1. A Study of the Effects of Competitive Team-Based Learning and Structured Academic Controversy on the Language Proficiency of Iranian EFL College Seniors Seyed Mohammad Hassan Hosseini, PhD (TESOL) E-mail:
[email protected] • This article was published at the International Journal of Adult Vocational Education and Technology, 3 (2012): 54-69. The present paper reports on an experimental study which intended to look into and compare the possible effects of this researcher’s instructional innovation, Competitive Team-Based Learning (CTBL), with Structured Academic Controversy (SAC) – the most popular method of Cooperative Learning (CL) -- on language proficiency of Iranian EFL college students. This goal, the intention to compare the effects of the select teaching methods on the dependent variable of the study, was addressed with respect to different-level achievers (i.e., low, average, and high achievers) of the target group in the field study, in Iran. Out of a total population of 68, forty almost homogeneous EFL junior college students at Bojnord Azad University, in Iran, were selected to serve the study, after conducting a test of English language proficiency. The subjects were randomly put into control and experimental groups. While the control group were taught through SAC, the experimental group experienced learning the English language through CTBL. Having taken the posttest, the means and the t-values were determined for the two groups and then compared. The results of the statistical analyses of the data obtained at the end of the study accredited the superiority of CTBL over SAC in terms of its effect on improving the target group’s language proficiency. Likewise, the outcomes signified that contrary to SAC which benefited high achievers, CTBL best befitted low to average achievers. This researcher discusses the probable causes for the results of the study, sheds light on the pedagogical implications, and suggests recommendations for further research. Key words: Competitive Team-Based Learning, Structured Academic Controversy, Modern ELT /Education, Language Proficiency INTRODUCTION Although the legacy of the past focus on educational pedagogy still persists in many parts of the world, the pendulum in the sphere of EFL/ESL has begun to swing in new directions concurrent with the process of globalisation, at the dawn of the third millennium. TESOL has accommodated a paradigm shift from text-based towards context-focused pedagogy and approaches. Interactive approaches to learning and teaching, rather than teacher-fronted 2. chalk-and-talk modes of presentation, are becoming a felt need. Though it may take some more years for some Asian countries like Iran to ensure that interactive and context-based pedagogy becomes a general policy in the field of education at all graded levels, there are signs of hope. Impediments apart because of several factors, new directions in TESOL are likely to usher in new wisdom against the old and the familiar. Particularly Asian contexts and the contexts in the Middle East demand so. Change is the essence of time, and changes are inevitable. Some modern approaches like CL are rapidly evolving and gaining momentum and significance. Constructivists’ views on learning like those of John Dewey, Jean Piaget, and Lev Semenovich Vygotsky foreground the significance of such new approaches in ELT sphere. Based on the premise that language use and language learning are interactive activities, constructivists emphasize the importance of ‘social interaction and interdependence’ in learning situations holding the view that what is learnt about language is in actuality a reflection of interactions. That is, language learning best occurs in situations which encourage negotiation and elaboration of meaning. Cooperative Learning in the sphere of ELT, according to Richards and Rodgers (2001), is perceived as “a way of promoting communicative interaction in the classroom” and “is seen as an extension of the principles of Communicative Language Teaching” (p. 193). Oxford (1997) defines CL as “a set of highly structured, psychologically and sociologically based techniques” (p.444) which mingles the cognitive and the affective aspects of learning and accentuates the active engagement and contribution of the participants in the learning process. However, CL is a common term that represents a number of educational methods. Despite their significant contribution to more comprehensive and real learning, CL methods have their own deficiencies. Neglecting and even belittling the crucial importance of 'competition' in learning environments is one of their main problems. Another major drawback of the present methods of CL refers to their inability for bringing individual accountability of all team members. Unsystematic implementation of groupwork is also among the main problems with such methods. (See Hosseini, 2012) In the present study, this researcher has tried to evaluate the effectiveness of CTBL, which has tackled such problems, vis-à-vis SAC method of CL on language proficiency of Iranian college students. This researcher selected SAC to be compared with his method in virtue of the fact that he is under the impression that, in comparison to other methods of CL, this method is the most popular method particularly among language teachers. PURPOSE OF THE PRESENT STUDY The purpose of the present study was to answer the following question: 2 3. Q: ‘Is there a difference between the Iranian junior college students who have been taught with CTBL and those who have been taught with SAC in regard to their language proficiency (vocabulary, grammar, reading comprehension, and speaking)? This question was likewise addressed to the target groups' different achievers’ language proficiency. Based on this question, the null hypotheses were formulated as well. STRUCTURED ACADEMIC CONTROVERSY (SAC) Scholars like Johnson and Johnson (1979) have had significant contribution to the development of SAC or Constructive Controversy (CC). The prominent focus of CC is on the positive influences planned and structured controversy could have on academic achievement and social relationships of class participants. CC is, in fact, an extension of another method of CL known as Learning Through Discussion (LTD). LTD is fundamentally based on discussion panels on variety of desired-to-learners topics, which may be posed, for example, by a student, the teacher, or through a video or audio programme. Higher order questions and analysis of viewpoints that demand abstract thinking are emphasized and encouraged in this method. Such type of questions and activities exact more than remembering and expressing of factual or descriptive statements. They require evaluation of causes and effects, generalization, and relating of ideas, concepts, and principles all of which are believed to be conducive to deeper and more effective learning. Johnson et al. (1986) recommended teachers to take heed of the below five primary steps in implementing CC in their classes: 1. Introduction: The introduction should incorporate a clear description of a group’s task and the phases of the controversy procedure along with the collaborative skills, which students are expected to use during each phase. Definition of the position to be advocated and a summary of the key arguments should also be taken into account by teachers. 