GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER2012 ABSTRACT Now I am throwing some light on the very new and innovative concept i.e. GENERATING ELECTRICITY FROM A SPEED BREAKER. Producing electricity from a speed breaker is a new concept that is undergoing research. The number of vehicles on road is increasing rapidly and if we convert some of the kinetic energy of these vehicle into the rotational motion of roller then we can produce considerable amount of electricity, this is the main concept of this project. In this project, a roller is fitted in between a speed breaker and some kind of a grip is provided on the speed breaker so that when a vehicle passes over speed breaker it rotates the roller. This movement of roller is used to rotate the shaft of D.C. generator by the help of chain drive which is there to provide 1:5 speed ratios. As the shaft of D.C. generator rotates, it produces electricity. This electricity is stored in a battery. Then the output of the battery is used to lighten the street lamps on the road. Now during daytime we don‘t need electricity for lightening the street lamps so we are using a control switch which is manually operated .The control switch is connected by wire to the output of the battery. The control switch has ON/OFF mechanism which allows the current to flow when needed. Before starting I have one question to you all who is really very happy with the current situation of the electricity in India? I suppose no one. So this is my step to improve the situation of electricity with an innovative and useful concept i.e. Generating Electricity from a Speed breaker First of all what is electricity means to us? Electricity is the form of energy. It is the flow of electrical Power. Electricity is a basic part of nature and it is one of our most widely used forms of energy. We get electricity, which is a secondary energy source, from the conversion of other sources of energy, like coal, natural gas, oil, nuclear power and other natural sources, which are called primary sources. Many cities and towns were built alongside waterfalls that turned water wheels to perform work. Before electricity generation began slightly over 100 years ago, houses were lit with kerosene lamps, food was cooled in iceboxes, and rooms were warmed by wood-burning or coal-burning stoves. Direct current (DC) electricity had been used in arc lights for outdoor lighting. In the late-1800s, Nikola Tesla pioneered the generation, transmission, and use of alternating current (AC) electricity, which can be transmitted over much greater distances than direct current. Tesla's inventions used Page | 1 GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 electricity to bring indoor lighting to our homes and to power industrial machines. How is electricity generated? Electricity generation was first developed in the 1800's using Faradays dynamo generator. Almost 200 years later we are still using the same basic principles to generate electricity, only on a much larger scale. The rotor (rotating shaft) is directly connected to the prime mover and rotates as the prime mover turns. The rotor contains a magnet that, when turned, produces a moving or rotating magnetic field. The rotor is surrounded by a stationary casing called the stator, which contains the wound copper coils or windings. When the moving magnetic field passes by these windings, electricity is produced in them. By controlling the speed at which the rotor is turned, a steady flow of electricity is produced in the windings. These windings are connected to the electricity network via transmission lines. One question that u all are thinking is why I have apply this on the speed breaker and not on the rough road or plane road where the kinetic energy of the vehicle is more then what I m getting on the speed breaker I m giving u one example, just think over it. A car or any heavy vehicle is coming with a speed of 100 mph on the road and passing over this roller which is fitted at the level of the road then this roller is gaining the speed nearly somewhere 90 mph (due to losses). So now suppose a cycle is coming with a speed of 20 mph and is going to pass this roller (which is moving at a speed of 90 mph) due to this difference in the speed there will be a collision that is the main reason for using this concept on the speed breaker. Page | 2 GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 Fig - Block Diagram of Project ―Generation of Electricity using Speed Breakers‖ Page | 3 GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 Fig – Actual Photo Of The Project Page | 4 . GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 Fig.Circuit diagram of Project Page | 5 . 2. 3. They are using widely for energy production. natural oil. The rate of consumption is quite higher. Page | 6 . Utilization of kinetic energy of vehicle. Produce electricity at lower cost. The government works to save these resources. natural gas are limited in nature. Thus after some time they will remove from the earth. Saving the non-renewable resources of energy. The major objectives of this project is given below1.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT The non-renewable resources like coal. operation". cooking and to running other various equipments. our bodies transform the food into energy to do work. 1.Types of energy In the nature. 3. "activity. The major form can be listed as below1. Then it can be easily used various purpose such as lighting. 6. cooling. Energy is defined as the ability to do work. Most of the energy can be first converted into electricity (i. Mechanical energy Electric energy Magnetic energy Chemical energy Nuclear energy Sound energy Surface energy Page | 7 . 5. and machinery also transform energy into work. This law is known as conservation of energy. Work means moving or lifting something. 7.1. working" is a scalar physical quantity that is a property of objects and systems which is conserved by nature. But it can be converted from one form to another form. "active.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 INTRODUCTION The word energy from the Greek energeia. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. 2. warming or lighting something. Cars. a seated passenger in a moving airplane has zero kinetic energy relative to the airplane. planes. When we run or walk or do some work. its value may depend on the frame of reference. energy can be found in many forms. we ‗burn‘ energy in our bodies. electrical energy). 4. but non-zero kinetic energy relative to the earth. We use energy to do work and make all movements. boats. trolleys. There are many sources of energy that help to run the various machines invented by man.e. When we eat. from energos. Total energy of a system does not change with time. For example. GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 1.2- Mechanical energy The energy which is used to do some mechanical work is known as mechanical energy. Mechanical energy has two components i.e. potential energy and kinetic energy present in a mechanical system. These components can be described as follows- 1.2.1- Potential energy Potential energy is the energy that is stored in an object. Potential energy exists when there is a force that tends to pull an object back towards some original position when the object is displaced. This force is called a restoring force. The simple example is stretching the rubber. It stores the energy is known as the potential energy. When the rubber is released, the potential energy is concerted into kinetic energy. In the mathematical form, potential energy is- PE = mgh WherePE = Energy (in Joules) m = mass (in kilograms) g = gravitational acceleration of the earth (9.8 m/sec2) h = height above earth's surface (in meters) 1.2.2- Kinetic Energy The energy which is due to the motion of a body. It is defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from rest to its current velocity. It is the energy of motion. An object which has motion whether it is vertical or horizontal motion has kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of an object in this case is given by the relation:- KE = (1/2) mv2 WhereKE = Energy (in Joules) m = mass (in kilograms) v = velocity (in meters/sec) Page | 8 GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 1.3- Electrical energy The electric energy is defined as the work which must be done against the Coulomb force to rearrange charges from infinite separation to this configuration (or the work done by the Coulomb force separating the charges from this configuration to infinity). The electricity is produced by flowing the electron in an conductor. In many applications, electrical energy is used. This is the simplest form of energy which is easy to use. If an electric current passes through a resistor, electric energy is converted to heat; if the current passes through an electric appliance, some of the electric energy will be converted into other forms of energy). The amount of electric energy due to an electric current can be expressed in a number of different ways- E = UQ = UIt = Pt = U2t / R WhereU = The electric potential difference (in volts) Q = The charge (in coulombs) I = The current (in amperes) t = The time for which the current flows (in seconds) P = The power (in watts) R = The electric resistance (in ohms). 