what is nowZambia , or theBoerhomesteads inSouth Africa , and with many town buildings. 24. Modern architecture The revival of interest in traditional styles can be traced toCairoin the early 19th century. This had spread toAlgiersandMoroccoby the earlytwentieth century , from which time colonial buildings across the continent began to pastiche elements of traditional African architecture, theJamia MosqueinNairobibeing a typical example. In some cases, architects attempted to mix local and European styles, such as atBagamoyo . The impact ofmodern architecturebegan to be felt in the 1920s and 1930s.Le Corbusierdesigned several unbuilt schemes forAlgeria , including ones forNemoursand for the reconstruction ofAlgiers . Elsewhere,Steffen Ahrenswas active in South Africa, andErnst Mayin Nairobi andMombasa . The ItalianfuturistssawAsmaraas an opportunity to build their designs. Planned villages were constructed inLibyaandItalian East Africa , including the new town ofTripoli , all utilising modern designs. 25. Modern architecture After 1945,Maxwell FryandJane Drewextended their work on British schools intoGhana , and also designed theUniversity of Ibadan . The reconstruction of Algiers offered more opportunities, withAlgiers Cathedral , and universities byOscar Niemeyer ,Kenzo Tange ,ZwiefelandSkidmore, Owings and Merrill . But modern architecture in this sense largely remained the preserve of European architects until the 1960s, one notable exception beingLe Groupe Transvaalin South Africa, who built homes inspired byWalter Gropiusand Le Corbusier. A number of new cities were built following the end ofcolonialism , while others were greatly expanded. Perhaps the best known example is that ofAbidjan , where the majority of buildings were still designed by high-profile non-African architects. InYamoussoukro , theBasilica of Our Lady of Peace of Yamoussoukrois an example of a desire for monumentality in these new cities, butArch 22in the oldGambiancapital ofBanjuldisplays the same bravado. Experimental designs have also appeared, most notably theEastgate Centre, Hararein Zimbabwe. With an advanced form of natural air-conditioning, this building was designed to respond precisely to Harare's climate and needs, rather than import less suitable designs. Neo- vernacular architecturecontinues, for instance with theGreat Mosque of NioroorNew Gourna . 26. Modern architecture Other notable structures of recent years have been some of the world's largestdams . TheAswan High DamandAkosombo Damhold back the world's largestreservoirs . In recent years, there has also been renewedbridgebuilding in many nations, while theTrans-Gabon Railwayis perhaps the last of the great railways to be constructed. TheBibliotheca Alexandrinaat Shatby, Egypt -- a large airy spacious regional public library, built overlooking the Mediterranean -- completed in 2001 and designed by Snøhetta, in association with Hamza Associates of Cairo, is a good example of a modern granite-cladding construction. A commemoration of theLibrary of Alexandria , once the largest library in the world but destroyed in antiquity, the new Library's architecture is ultramodern and very non-traditional. 27.