2. Choosing a topic: Teachers should bear in mind that the topic should sound interesting to students, and be supported with at least two well - documented sides of argument. 3. Providing instructional materials: Teachers should consider the kind of materials that could support and elaborate the arguments in 3 4. different ways. 4. Structuring the controversy: Assigning students to groups of four, dividing each group members into two pairs (dyads) who take opposing positions on the topic to be discussed, and requiring each group to reach a consensus on the issue and turn in a group report on which all members will be evaluated are the steps teachers should consider in this phase. 5. Conducting the controversy: This phase includes planning positions, presenting positions, arguing the issue, practising perspective reversal, and arriving at a decision. As it is realised, in this method, discussants should always be supplied with well-documented positions and some further references, if needed. They should also be provided with some guidelines for more helpful discussions. Each session, an interesting but challenging topic which foregrounds polemical discussions is introduced. The teacher may also have a brief review of key vocabularies while introducing the general theme of the text or topic. Then groups of four members are divided into two pairs to discuss and develop one side of the argument. Afterwards, the two dyads meet to discuss the topic for the purpose of achieving more knowledge of the topic. Pairs then switch sides and develop arguments for the opposite side of the same issue in order to gain a thorough understanding of the topic in question from different dimensions. Later, they put the topic on the stage for a class-wide debate, for further exploration and deeper understanding. This stage affords them opportunities to criticize and challenge others. They will also be challenged to defend their ideas. Identification of merits and disadvantages of the theme in question, discussion of theme through different vantage points, and evaluation of the type of presentation by the author are some of the activities in this method. Regarding the evaluation system of SAC, students are evaluated mostly based on their group production. This evaluation system increases positive interdependence among participants. COMPETITIVE TEAM-BASED LEARNING Competitive Team-Based Learning is a holistic contextualized approach to teaching and learning that reflects the real world holism. As a fundamentally 4 5. different approach to ELT/Education, CTBL tries to produce a more realistic depiction of the real-world norms and settings in the classroom, as the microcosm, in order to more effectively connect learners to the real world, the macrocosm. This way CTBL reduces the discrepancy between what the present education system makes out of our nations and what the realities of today world context exacts them to be. CTBL foregrounds the significance of effective teamwork amidst highly competitive environments, as the very demand of tomorrow’s citizenry, in an atmosphere which emphasises adherence to a ‘learning culture’ not only to foster academic progress of people/students but also to more significantly contribute to their future success, both academically and socially. In CTBL, students of potentially diverse backgrounds with different attitudes, (language) learning strategies, styles, proficiencies, and abilities shape heterogeneous teams of usually 4 members each and try working together in a highly 'competitive motivational dialogic-based learning environment. They work in an atmosphere which emphasises their adherence to some pre established principles (i.e., this researcher’s ethos and manifesto). The mechanism underlying this educational approach holds each team member accountable for his or her own learning, growth, and development and encourages them to do their part of the work effectively. It, at the same time, spurs them to ask other members to do likewise and also help them enthusiastically in order to improve their learning towards achieving their common learning goals. Team members are likewise systematically spurred into further collaboration and scaffolding the learning of each other in order to compete not merely against their same-level opponents in other teams, as it is in Teams-Games-Tournaments (TGT), developed by Scholars like DeVries and Edwards (1974), and Slavin (1991), but also against their teams. All team members, therefore, engage themselves fully (cognitively, emotionally, and intellectually) and actively participate and tactfully contribute in the process of shared learning in order to solve a problem, complete a task, and/or create a product through activities like exchanging ideas, clarification of meanings to each other, and diplomatic resolution of discrepancies. They try to be sure that each member has mastered the assigned material for this researcher would, at times, randomly call upon a student to represent his or her team. If so, the selected member of the respective team should also provide reasons for his or her answer(s) to the teacher before the class participants. It is important to note that teams are evaluated not just on their members’ improvements over their own past performances, as it is in Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC), developed by Stevens et al. (1978), and Student Teams-Achievement Divisions (STAD), developed by Slavin and associates at Johns Hopkins University (1978). Neither are they evaluated merely over their same-level opponents in other teams, as it is in TGT. They are also recognized based on the extent