1.4- Law of conservation of energy Isolated system remains constant but cannot be recreated. In this case, energy can only be exchanged between adjacent regions of space. The law of conservation of energy states that the total amount of energy in any According to energy conservation law the total inflow of energy into a system must equal the total outflow of energy from the system, plus the change in the energy contained within the system. In thermodynamics, the first law of thermodynamics is a statement of the conservation of energy for thermodynamic systems, It states that ―Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed. But it can be transformed from one form to another form of energy.‖ Page | 9 GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 The conservation of energy is a fundamental concept of physics along with the conservation of mass and the conservation of momentum. The mathematical form of the first law of thermodynamics can be given by following equation- δQ = dU+ δW WhereδQ = The amount of energy added to the system by a heating process, δW = The amount of energy lost by the system due to work done by the system on its surroundings, dU = The increase in the internal energy of the system. In this project the energy transform from mechanical to electrical. The mechanical energy is generating from moving vehicle and electricity is produced by dynamo. It will store in the battery bank and will be used for various purpose such as street lighting, signal control lighting etc. At present we are facing shortage of electricity. Electricity can be generated using speed breakers, strange, isn't it? The benefits from this idea will be to generate electricity for the streetlights, hoardings and then for other use. The functioning will be as follows: 1.The speed breaker on a busy road will be lifted from one side and fixed on other side( on one way road) 2. There will be a crankshaft mechanism below the speed breaker. The shaft of the generator will be attached to the disc and the rod connected to the disc from the speed breaker. This arrangement will make 1 rotation as soon as the vehicle moves over the speed breaker.(rotations can be increased using gears) 4. There will be electricity storing unit to store the generated electricity during the day and will be used during the night. The manufacturing cost is low. But the installation might be bit expensive but still affordable. Research: the prototype made using a simple dc motor gave an unbelievable output of 12 volts and the cost of the prototype was just 400 Rs. This proves the feasibility of this project. The idea can be applied on heavy traffic roads. This device functions by attaching the generator to the disc and the rod connected to the disc from the speed breaker. The machine self-levels on any surface up to a 4 degree slope. The unit may be transported to any emergency site where it then begins to process. Page | 10 which enhances visibility. These humps are highly resistant to various impacts and brutal weather conditions. The program can be run on any device that has a windows based operating system. Plastic Road Hump: 250x300x50. Speed bumpers are grooved for proper drainage.5-Speed Breaker Our range of speed bumps and rambler‘s are made from superior quality rubber. The functioning will be as follows: 1. At present we are facing shortage of electricity. UV and temperature resistant. 1. propeller pitch control uses three approaches: it is based upon either hydraulic oil pressure. We have affixed night vision reflectors and glass metals on both sides of humps. mechanical control using lateral motion along the axis of the drive shaft. Safe Speed is a software solution that limits the speed a vehicle can attain but cannot surpass. Electricity can be generated using speed breakers. hoardings and then for other use. Silent features are . Thus we use electric gear motor arrangement for this. or expensive to maintain due to high wear rates or the close machine tolerances required. Moisture. isn't it? The benefits from this idea will be to generate electricity for the streetlights. available COM port or USB port (also considering Wireless and Bluetooth connections).GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 Currently.The speed breaker on a busy road will be lifted from one side and fixed on other side( on one way road) 2. The modular and compact design makes them easy to install. Page | 11 . Road Humps are available in different size: 1. 2. strange. There will be a crankshaft mechanism below the speed breaker. All three of these techniques are either expensive to manufacture and install.These are available with both yellow and black color. 1996 have OBD-II systems) When the device (laptop/desktop/pad) is. Rubber Road Hump: 500X425X75. or electric motor control with the drive motor embedded in the hub. The device connects to the OBD II (On-Board Diagnostic Systems) usually within 1 meter of the steering wheel. (All cars built since January 1. It is made either of Douglas fir or spruce. shrinkage. maple. 3). A common reason for using plywood instead of plain wood is its resistance to cracking. The layers are glued together. No. and its general high degree of strength. Page | 12 . D= 6. A vast number of varieties of plywood exist for different applications1. and is used for construction and industrial purposes. Name of Components Wooden Sheet Cylindrical roller Transmission Shaft Bearing Material Plywood Cast iron Cast iron High-Carbon Steel Dimensions 59‖x35.1 S. lacuna (Philippine mahogany) and a large number of other hardwoods. 4). Softwood plywood.It is made of red oak. 2. pine. Hardwood plywood. 1). each with its grain at right angles to adjacent layers for greater strength. birch. It is used to make the base and tapper part of the project. and fir. Plywood is a type of engineered wood made from thin sheets of wood veneer.1. twisting/warping. It has replaced many dimensional lumbers on construction applications for these reasons. called plies or veneers. 2). There are an odd number of plies.2‖ D=12 mm ----------- 2.5‖ L= 12‖.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 List of Mechanical Components TABLE.Wooden Sheet The wooden sheet is made of plywood. Cylindrical Roller The cylinder is used to transform the linear kinetic energy into rotational kinetic energy. The surface area of the cylinder is- A= 2πr (r + h) 2.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 Fig 1.2. It makes a contact with the tyres of the moving vehicles.Plywood 2. The volume of the cylinder is- V= πr²h Fig . 1. Thus the acceleration of the vehicle is converted into the rotational torque. It is made of cast iron and can also be made of any other material as per economy and applications consideration.Cylinder Geometry Page | 13 . The cast iron is quite cheap and it has higher load carrying capacity. The one end of the shaft is coupled with the shaft of dynamo. the bending stress and tensional shear stress are given by- σb = Mb. tensile stress etc. tensional shear stress.3.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 Wherer = Radius of cylinder h = Height of cylinder 2./πd³ τ= Mt. The bearing is holds the roller cylinder and transfers the motion from cylinder to shaft.Transmission Shaft Roller shaft is used to support the roller cylinder. It transfers the rotation from roller cylinder to the dynamo which will generate the magnetic flux. The design consideration of the shaft is described as follows- 1. This will cause to generate the electricity. It has bearings at its both ends. r/J = 16 Mt. The shaft materials are ductile and the principle stress theory of failure is used to determine the shaft diameter. It is made of cast iron. y/I = 32 Mb. When the shaft is subjected to bending moment and tensional moment. Design against static load The transmission shaft supporting gears and pulleys are subjected to a combined load of banding and tensional moments./πd³ WhereMb= Bending moment. The roller shaft is subjected to the high variable loads. y= d/2 Page | 14 . Mt= Tensional moment. It is subjected to various stresses such as bending stress. There is a rolling contact bearing is used. Bearing is used to reduce the friction and increases the frictionless rotation of the shaft. A rolling contact bearing consists of four partsPage | 15 . FOS = Factor of safety 2. τ max = Ssy /FOS = 0.4. Syt = Yield strength of the material in tensile Ssy = Yield strength of the material in shear Therefore.5 Syt/FOS Where.e. rotation or linear movement. according to maximum shear stress theory of failure- Ssy = 0.5Syt Where. i.