to which they outgain other 5 6. teams. Further, special rewards are also awarded to the best teams with the highest averages in order to motivate team members for more effective cooperation, and simultaneously encourage competition among teams. For example, teams that prove their superiority for three periods will receive ‘A’ marks for their members’ final exam regardless of their actual grades – on the condition that they secure the minimum standard. Although appreciation of the best team(s) is also valued in some methods like STAD, TGT, and Teams Tournaments (TT), developed by this researcher (1994/2010), this component is not as much seriously and directly injected in these methods as it is in CTBL. Recognition of the best team(s) is a formal part of CTBL evaluation system. CTBL evaluation system, thereby, not only pushes team members to make any effort to improve their own performances and outperform their peer- level opponents in other teams. It also encourages them to pool their efforts together to surpass other teams as well in order to prove their fair superiority in the class and get the special rewards, which may include securing the highest mark for all team members in recognition of their effective collaboration and perseverance. Likewise, to maximize the contribution of the captains or team leaders, who are high achievers, to the success of their teams, they will be rewarded with high marks as the recognition of their devotion, perseverance, and commitment to their responsibilities and tasks if all their team members shine on tests and exams and prove an acceptable progress in comparison to their past performances. Teams’ performances are also regularly reported on a teams’ recognition chart on the notice board of the classroom which as well announces the names of outstanding and most challenging individuals alike. Besides, the first two to six, depending on the number of students in the class, best students are recognised as the brains or motivators who will assist this researcher, as the teacher, in course of teaching. When teams have problems, for instance, they must consult the brains first. The teacher is the last resource. The brains openly receive the teams’ representatives for any kind of academic help. The important point is that every main exam’s results lead unto the replacement of these brains as well as teams’ leaders by those who prove their superiority over them, in CTBL learning-for-all fair environments. To lessen individuals’ anxiety levels or to contribute further to lowering their affective filters, teams that secure the least acceptable rank would pass the course -- provided their members should not be below the minimum standard. The average of teams members’ grades is the basis for this decision. The evaluation system of CTBL, therefore, is against undifferentiated group grading for teamwork as it is in Johnsons’ methods where all team members receive the same grade regardless of differences in contributions to the total- team/class effort. In CTBL motivational incentives are encouraged to sustain the individual efforts and immersion in the process of learning in team 6 7. activities and furthering cooperation of team members in the course of learning. Also, although in CTBL team members take final exams individually as it is in CIRC, STAD, and TGT, they take midterm exams, tests, or quizzes cooperatively. The main philosophy beyond allowing students to take some exams, tests, or quizzes collaboratively is to subordinate testing to teaching: Apart from its contribution to positive interdependence, this strategy subjects students to more opportunities for transference of skills, strategies, thinking styles and approaches, attitudes, and so forth in a meta-cognitive way (e.g., through listening to their teammates who are in actual fact thinking aloud). As understood, contrary to the conventional methods and approaches, the procedure in classes run through CTBL is not a 'loose anything goes' one. It is highly structured and systematic. For the summary of the procedure followed in a (reading) class run through this researcher’s instructional approach, see Figure 1. Figure 1 Main components of CTBL As indicated in Figure 1, the procedure for presenting a unit/lesson, in CTBL classes, follows two phases each of which incorporates five main components. As it is realised, the activities follow a regular cycle. The mechanism underlying CTBL provides all team members not just with the opportunity but with the need for perseverance, collaboration, and joint activity as well. It also intends to keep all teams in a state of dynamic perseverance in a win-win situation for all learning and social atmosphere in the classroom which is highly supportive, relaxing, communicative, referential, effective, and developmentally motivating and appropriate. Such productive and engaging learning conditions, which ensure and scaffold involvement of all learners in the process of shared (language) learning, not merely generate short-term results along with learning and excellence in the learning. They also supply students with the opportunities to acquire and 7 Teaching Phase Assessment Phase 8. internalise more effective tactics and methods for obtaining knowledge and solving problems, and in the process develop their communicative competence. Furthermore, such situations stimulate students to more effectively and comprehensively exercise their brain cells in higher order and incisive analytical thinking skills rather than lower forms of mental behaviour/thinking, and, in the process, come up with fresher, more innovative, and more powerful ideas, in order to construct new knowledge. Competitive Team-Based Learning focuses upon deleting certain damaging problems of traditional methods, so as to suit particularly the specific requirements of language classes in the present world context. CTBL has been offered to language classes in order to enrich and enhance the process of language learning. This is possible through a win-for-all dynamics ushered in by the role of the teacher as facilitator, creator, and orchestrator of opportunities for comprehensible input-output treatment for learners’ comprehensive development and growth, which comes about with their total engagement and active participation and contribution in class activities. English language learning via CTBL has been viewed as an act of learning the language together through activities like negotiating, clarifying, expanding, elaborating, synthesizing, paraphrasing, and summarizing and as an act of learning to share language learning skills and strategies by equipping students to learn it as a FL or as a L2 through critical and creative thinking. CTBL best benefits especially language classes as it, unlike the conventional approaches, particularly seat-work teacher dominated approaches, underscores the value of some pivotal factors of critical importance to language learning and language use. Among such factors are affective aspects of learning (e.g., emotional state of students' minds including their affective filter and attitudes, and learning environment), meaningful interaction, exposure of students to comprehensible input in the target language and language learning strategies, attention, purposeful communication, and multiple sources of input and output. Some other crucial significant context variables like motivation and active engagement of all learners in the process of language learning are also appreciated in CTBL semi/authentic, analytical, and suggestive feedback-rich relaxing environments. CTBL, thereby, is of high value for language classes in the sense that the mechanism underlying it is naturally highly favourable to language acquisition and the development of all aspects of communicative competence of students. More importantly, it contributes effectively to the critical sensitivity of students and the quality of their understanding and reasoning and thus to the accuracy of their long-term retention, which is a criterion for real learning. CTBL intends to make (language) learning a more vivid, interesting, motivating, and goal oriented exercise. 8 9. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Cooperative Learning has an extensive history. Although its origin has been traced to the first century, it was first applied in Education in the 1920s in Germany (Cooper, 1979). John Dewey (1940) who placed the emphasis on education as a means of teaching citizens the ways of living cooperatively so as to sustain a healthy society they long for has had his impact on the advent of CL. It was, however, in accordance with the emergence of new philosophies of learning that the interest in CL re-emerged specifically in the early 1970s. Since then, the number of researches has dramatically increased in many parts of the world including America, England, Australia, Canada, Holland, Mexico, and Scotland to delve into inner layers of CL from different angles. Researchers like David Johnson and Roger Johnson at the University of Minnesota, Shlomo Sharan and Yael Sharan, at Tel Aviv University, in Israel, and Robert Slavin at Johns Hopkins, who have spearheaded the research undertaken in this area, have considerably contributed to the enrichment and development of CL and its methods. Joyce and Weil (2003) have assumed that the synergy generated in participatory learning settings brings in feelings of connectedness among students, particularly a feeling that their power in their teams is more cogent than when they are alone. This kind of feeling causes ripple effects generating more positive energy in them and motivates them for further achievement of their shared learning goals. And the attainment of their goals enhances their levels of self-confidence along with a feeling that they are respected and appreciated. The two researchers are also of the view that such settings are conducive to the emergence of diverse and creative ideas, which are favourable to the creation of more intellectual persons. Researchers like Pandian (2007) have appreciated the significance of such situations in cooperative learning settings especially for the education of physically disabled or mentally backward students. In view of the fact that students, in cooperative learning settings, need to exchange information and advice in order to succeed in achieving their shared learning goals, CL is believed to facilitate more communication (Yager et al., 1985), which is one of the main concerns of TESOL for the attainment of its goals. A growing body of research has indicated that, compared to the traditional lecture method (TLM) and individually competitive learning, CL is more favourable to SLA (Hatch, 1978; Long and Porter, 1985; Pica et al., 1987; Zhang, 2010) and EFL/ESL learners’ higher levels of communicative competencies (Bejarano et al., 1997). To justify the contribution of CL to SLA, Kagan (as cited in Ghaith and Yaghi, 1998), has argued that “language 9 10. acquisition is determined by a complex interaction of a number of critical input, output, and context variables” and that CL “has a dramatic positive impact on almost all the variables critical to language acquisition” (p. 223). McCafferty et al. (2006) have also commented that the significance of CL for language classes is that it focuses on boosting the effectiveness of groupwork. To emphasize the importance of the context of learning, within the scope of CL, for the acquisition of language, TESOL (1997) acknowledged: Language is learnt most effectively when it is used in significant and meaningful situations as learners interact with others to accomplish their purposes. Language acquisition takes place as learners engage in activities of a social nature with opportunities to practice language forms for a variety of communicative purposes. Language acquisition also takes place during activities that are of a cognitive and intellectual nature where learners have opportunities to become skilled in using language for reasoning and mastery of challenging new information. (p. 7) Consequently, CL has received an extensive attention of ELT experts in recent years. Language specialists have focused upon the effectiveness of CL in EFL and ESL classrooms since the advent of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) on the premise that language is best learnt when it is used for communication in social contexts. Jacobs et al. (1996) found that L2 learners had more language practice opportunities and displayed a wider range of language functions in team or pair work than in teacher-fronted classes. According to them, CL offers opportunities for premodified input that focuses on meaning in lower-anxiety contexts, interactionally modified input, and comprehensible output. Jacobs (1988) has reported that CL, in comparison with traditional methods: 1. Increases the quantity of language students use, 2. Enhances the quality of the language they use, 3. Equalizes the learning opportunities for all students, and 4. Creates a less