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 I= Moment of inertia J= Polar moment of inertia d= Diameter of shaft The maximum shear stress in the shaft can be determined- τ max= √ (σb/2)² + τ² Now.Bearing A bearing is a device to permit constrained relative motion between two parts. 2. the ball bearing is the least expensive.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 1. 2. If the inner and outer races are misaligned. the bearing may be classified as follows- 2.) Cage (which hold the rolling element and spaces the rolling element evenly around the periphery) Depending upon the type of rolling contact.4. The balls are placed inside the gap between the inner and outer race. Ball bearings tend to have lower load capacity for their size than other kinds of rolling-element bearings due to the smaller contact area between the balls and races. However. needle etc.2. Inner race Outer race A rolling element (ball. It achieves this by using at least two races to contain the balls and transmit the loads through the balls. One of the races is held fixed. primarily because of the low cost of producing the balls used in the bearing. roller. the bearing capacity drops quickly compared to either a ball bearing or a spherical roller bearing.Ball Bearing A ball bearing is the type in which the balls are used as a rolling element. Page | 16 . Compared to other bearing types.1.4. they can tolerate some misalignment of the inner and outer races. but a low axial capacity and higher friction under axial loads. Roller bearings have higher radial load capacity than ball bearings. 3. The purpose of a ball bearing is to reduce rotational friction and support radial and axial loads.Roller Bearing A roller bearings use cylinders of slightly greater length than diameter in the gap between outer and inner races. Because the balls are rolling they have a much lower coefficient of friction than if two flat surfaces were rotating on each other. As one of the bearing races rotates it causes the balls to rotate as well. 4. and under heavy loads the tapered roller is like a wedge and bearing loads tend to try to eject the Page | 17 . Thus there is less added clearance (difference between the diameter of the shaft and the diameter of the bearing) so they are much more compact.Needle bearing Needle roller bearings use very long and thin cylinders in the gap between inner and outer races. However. Needle bearing have a large surface area that is in contact with the bearing outer surfaces compared to ball bearings. for example. the outside diameter of the bearing is only slightly larger than the hole in the middle. as the wheel bearings of most cars. and generally can carry higher loads than ball bearings due to greater contact area. Since the rollers are thin. buses. and so on. but tapered roller bearings support both radial and axial loads. 2.4. and thus the bearing fatigues relatively quickly.Ball Bearing Fig 4.Tapered roller bearing Tapered roller bearings use conical rollers that run on conical races. Tapered roller bearings are usually more expensive than ball bearings. the small-diameter rollers must bend sharply where they contact the races.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 Fig 3. Taper roller bearings are used. trucks.4. Radial needle bearings are cylindrical and use rollers parallel to the axis of the shaft. Most roller bearings only take radial loads.Roller Bearing 2.4.3. the force from the collar which keeps the roller in the bearing adds to bearing friction compared to ball bearings.6. Spherical roller bearings can adjust to support misaligned loads and have higher load carrying capacity. However. It is used to support a vertical shaft against gravitational loads.4.4. spherical rollers are difficult to produce and thus expensive.5. It can support larger thrust loads than the ball bearing due to the larger contact area. Fig .Tapered Roller Bearing 2. Spherical.Spherical roller bearings Spherical roller bearings use rollers that are thicker in the middle and thinner at the ends (i. and the bearings have higher friction than a comparable ball bearing since different parts of the spherical rollers run at different speeds on the rounded race and thus there are opposing forces along the bearing/race contact. conical or cylindrical rollers are used as a rolling element in this bearing. but are more expensive to manufacture. Page | 18 .e.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 roller. 2. the spherical shaped roller).Thrust bearing An axial load is supported by thrust bearing.Needle Roller Bearing Fig . Calculate the radial and axial force acting on the bearing and determine the diameter of shaft where the bearing id to be fitted. 4.Thrust Bearing 2.4. the radial and thrust factor. done by trail and error. 2. therefore. Page | 19 . is selected for the given diameter of the shaft and the value of Co is found. Select the type of bearing for the giving application. To begin with a bearing of light series. The value of X and Y for single row deep groove ball bearing are given in the table-3. where Co is static load capacity. Calculate the equivalent dynamic load from the equation- P = X.Fa 5. such as 60.7.Spherical Roller Bearing Fig . The static and dynamic load capacity of single row deep groove ball bearing of different series. 3. (Fa/ Fr) and (Fa/Co). The selection of the bearing is.Fr + Y.Selection Procedure of Bearing The basic procedure for the selection of bearing from the manufacturer‘s catalogue consists of the following steps1. from the catalogue.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 Fig . The values depend upon two ratio. Determine the value of X and Y. Make decision about the expected bearing life and express the life in million revolutions. 56 0.22 0.56 Y 2.500 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.070 0.4.24 0.37 0.56 0.0 e 0.025 0.56 0.8 1.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 TABLE-2: X and Y factor Fa/Co (Fa/ Fr)≤ e X Y 0 0 0 0 0 0 (Fa/ Fr) ≥ e X 0. the bearing load and the bearing life is given by Where. 2.8.130 0.4 1. If not select the bearing of the next series and go back to step 3 and continue.0 1. L= (C/P)ª L= Bearing Life (in million revolution) C= Dynamic load capacity (N) a= 3 (for ball bearing) a= 10/3 (for roller bearing) Page | 20 .2 1.040 0.Life of Bearing The relationship between the dynamic load carrying capacity.56 0.250 0.56 0.6 1.44 Calculate the dynamic load capacity from the equation- L= (C/P)ª Check whether the selected bearing of series 60 has the required Dynamic capacity.27 0.31 0. ) Page | 21 .m. Lh = Bearing Life (in hours) n= Speed of revolution (r.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 The relationship between life in million revolutions and in working hours is given by- L= 60nLh/106 Where.p. 4 ELECTRICAL COMPONENT 89S51 Micro controller Photo Diode Infra-Red Led 7805 ic regulator QUALITY Family member of 8051 5 mm 5 mm 5 volt 10 kΩ 470 Ω QUANTITY 1 2 2 1 3 2 6 1 1 Resistance 270 Ω 1 kΩ Crystal Oscillator Transistor LDR Dynamo LED 12 MHz NPN Type 1 6 volt 1 6 21pf 2 Capacitor Page | 22 .GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 List of Electrical Components TABLE. The dc generator will be discussed later.m. The pole pieces (marked N and S) provide the magnetic field.f. in the loop. 2. generator.1. This principle is explained as follows1. Stator: The stationary part of an alternator. 3.f. dynamo or motor. dynamo or motor.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 3. dynamo or motor. Whenever a conductor is moved within a magnetic field in such a way that the conductor cuts across magnetic lines of flux. Rotor: The rotating part of an alternator. Sliding contacts (brushes) connect the loop to an external circuit load in order to pick up or use the induced e.1. This will produce an induced e. The stator is the stationary part and rotor is the rotating part. voltage is generated in the conductor. 2. 2. generator.Construction of DC Generator The generator has two main parts i. Stator and Rotor. Electrical 1. Armature: The power-producing component of an alternator. The two main parts of a generator can be described in either mechanical or electrical terms: Mechanical 1. These poles are in even number. The pole pieces are shaped and positioned to concentrate the Page | 23 .C. dynamo or motor. Generator A DC generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy by using the principle of magnetic induction.m. generator.e. generator. The armature is present between the magnetic poles. Field: The magnetic field component of an alternator.1.D. An elementary generator consists of a wire loop placed so that it can be rotated in a stationary magnetic field. They rotate with the armature. 