threatening learning environment for language use. A number of researchers have also reported the contribution of CL to critical thinking, which they have mentioned to have positive relationship with language learning (see Hosseini, 2000/2012) This is, as it was noted, possible because, as Angelo (1995) declared, “intentional application of rational higher order thinking skills such as analysis, synthesis, problem recognition and problem solving, inference, and evaluation” (p. 6), which are common practices in cooperative language learning settings (Cooper, 1995), are characteristics of critical thinking. Beyer (1995) has defined critical thinking as “making reasoned judgments” (p. 8), which are encouraged in cooperative language learning settings. And Liang et al. (1998) have suggested that the 10 11. success of CL in language classes is by virtue of the fact that “cooperative learning offers L2 learners more opportunities for interaction in L2” (p. 14). And finally, Dolan, et al. (1979) reported on a study undertaken by Abercombie that compared CL with traditional method of teaching: They mentioned that CL not only increased academic achievement of participants, it also improved objectivity and flexibility of their thinking. They reported the following results of CL classes for students: 1. The ability to discriminate between facts and opinions; 2. The ability to resist false conclusions; 3. The ability to generate and consider alternative solutions to problems, 4. The ability to consider each and every problem as if it were new, and to be less adversely influenced by previous impression which may not be relevant to the tackling of the problem in hand. (p. 230) Apart from the advantages reported in favour of CL, a closer investigation into the related literature brings to light a fair number of counter arguments within research findings. For example, as regards different-level achievers, there are some incongruities in research findings on the level different achievers can gain or even lose in CL classes. Murfitt and Thomas (as cited in Topping, 1998), have indicated that low performers benefit much more than high achievers out of participatory learning situations. But others like Dalton (1990) have argued that working in CL groups benefits high achievers more than others. Yet scholars of repute like Slavin (1995) have declared that CL has no significant influence on high achievers’ academic performances. Even some like Allen (1991) have claimed that in CL situations high achievers are actually losing their precious time which they could use in other ways to better their prospects. Researchers like Webb (1989), however, do not agree with the idea that high achievers cannot reap advantages out of cooperative learning settings. Webb contended that high achievers also gain benefits out of CL. Experts like Richards and Rodgers have gone further and claimed that advanced students obtain more advantages from CL than others by virtue of the fact that they have more opportunities for articulation and explanation of their own ideas. Despite the abundance of research findings that verifies the advantage of CL over traditional methods of teaching, very few researches, to date, have essayed to directly compare the effectiveness of CTBL, which has recently exacted the most interesting and hotly debated controversies, and other popular CL methods like SAC. This researcher himself has tried to fill this gap in the literature via carrying out different researches in the last decade. This researcher’s MA and PhD research studies are among such studies. His PhD research study (Hosseini, 2009), for example, was a comparative experimental research study which sought to explore and examine the complex effects of 11 12. CTBL with SAC of Johnsons, and the traditional chalk-and-talk mode of presentation or Traditional Lecture Method (TLM) on Iranian and Indian undergraduate learners’: (a) reading comprehension in English, (b) language learning strategies, (c) attitudes towards English language learning and the select teaching methods, and (d) retention of information. It became evident from the analyses of the data gathered that the two select CL methods served to (a) increase acquisition of texts contents, (b) widen repertoire of language learning strategies, (c) generate positive attitudes, and (d) improve the retention of information, on the part of the target groups more significantly than the TLM. One important result of the study was that it was CTBL that was more successful in developing the participants' metacognitive and affective strategies. It was likewise noted that CTBL, rather than SAC, contributed more effectively to the improvement of the participants’ retention of information. The study also provided evidence that it was CTBL that more comprehensively contributed to the success of the lower performers. The significant finding that CTBL was more effectively conducive to the development of particularly metacognitive and affective strategies adds to the value of this method because according to a number of researchers like Graham (1997), these strategies are the most helpful strategies for effective learning. This is because such strategies naturally call for more mental engagement of the participants in course of learning. The significance of metacognitive strategies lies in the help they can provide (language) learners to take control of their own learning and so build up their independence and autonomy. More importantly, meta-cognition naturally involves critical thinking, which is the very requirement for not merely language learning and academic success but also for successful living especially in today world context. Affective strategies are likewise favourable to intellectual motivation and development of cognition and hence language and thinking abilities of participants. That CTBL contributed more significantly to the participants’ long-term retention was also a significant result because it conveyed the idea that this method developed the capability of the participants to apply their knowledge to new tasks after a long interval, which is the criterion for effective learning. In other words, CTBL was conducive to genuine learning more effectively than the Johnsons' method. Competitive Team-Based Learning, in sum, facilitated the development of learning-how-to-learn skills and long-term retention rather than survival skills and recognition memory of the participants, and significantly enhanced the quality of knowledge the participants acquired. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The significance of the present study lies in its effort for comparing the effectiveness of this researcher’s own instructional approach with one of the 12 13. most popular CL methods, which has been developed in the US. The value of both the methods for language classes refers to their focus upon the pivotal role of groupwork and discussion in language learning. Importantly, the study delves into the effectiveness of these two Western oriented instructional approaches in an Asian context, in language classes in Iran. As researchers like Momtaz and Garner (2010) and this researcher (Hosseini, 2000/2010) have confirmed, in spite of the widespread research on the effectiveness of CL methods in the West, there has been little research on their effectiveness in non-Western educational environments, particularly in relation to EFL and ESL. Another significant feature of this study is that it attempts to investigate the effectiveness of CL methods at university classes. This is important because the dominant belief is that the implementation of CL at university level is not feasible. This is, perhaps, the main reason as to why most of researches have been focused on the effectiveness of CL at elementary and intermediate levels. In addition, the present study intends to go deeper into the gains different achievers may obtain out of different CL methods. METHOD Sample of the Study Sixty eight EFL junior college students at Bojnord Azad University, in Bojnord, in Iran, were the initial subjects. From among these participants a homogeneous group of 40, who were tried to be at the same level in their language proficiency, were selected based on their performance on the pre-test to serve as the subjects for the present study. All subjects were female between 19 – 21 years of age. And they had studied English for seven years hitherto. Materials Instructional Materials In this study, students' own textbook, ‘English for Students of Engineering’, was used. It consisted of eight units each of which was covered within two sessions of 90 minutes each. The topics included a range from ‘Lasers’ to ‘Civil Engineering’ which were all interesting to the participants. That students' own textbook was employed in the present study could possibly have some merits: 1) Participants paid more attention to it rather than some outside materials; 2) Difficulty level of the passages was geared to the level of participants; and 3) Through using the participants’ own textbook, they most probably could not guess they were participating in a study. Testing Materials A version of Comprehensive English Language Test (CELT) was administered as the pre- and post-test in order to obtain the level of language proficiency of the target groups in the present study. This internationally 13 14. recognized test of language proficiency had already been piloted on a similar group of 17 students. The test consisted of 75 vocabulary items, 75 structure items, and 24 reading comprehension items for three passages. All the items were ‘multiple choice items’, and students had 90 minutes to do it. The reasons for employing this test were twofold: 1) Its format was familiar to the target groups of this study, which in turn brought the ‘unfamiliarity of the test’ effect under control, and 2) Its level of difficulty was acceptable for Iranian students. Additionally, to examine the participants’ conversational abilities, an oral test, which this researcher had already developed, was employed. This test was based on the content of students' book. It included four warm-up questions and seven target questions. The target items were pilot tested with a similar population at another college, and based on the results of the pilot test the question prompts were revised. Design and Procedure A ‘Randomised Control-Group Pretest- Posttest Design’ was applied to serve the purpose of the present study. This researcher selected this design because randomisation process practically assures equivalency in many ways. For example, some internal variables like maturation, contemporary historical events, and pre-testing effects were controlled as both the groups experienced an equal effect of these variables. Hence, the effects of these variables are equalized and cannot be mistaken in the effect of treatment. Intersession developments, extraneous variables that arise between pre-test and post-test, were also balanced out, due to the presence of randomised selected groups. In the first session, in order to homogenize the participants according to their language proficiency levels, the pre-test was administered to 68 students. On the basis of the information obtained, 40 students who were nearly at the midpoint were chosen as the key informants. That is, scores that were very high or too low on the test were discarded. Therefore, the 40 homogeneous subjects were selected based on their performance on the pre-test to serve the study for a whole academic semester. The term included 16 weeks, two sessions of 90 minutes each a week. It is worth mentioning that by putting very high or very low scores aside, the effect of statistical regression was also eliminated. The participants were then randomly (every other one) assigned to the experimental and control groups. With the intention to minimize the reactive effect of the experimental procedure, this researcher did not let this population know the fact that an experiment was being conducted. Afterwards, the experimental group’s participants, in the CTBL class, were ranked in three clusters of high achievers, average scorers, and low performers on the basis of their performance in the pre-test. Subsequently, they were randomly allotted to six teams so that each team had equal members of high-, average-, and low- achievers. The remained two learners worked in pair. In the control group (in 14 15. the SAC class), the participants were allowed to shape their own favourite teams. Next, teams’ members, in both the classes, were arranged in specific face-to-face settings. At this juncture, the importance and basic elements of both the methods were highlighted and explained to the respective target groups. During the course of experimentation, both the classes had the same instructor, the same curriculum, and the same schedule of instruction. The difference was that while the control group experienced language learning through SAC, the experimental group experienced learning of the language