6. The generated voltage appears across these brushes. with wires attached to them. The loop of wire that rotates through the field is called the ARMATURE. A magnetic field Pole Shoe Pole piece Armature A commutator Brushes Housing The fig of dc generator is shown as follows- Fig . The brushes. usually made of carbon. ride against the rings. 7. Two collecting brushes (of carbon or copper) press against the slip rings. 4. 3. The ends of the armature loop are connected to rings called SLIP RINGS. The two ends of the coil are joined to two split-rings which are insulated from each other and from the central shaft.Parts of DC generator Page | 24 . 5.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 magnetic field as close as possible to the wire loop. A single-turn rectangular copper coil moving about its axis in a magnetic field provided by either permanent magnets or electromagnets. A DC generator has following basic parts: 1. 2. is always traveling in the same direction.f. Thus. causes a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed. 180o.Working Principle DC generator is based on the principle of production of dynamically induced e.2. and the electrical current generated travels in the opposite direction (as from right to left). the electrical power that is produced constantly changes. The brushes attached to each half of the commutator are arranged so that at the moment the direction of the current in the coil reverses. The current that flows into the external circuit. This results in a steadier current. Commutator is a slip ring that has been cut in half.m. The rotating armature cuts the magnetic flux at an angle 90 o. As the coil continues to rotate.m. B. C and D respectively- Fig . A magnet creates magnetic lines of force on either side of it that moves in opposite directions. a spinning coil in a fixed magnetic field will produce an alternating current.1. This e.f. As the metal coil passes through the magnetic field in a generator. At first. is attached to a metal brush. dynamically induced e. one that travels first in one direction and then in the opposite. therefore.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 3. Each slip ring. with both halves insulated from each other. no current at all is produced. 270o and 0o can be showing by following figure A. The ends of the coil are attached to metal slip rings that collect the electrical current. Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux. it cuts through magnetic lines of force in the opposite direction. is produced in it according to Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction.f (Electromotive Force).m. in turn. which transfers the current to an external circuit. the generated electric current moves in one direction (as from left to right). when the coil reaches a position where it is parallel to the magnetic lines of force. Then.Functioning of Generator Page | 25 . Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices. as well as a typically small amount of RAM.Microcontroller A microcontroller (sometimes abbreviated µC.2. Being packed in a tiny integrated circuit (IC) whose size and weight is usually negligible. power tools. microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more devices and processes. remote controls.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 3. DC compound generatora. A single microcontroller can be sufficient to control a small mobile robot. A micro-controller can be compared to a small stand alone computer. appliances. Short shunt compound generator 3. in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal computers or other general purpose applications. By reducing the size and cost compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor. Any microcontroller contains a memory to Page | 26 . memory. Program memory in the form of NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip.Types of DC generator The DC generator has following types1. implantable medical devices. memory. uC or MCU) is a small computer on a single integrated circuit containing a processor core.1. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common. and input/output devices. DC series generator 3. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications. such as automobile engine control systems. it is becoming the perfect controller for robots or any machines requiring some kind of intelligent automation. integrating analog components needed to control non-digital electronic systems. DC shunt generator 2. it is a very powerful device. office machines. and programmable input/output peripherals. Long shunt compound generator b. toys and other embedded systems. an automatic washer machine or a security system.3. which is capable of executing a series of pre-programmed tasks and interacting with other hardware devices. 1. microcontrollers are so cheap and easily available that it is common to use them instead of simple logic circuits like counters for the sole purpose of gaining some design flexibility and saving some space. without removing the microcontroller from its place. like reading the state of a sensor or controlling a motor. Other microcontrollers may serve performancecritical roles.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 store the program to be executed. a simpler architecture can be represented. because you usually can‘t understand how everything works inside that integrated circuit. which shall be explained in detail along this tutorial. a small part at a time. They will generally have the ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event such as a button press or other interrupt. Nowadays. each one dedicated to a certain task. where they may need to act more like a digital signal processor (DSP). making many of them well suited for long lasting battery applications. microcontrollers are an indispensable tool for the robotics hobbyist as well as for the engineer. until you can figure out the whole image and understand how the system works Some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate at clock rate frequencies as low as 4 kHz. Starting in this field can be a little difficult. for low power consumption (mill watts or microwatts). Some machines and robots will even rely on a multitude of microcontrollers. Page | 27 . The block diagram provided by Atmel™ in their datasheet showing the architecture the 89S52 device can seem very complicated. Note that this part doesn‘t aim to explain the functioning of the different components of a 89S52 microcontroller. The device which we are going to use along this tutorial is the ‗AT89S52‗which is a typical 8051 microcontroller manufactured by Atmel™. 3. but rather to give you a general idea of the organization of the chip and the available features. with higher clock speeds and power consumption. and a number of input/output lines that can be used to interact with other devices. and since we are going to use the C high level language to program it. Most recent microcontrollers are ‗In System Programmable‘.The 8051 micro-controller architecture The 8051 is the name of a big family of microcontrollers. meaning that you can modify the program being executed. power consumption while sleeping (CPU clock and most peripherals off) may be just nano watts. Today. so you have to study the system gradually.2. or to read the state of a sensor. or a switch.8051 micro-controller architecture This figure shows the main features and components that the designer can interact with. performing serial data transfer or connecting the chip to a computer to update the software Page | 28 . Those ports can be used to output DATA and orders do other devices. each one having eight Input/output lines providing a total of 32 I/O lines. Most of the ports of the 89S52 have ‗dual function‘ meaning that they can be used for two different functions: the first one is to perform input/output operations and the second one is used to implement special features of the microcontroller like counting external pulses.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 Fig. You can notice that the 89S52 has four different ports. interrupting the execution of the program according to external events. it is the CPU that will Read the program from the FLASH memory and execute it by interacting with the different peripherals discussed above. while the EEPROM memory is used to store the program itself. It is clear that the CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the heart of the microcontrollers. You can also notice two different memory types: RAM and EEPROM. and will be treated from the software point of view as an 8bit variable called ‗register‘.2.2. RAM is used to store variable during program execution. At this stage of the tutorial. that‘s why it is often referred to as the ‗program memory‘. Those simple tasks can be counting the number of external pulses on a pin. or generating precise timing sequences. Page | 29 . The memory organization will be discussed in detail later. it is just important to note that the 89S52 incorporates hardware circuits that can be used to prevent the processor from executing various repetitive tasks and save processing power for more complex calculations. each bit being connected to a different Input/output pin. Shortly.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 3.Pin Description Each port has eight pins. The special features of the 89S52 microcontroller are grouped in the blue box at the bottom of figure. where the function of each pin is written next to it.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 Fig. except for the VCC and GND pins which I usually note at the top and the bottom of any device.pin diagram of 98s52 microcontroller Figure shows the pin configuration of the 89S52. pins 29 and 30 will be ignored through all the tutorial. Since we are not going to use any external memory. which are the pins number 29. if it exists. and pin 31 (EA) always connected to VCC (5 Volts) to enable the micro-controller to use the internal on chip memory rather than an external one (connecting the pin 31 to ground would indicate to the microcontroller that an external memory is to be used instead of the internal one). The pins are written in the same order as in the block diagram of figure. Page | 30 . except for the pins required to control an external memory. 30 and 31. and. the dual function is written between brackets. Most of the function of the pins of the 89S52 microcontroller will be discussed in detail. 2. As an output port.Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. P0 has internal pull-ups. Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash programming and verification. the pins can be used as high-impedance inputs. 4. Port 2 uses strong internal pull-ups when emitting 1s. In addition.0 and P1. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins. they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. Port 2. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins.0/T2) and the timer/counter 2 trigger input (P1. Port 0 . 5. they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming and outputs the code bytes during program verification. The Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. GND Ground.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 1. The Port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. In this mode. Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external data memory that uses 16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). External pull-ups are required during program verification. Port Pin Alternate Functions P1. each pin can sink eight TTL inputs.Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups.1/T2EX). In this application.Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. Port 1. As inputs.0 T2 (external Page | 31 . Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low-order address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. VCC Supply voltage.1 can be configured to be the timer/counter 2 external count input (P1. 3. P1. as shown in the following table. Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register. During accesses to external data memory that uses 8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI). respectively. When 1s are written to port 0 pins. Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and verification. As inputs. clock-out P1. Note. 8. Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups.6 WR (external data memory write strobe) P3. ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction.2 INT0 (external interrupt 0) P3. they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs.1 T2EX (Timer/Counter 2 capture/reload trigger and direction control) P1.5 MOSI (used for In-System Programming) P1.Program Store Enable (PSEN) is the read strobe to external program memory. With the bit set. The DISRTO bit in SFR AUXR (address 8EH) can be used to disable this feature. the pin is weakly pulled high. As inputs. the RESET HIGH out feature is enabled.Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. In normal operation. Port Pin Alternate Functions P3. 7.Reset input. however. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the device. The Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. 9.4 T0 (timer 0 external input) P3. ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. If desired.3 INT1 (external interrupt 1) P3. Otherwise. Port 3 receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification. ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins.0 RXD (serial input port) P3.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 6.5 T1 (timer 1 external input) P3.6 MISO (used for In-System Programming) P1. This pin drives high for 98 oscillator periods after the Watchdog times out.7 SCK (used for In-System Programming)5 1919D–MICRO–6/08 Port 3 .7 RD (external data memory read strobe)6 1919D– MICRO–6/08 PSEN.1 TXD (serial output port) P3. as shown in the fol-lowing table. count input to Timer/Counter 2). Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution mode. RST . This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming. When the AT89S52 is executing code from external program Page | 32 . In the default state of bit DISRTO.Address Latch Enable (ALE) is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during accesses to external memory. Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89S52. ALE/PROG . that one ALE pulse is skipped dur-ing each access to external data memory. Note. The EEPROM term stands for Electronically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory. capable of storing values ranging from 0 to 255. it has basically the same purpose of the RAM in a desktop computer.Ashows a typical 8-bit registers. also called FLASH memory is a more elaborated ROM (Read Only Memory) which is the memory where the program being executed is stored.External Access Enable. memory is organized in Registers. most registers are 8-bit register.Data Register Page | 33 .3-Memory organization A RAM stands for Random Access Memory.Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier. Fig. 3.3. While an EEPROM. Figure 1. In microcontrollers.2.XTAL2 . Even if that‘s not exactly true. PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle. like in any digital system. This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming. except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data memory. that if lock bit 1 is programmed. where the notation D0 to D7 stands for the 8 DATA bits of the register. you can compare an EEPROM to the Hard-Disk of a desktop computer from a general point of view.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 memory.XTAL 1. In the 8051 family of microcontrollers for example.EA/VPP . EA will be internally latched on reset. 10.Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit. various register can be used simultaneously. EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. 12. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. In order to use bigger values. 11. which is to store some data required during the execution time of different programs. Which is the basic unit of construction of a memory. however. Each register is composed of a number of bits (usually eight) where the data can be stored. the RAM memory of the 89S52. For example. 00 corresponds to the first location and FF which is equal to 256 corresponds to the last location. which contains 256 registers. this part will be totally handled by the compiler.memory organization of the 256 registers A programmer that would use the assembly language. but since we will use the C language using the KEIL IDE (integrated development environment). MCS-51 devices have a separate address space for Program and Data Memory. Page | 34 . Up to 64K bytes each of external Program and Data Memory can be addressed. as writing general purpose data into special function registers could prevent the microcontroller from working correctly.B shows the memory organization of the 256 registers of the RAM of the 89S52 microcontroller. SFRs can be used to control Input/output lines. In a memory each register has a specific address which is used by the processor to read and write from specific memory location. or to configure one of the on-chip counters and timers.