through CTBL. Participants, in the experimental group, also used a collaborative answering technique called ‘Think, Pair, Share’. In this activity, after the teacher poses a problem or question, students are required to ‘think’ over the given problem individually in a limited time and then ‘pair up’ to discuss their ideas. They are then asked to try to reach to a shared solution to the problem with their team members. And lastly, they are expected to ‘share’ and negotiate their ideas class-wide. The significance of this activity lies in the weight it puts on ‘wait- time’ in course of learning and thereby contributing to active involvement of students in the learning process. Additionally, it ushers in meaningful and mutual communication and negotiation of meaning and ensures comprehensible input and immediate feedback, in an environment of relaxed learning for the acquisition of the language to occur. DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION After conducting the pre-test, an independent t-test was applied to verify the pre-test results for both the groups (see Table 1). Table 1 The data derived from the pre-test for both the groups Groups N X S D T Cont. G. 20 3.23 2.36 0.18 Exp. G. 20 3.1 2.17 D.F.= 38 P ≤ .05 t-critical =1.68 As indicated in table 1, the value of the calculated t was 0.18 which was less than the value of the t-critical (1.68) at 0.05 level of probability. Thus, the two groups had little differences which were considered suitable for the purpose of the present study. At the end of the study, the results of computing the means of the post-test of both the groups were tabulated: Table 2 The data derived from the post-test for both the groups Groups N X S D T Cont. G. 20 10.77 2.31 4.33 15 16. Exp. G. 20 14.08 2.55 D.F.=38 P ≤ .05 t-critical =1.68 As shown in table 2, the results revealed that the t-observed (4.33) far exceeded the value of the t-critical (1.68) at a probability level of P ≤ 0.05 which meant there had been a significant difference between the control and the experimental groups’ performance on the post-test. Therefore, the significant impact of CTBL on Iranian junior college students' language proficiency was statistically proved. That is, compared to SAC, CTBL brought far better results for Iranian junior college students in terms of developing their language proficiency. And as table 3 illustrates, the results of computing the t-observed for each skill surpassed the value of the t-critical at a probability level of P ≤ 0.05. Table 3 The data derived from the post-test for both the groups for (sub) skills Dependent Variables Groups X SD t.O. D.F. Vocabulary Cont. G. 2.82 1.36 1.71 38 Exp. G. 3.47 1.03 Grammar Cont. G. 2.77 1.55 1.76 38 Exp. G. 3.56 1.41 Reading Compréhension Cont. G. 2.1 1.28 2.07 38 Exp. G. 2.97 1.4 Speaking Cont. G. 3.25 1.31 2.4 38 Exp. G. 4.02 0.78 As table 3 indicates, CTBL has most significantly facilitated the development of speaking abilities (t-observed = 2.4) of the target group of the present study. Likewise, as shown in table 4, the data obtained from the pre- and the post-test for the performance of high-, average-, and low- achievers of both the classes were tabulated, analysed, and compared. Table 4 The means of both the groups’ high, average, and low achievers in the pre-and the post-tests Pre-test Post-test Difference Groups Cont. G. Exp. G. Cont. G. Exp. G. Cont. G. Exp. G. Low Performers 19.2 18.74 23.69 28.48 4.49 9.47 Average Scorers 16 15.9 18.85 22.41 2.85 6.51 High Achievers 7.25 11 8.93 13.36 1.68 2.36 16 17. As it is illustrated in the above table, compared to SAC, CTBL had best contributed to the development of language proficiency of low to average performers. SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION This study was conducted to probe the possible effects of this researcher’s instructional approach, Competitive Team-Based Learning (CTBL), as opposed to Structured Academic Controversy (SAC) method of CL, on language proficiency of Iranian junior college students. It also aimed at delving into the effects of the two teaching methods on the language proficiency of the target group’s different achievers. After comparing achievement for the two groups, it was found that the participants who were taught through CTBL highly outperformed those who were taught through SAC. The observed t-value (4.33) far exceeded the critical t-value (1.68) at 38 degree of freedom at p 05.0≤ level of significance. It was likewise noticed that much more individual learning and understanding had occurred in the CTBL class in comparison with SAC. Also, it was interesting to note a simultaneous increase in the students' prejudice (e.g., their persistence, with a high motivation which sustained during the course, to ensure that each of their team members had achieved a thorough understanding of whatever was being discussed) and their tolerance of their opponents in CTBL class. This was mostly due to the evaluation system and the leaning culture of this researcher’s pedagogical approach. The main reason for the success of CTBL may refer to the mechanism underlying it. As noted, CTBL's highly structured settings hold all class participants accountable and unleash their dammed creativity to the extent possible and pave the way to new opportunities and real knowledge, and, of course, make them really realise the joy of real learning in semi/authentic real- world oriented situations. As regards the second part of the research question, though all teams' members made use of CTBL motivational and dialogic based settings, lower performers/ the marginalised students cultivated the best results out of the opportunities this method provided them. But SAC best benefited high achievers. The success of lower performers in CTBL class can be due to the sort of the learning environment occasioned by the mechanism underlying this method. CTBL evaluation system and its formula for team formation, for instance, emphasize and facilitate active involvement of all participants, instead of the few best or most extrovert students as it is in methods like SAC, in the learning process. Contrary to the structures of groups in other methods of CL, the kind of team formation in CTBL does not allow high achievers to dominate 17 18. their groups' activities. As high achievers, lower performers have the opportunities to talk, reason, and elaborate the material and their thoughts in ways that others could understand them. More speaking opportunities per se is believed to be predictable of better SLA. CTBL situations solicit lower performers' higher levels of cognition which in turn results to higher levels of comprehending and understanding the material and consequently to the improvement of their language proficiency. That is, in such situations they have the opportunities to unlearn and/or relearn and deepen their understandings of the material through tutoring and articulation of their thoughts – they learn through teaching. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS The importance of education particularly higher education as the necessary condition for creating progressive and peaceful societies is dramatically increasing in current rapidly changing global information environment. The fact is that in order to achieve its main goals, academia has no option but to move with the constant flux in the context of ongoing globalisation and consider the realities of living in such a competitive-oriented context. And English language can be appreciated as a powerful tool in such a context to pursuit of such goals. Educators should realise that the English language is no longer recognised as the language spoken in America, Australia, or England, for instance. Nor is it deemed as a FL or a L2 any more. Also, gone are the days when it was considered as the language of libraries which rendered curriculum developers put the emphasis on merely reading in education systems, as it is in countries like Iran. Rather, it is regarded as the language of economy, politics, survival, mobility, and prosperity in this globe. The significance of this international lingua franca (ELF) lies in the fact that it is a critical prerequisite for obtaining global recognition via expressing intensions and sharing values (Hosseini, 2007). In the light of this backdrop, this researcher means to say that in the present world context 1. The development of language skills ought to be geared towards communicative competence inasmuch as students need to develop their language proficiency so that they could participate in the global communication process more effectively, and 2. The stakeholders in the arena of Education should prioritise the significant importance of interactive approaches to language learning and language teaching. Such methods and approaches better reflect the realities of today world context and so have the capacity to more comprehensively prepare students for living in the present arena of globalisation. This study provided data that reflects the needs of our classrooms and the real world settings. The results provided by the present study can be of some help 18 19. to educators and especially EFL/ESL teachers. A thorough understanding of the principles of CL methods in general and CTBL in particular can help them to develop a range of tactics for creating more motivating as well as relaxing and process-oriented learning environments for the (language) learning to occur which would enable their classes to become fully bonded, motivated, activated, and engaged in the process of language learning. One of the significant characteristics of this researcher’s instructional approach refers to the fact that it highlights the importance of motivation among class participants. Additionally, the mechanism underlying this method limits the scope for social loafers and free riders who have the potential to endanger societies, let alone learning environments. Another significant feature of CTBL is that it has systematically prioritized the element of ‘competition’ in participatory learning settings, which could also be supported by virtual learning environments (see Hosseini, 2009), in order to reflect the realities of today world. In CTBL contexts, students can acquire, learn, practice, and develop skills needed both for language learning/academic success and for more peaceful living in real competitive world situations, a task which is seldom achieved through the traditional modes of education. CTBL has, thereby, the capacity to better contribute not just to academic success of students but also to their future professional and life success in the present- world context, which exacts workforce/citizens who are empowered and equipped for co-operation amidst competitive environments. CTBL can be appreciated in the sense that it prioritises the idea of teamwork as the very demand of tomorrow’s citizenry and the outcomes students are likely to reap out of teamwork, in course of time. It promotes their social behaviours and so facilitates social cohesion, interdependence, collective and critical thinking, and co-existence. It enables and equips students towards responsible social citizenship and experiencing a sense of interpersonal fellowship and human solidarity. The paradox and of course the beauty of this researcher’s didactic innovation refers to the fact that despite its surface structure, which seems to best benefit high achievers who are in the habit of dominating their milieu, it is, in essence, a method for harnessing this groups' potentials to the best advantage of the lower performers without yet neglecting the former groups' zest and motivation for continuing to shrine as the best in learning/living-for-all environments. CTBL is, thereby, in essence, a method for the empowerment of the oppressed, who are almost always the majority in today world context. And the point is that the empowerment of the Other contributes to their liberation which results in the transformation/elimination of the minority/dictators, who have been in the habit of treating them as their possessions. 19 20. The results of this study might, as well, be of some help to material developers to design and incorporate more motivating and challenging materials, activities, and exercises in accordance with CTBL objectives. Material developers should develop their materials in such a way that ensures more effective involvement of all team members in the process of learning for achieving their shared learning goals in competitive environments, in order to reap much more results out of class activities. Material developers, in word of one syllable, should plan to supply students with the opportunities to learn more about learning and to make more effective transitions to real world settings, if they want to contribute to sustainable futures. Researchers are also suggested to explore and compare the effects of CTBL vis-à-vis other conventional methods through different dimensions. 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