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 As you shall see. is divided into to main parts. the GPR part. The address is noted in Hexadecimal format as this notation simplifies digital logic calculations for the designers. and the SFR part.3. to retrieve data transmitted through the serial port of a desktop computer. Figure . SFRs (Special function Register) are registers used to control the functioning of the microcontroller and to assist the processor through the various operations being executed. Figure 1. GPR stands for ‗General Purpose Register‘ and are the registers that you can use to store any data during the execution of your program. have to take this memory organization into consideration while choosing the locations where his variables are stored. In that case.5. since they may be used in future products to invoke new features. program fetches to addresses 0000H through 1FFFH are directed to internal memory and fetches to addresses 2000H through FFFFH are to external memory. all program fetches are directed to external memory.Other microcontroller features Microcontrollers usually contain from several to dozens of general purpose input/output pins (GPIO). 3.2.2. 3. GPIO pins can drive external devices such as LEDs or motors. Note that not all of the addresses are occupied. When GPIO pins are configured to an input state. On the AT89S52. the address mode used in the instruction specifies whether the CPU accesses the upper 128 bytes of RAM or the SFR space. The upper 128 bytes occupy a parallel address space to the Special Function Registers. Instructions which use direct addressing access the SFR space. and write accesses will have an indeterminate effect. This means that the upper 128 bytes have the same addresses as the SFR space but are physically separate from SFR space. Page | 35 .Data Memory The AT89S52 implements 256 bytes of on-chip RAM. GPIO pins are software configurable to either an input or an output state.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 3.2.Special Function Registers A map of the on-chip memory area called the Special Function Register (SFR) space is shown in Table 5-1.2.4.2. User software should not write 1s to these unlisted locations.Program Memory If the EA pin is connected to GND. if EA is connected to VCC. 3. they are often used to read sensors or external signals. Configured to the output state. the reset or inactive values of the new bits will always be 0. Read accesses to these addresses will in general return random data. and unoccupied addresses may not be implemented on the chip.3.3.1. When an instruction accesses an internal location above address 7FH. it sends an interrupt to the processor indicating that it has finished counting.2. Since processors are built to interpret and process digital data. the heater on. etc. 3. 1s and 0s.e. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. In addition to the converters. motors. i. The device is manufactured using Atmel‘s high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard 80C51 instruction set and pin out. resistive loads. A PIT may either count down from some value to zero. The AT89S52 provides the following standard Page | 36 . By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable Flash on a monolithic chip.6. A less common feature on some microcontrollers is a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) that allows the processor to output analog signals or voltage levels.. without using lots of CPU resources in tight timer loops. Dedicated on-chip hardware also often includes capabilities to communicate with other devices (chips) in digital formats such as I²C and Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI). So the analog to digital converter is used to convert the incoming data into a form that the processor can recognize.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 Many embedded systems need to read sensors that produce analog signals. the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful microcontroller which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications. This is useful for devices such as thermostats. One of the most common types of timers is the Programmable Interval Timer (PIT). Once it reaches zero. This is the purpose of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC). A dedicated Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) block makes it possible for the CPU to control power converters. overflowing to zero.Description The AT89S52 is a low-power. Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART) block makes it possible to receive and transmit data over a serial line with very little load on the CPU. or up to the capacity of the count register. etc. many embedded microprocessors include a variety of timers as well. they are not able to do anything with the analog signals that may be sent to it by a device. high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory. which periodically test the temperature around them to see if they need to turn the air conditioner on. and interrupt system to continue functioning. 3. Watchdog timer. In addition. Note that although CdS is a semiconductor. thereby lowering resistance." which is the material from which the device is made and that actually exhibits the variation in resistance with light level. timer/counters. It can also be referred to as a photoconductor or CdS device. from "cadmium sulfide. Extrinsic devices have impurities. An intrinsic semiconductor has its own charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor. A photo resistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. silicon. Page | 37 . also called do pants. serial port. there will be extra electrons available for conduction. it is not doped silicon. two data pointers.e. three 16-bit timer/counters. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM. it exhibits photoconductivity. and hence the photon must have enough energy to excite the electron across the entire band gap.. The resulting free electron (and its hole partner) conduct electricity. and clock circuitry. If a sample of silicon has some of its atoms replaced by phosphorus atoms (impurities). a full duplex serial port. added whose ground state energy is closer to the conduction band.g.3-LDR A photo resistor or light dependent resistor (LDR) is a resistor whose resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 features: 8K bytes of Flash. the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt or hardware reset. The Power-down mode saves the RAM con-tents but freezes the oscillator. in other words. photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. since the electrons do not have as far to jump. In intrinsic devices the only available electrons are in the valence band. a six-vector two-level interrupt architecture. Photo resistors are basically photocells. This is an example of an extrinsic semiconductor. longer wavelengths and lower frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. lower energy photons (i. on-chip oscillator. e. 256 bytes of RAM. If light falling on the device is of high enough frequency. 32 I/O lines. general lighting.[early LEDs emitted lowintensity red light. electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device. and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern. and sensors to be developed. automotive lighting. Introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962. with very high brightness. video displays. When a light-emitting diode is forward-biased (switched on). ultraviolet. LEDs are often small in area (less than 1 mm2). smaller size. advertising. LEDs have allowed new text. longer lifetime. Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting.4 . and infrared wavelengths.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 Fig. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. improved robustness. LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption. and traffic signals.LED A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. but modern versions are available across the visible. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting.light dependent resistor (LDR) and Symbol 3. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. releasing energy in the form of photons. Infrared Page | 38 . and faster switching. while their high switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology. DVD players. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz wristwatches).GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many commercial products including televisions. More than two billion (2×109) crystals are manufactured annually. and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal. to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits. so oscillator circuits designed around them became known as "crystal oscillators.5.Crystal Oscillator A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very precise frequency. Page | 39 . Fig – LED 3. and other domestic appliances." Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to tens of megahertz. are typically cut in the shape of a tuning fork.Operation A crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms. When a crystal of quartz is properly cut and mounted. or ions are packed in a regularly ordered. 3. and this can generate a voltage. it can be made to distort in an electric field by applying a voltage to an electrode near or on the crystal. radios. Page | 40 . either. When the field is removed. elasticity. since all objects have natural resonant frequencies of vibration. the quartz will generate an electric field as it returns to its previous shape. Almost any object made of an elastic material could be used like a crystal. and can also be mounted on shock absorbers to prevent perturbation by external mechanical vibrations. This means that a quartz clock. The specific characteristics will depend on the mode of vibration and the angle at which the quartz is cut (relative to its crystallographic axes). and cell phones. For critical applications the quartz oscillator is mounted in a temperature-controlled container. shape. Quartz crystals are also found inside test and measurement equipment.) Quartz has the further advantage that its elastic constants and its size change in such a way that the frequency dependence on temperature can be very low. with appropriate transducers.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 Most are used for consumer devices such as wristwatches.1. This property is known as piezoelectricity. clocks.5. filter or oscillator will remain accurate. such as those used in digital watches. repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions. steel is very elastic and has a high speed of sound. rectangular plate.[8] Therefore. Low-frequency crystals. High-frequency crystals are typically cut in the shape of a simple. will not change much. For example. The resonant frequency depends on size. capacitor and resistor. a low-cost ceramic resonator is often used in place of a quartz crystal. signal generators. and oscilloscopes. computers. (See RLC circuit. molecules. with a precise resonant frequency. The result is that a quartz crystal behaves like a circuit composed of an inductor. which depends on its size. such as counters. For applications not needing very precise timing. called a crystal oven. and the speed of sound in the material. the resonant frequency of the plate. It was often used in mechanical filters before quartz. 17. divided by three. 20 MHz.734475 MHz values are used in PAL color television equipment and devices intended to produce PAL signals.Commonly used crystal frequencies Crystal oscillator circuits are often designed around relatively few standard frequencies. such as 3.2.579545 MHz) is used in computer video displays to generate a bitmapped video display for NTSC color monitors. 10 MHz.5.433619 MHz and 17. circuit diagram & symbol 3.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 Fig – Crystal oscillator. and 40 MHz.33 MHz. frequency multipliers and phase locked loop circuits.318182 MHz.318182 MHz. using one crystal for two purposes. as its 4.579545 MHz crystals is due to low cost since they are used for NTSC color television receivers. Many applications call for a crystal oscillator frequency conveniently related to some other desired frequency. 33. Crystals can be manufactured for oscillation over a wide range of frequencies. it is practical to derive a wide range of frequencies from one reference frequency. (The IBM PC used 14.579545 MHz. so hundreds of standard crystal frequencies are made in large quantities and stocked by electronics distributors.77 MHz clock source. from a few kilohertz up to several hundred megahertz.433619 MHz.) The 4. Page | 41 . such as the CGA used with the original IBM PC.734475 MHz. 4. 14. 14.318182 MHz (four times 3. Using frequency dividers. The popularity of the 3. the 555 is still in widespread use. As of 2003. Introduced in 1971 by Signe tics. and as a flip-flop element. and the output circuit can source or sink up to 200mA or drive TTL circuits. the time is precisely controlled by one external resistor and capacitor. thanks to its ease of use. In the time delay mode of operation. and is now made by many companies in the original bipolar and also in low-power CMOS types.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 3. The circuit may be triggered and reset on falling waveforms. the free running frequency and duty cycle are accurately controlled with two external resistors and one capacitor.6. The LM 555 a highly stable device for generating accurate time delays or oscillation. as an oscillator. low price and good stability. Derivatives provide up to four timing circuits in one package. Additional terminals are provided for triggering or resetting if desired. The 555 can be used to provide time delays. and oscillator applications.LM555 IC timer Page | 42 . Fig. pulse generation. it was estimated that 1 billion units are manufactured every year.555ic timer The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer. For astable operation as an oscillator. GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 Fig-internal architecture of LM555 IC timer 3. By design. Bipolar transistors are so named because their operation involves both electrons and holes. in which only one carrier type is involved in charge flow due to drift. most of the BJT collector current is due to the flow of charges injected from a Page | 43 .TRANSISTOR A bipolar (junction) transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal electronic device constructed of doped semiconductor material and may be used in amplifying or switching applications. such as field-effect transistors.7. This mode of operation is contrasted with unipolar transistors. Charge flow in a BJT is due to bidirectional diffusion of charge carriers across a junction between two regions of different charge concentrations. The thin shared base and asymmetric collector–emitter doping is what differentiates a bipolar transistor from two separate and oppositely biased diodes connected in series. and so BJTs are classified as minority-carrier devices. but electrons that diffuse through the base towards the collector are swept into the collector by the electric field in the depletion region of the collector–base junction. the equilibrium between thermally generated carriers and the repelling electric field of the depletion region becomes unbalanced. for example. To minimize the percentage of carriers that recombine before reaching the collector– base junction. when a positive voltage is applied to the base–emitter junction. In an NPN transistor. the transistor's base region must be thin enough that carriers can diffuse across it in much less time than the semiconductor's minority carrier lifetime. and so little electron injection occurs from the collector to the base. allowing thermally excited electrons to inject into the base region. In typical operation. the thickness of the base must be much less than the diffusion length of the electrons. Page | 44 . the base-emitter junction is forward biased and the base–collector junction is reverse biased.transistor and symbol (a) npn (b) pnp An NPN transistor can be considered as two diodes with a shared anode.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 high-concentration emitter into the base where there are minority carriers that diffuse toward the collector. The collector–base junction is reverse-biased. The electrons in the base are called minority carriers because the base is doped p-type which would make holes the majority carrier in the base. These electrons wander (or "diffuse") through the base from the region of high concentration near the emitter towards the region of low concentration near the collector. In particular. Fig. It may use an electromechanical mechanism. The 7805 is a VOLTAGE REGULATOR.8. It looks like a transistor but it is actually an integrated circuit with 3 legs. It can take a higher.5 to . Depending on the design. Turn it into a nice. You need to feed it at least 8 volts and no more than 30 volts to do this. Page | 45 . It can handle around . Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such as computer power supplies where they stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements. voltage regulators control the output of the plant.Mechanism of Transistor 3.Voltage Regulator A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. crappy DC voltage and Use it to power circuits than need to use or run off of 5 volts. In an electric power distribution system. it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages. In automobile alternators and central power station generator plants. Use a heat sink.75 amps. smooth 5 volts DC.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 Fig. A voltage regulator may be a simple "feed-forward" design or may include negative feedback control loops. Run off of 5 volts. but it gets hot. voltage regulators may be installed at a substation or along distribution lines so that all customers receive steady voltage independent of how much power is drawn from the line. or electronic components. GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 Fig. This relation is represented by Ohm's law: Page | 46 . The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistor's terminals. Thus.RESISTOR A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. the ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the intensity of current through the circuit is called resistance.9.Schematic diagram 7805 voltage regulator 3. In a high-voltage circuit. independent of the current. A family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form factor. More specifically. and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms. Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits. Page | 47 . Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. according to its specific application. the size of the device and the position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits using them. excess noise. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power electronics applications. The unwanted inductance. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films. such as nickel-chrome). and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications. particularly analog devices. these specifications can be important in high-frequency applications. the required precision of the resistance may require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp. The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. When specifying that resistance in an electronic design. the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 Where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes. as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy. attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may require heat sinks. that is. Practical resistors have a series inductance and a small parallel capacitance. V is the potential difference measured across the conductor in units of volts. Ohm's law states that the R in this relation is constant. Color Coding of Resistor Page | 48 .Resistor 3.1.9.Color Coding Fig.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 Fig. GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 3. When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors. capacitance. but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). in filter networks. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. in electric power transmission systems for stabilizing voltage and power flow. for example. for smoothing the output of power supplies.10. hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates. measured in farads. the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit.CAPACITOR A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy in an electric field. one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass. while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance. in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies." referring to an early means of construction. In practice. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate. resulting in a breakdown voltage. and for many other purposes. The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor. a static electric field develops across the dielectric. Fig-capacitor symbol Page | 49 . An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value. defined as the ratio of charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically. In this case. causing its capacitance to vary.internal and external structure of capacitor Page | 50 .GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes: Fig. An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C. 5 pF.5% F 500 — — Green −55 °C to +150 6 — — — — — Blue °C 7 — — — — — — Violet 8 — — — — — — Grey 9 — — — — — EIA White — — ±5%* — 1000 — — Gold — — ±10% — — — — Silver *Or ±0.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 3. Fig-Types of Capacitor Page | 51 . whichever is greater.Color Coding of Capacitor Significant Capacitance DC working Operating Colour Multiplier Characteristic EIA/vibration digits tolerance voltage temperature 0 1 ±20% — — −55 °C to +70 °C10 to 55 Hz Black 1 10 ±1% B 100 — — Brown 2 100 ±2% C — −55 °C to +85 °C — Red 3 1000 — D 300 — — Orange −55 °C to +125 4 10000 — E — 10 to 2000 Hz Yellow °C 5 — ±0.1.10. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region. Many diodes designed for use specifically as a photodiode use a PIN junction rather than a p-n junction.11. Fig.[1] The common. This photocurrent is the sum of both the dark current (without light) and the light current.Photodiode and its Circuit diagram Page | 52 . Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be either exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a window or optical fiber connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device. traditional solar cell used to generate electric solar power is a large area photodiode. so the dark current must be minimized to enhance the sensitivity of the device. This mechanism is also known as the inner photoelectric effect. and electrons toward the cathode. and a photocurrent is produced.Photodiode A photodiode is a type of photo detector capable of converting light into either current or voltage. these carriers are swept from the junction by the builtin field of the depletion region. thereby creating a free electron (and a positively charged electron hole). to increase the speed of response. When a photon of sufficient energy strikes the diode.Principle of operation A photodiode is a p-n junction or PIN structure. 3. depending upon the mode of operation.11.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 3. Thus holes move toward the anode. A photodiode is designed to operate in reverse bias. it excites an electron.1. or one diffusion length away from it. the PCB is kept in clean water for about half an hour in order to get PCB away from acidic field.12. 3.12. It avoids the disconnection between the leg of the component and circuit tracks.SOLDERING Soldering is the process of joining two metallic conductors the joint where two metal conductor are to be jointed or fused is heated with a device called soldering iron and then as allow of tin and lead called solder is applied which melts and converse the joint. Then PCB is checked as per the layout. We have to apply the paints surrounding the point at which the connection is to be made. After the PCB has been thoroughly washed. From this process the copper clad board with printed circuit is placed in the solution of FeCl with 3-4 drops of HCL in it and is kept so for about 10 to 15 minutes and is taken out when all the excess copper is removed from the PCB.GENERAL PURPOSE PCB First of all the actual size circuit layout is to be drawn on the copper side of the copper clad board. After completion of painting work. paint is removed by soft piece of cloth dipped in thinner or turbine. it is allowed to dry.2.1-DRILLING After completion of painting work.SOLDERING & DESOLDERING TECHNIQUES There are basically two soldering techniques: Page | 53 .4.12. holes of 1/23 inch (1mm) diameter are drilled at desired points where we have to fix the components. which may cause poor performance of the circuit.12. Then enamel paint is applied on the tracks of connection with the help of a shade brush.ETCHING The removal of excess of copper on the plate apart from the printed circuit is known as etching. The solder cools and solidifies quickly to ensure is good and durable connection between the jointed metal converting the joint solder also present oxidation. 3. After etching. 3.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 3. now the PCB is ready for use.12.3. 3. 2. To remove surplus solder from joints. 3. 3. Allow heat flow between component. iron is removed & the joint is cold without disturbing. Mass soldering. The following precaution should be taken while soldering: 1. It may erode after long term use to avoid it coating of nickel or tin is used. 2. Soldering bit is made of copper because it has good heat capacity & thermal conductivity. joining elements & PCB. 2.4. The solder in form of wire is allied hear the component to be soldered & b heated with iron. 4.SOLDERING WITH IRON The surface to be soldering must be cleaned & fluxed. 4. Stare host & convey it to the component 2. Make a robust mechanical link between PCB & leads of components. Provide permanent low resistance path. Retain adequate strength with temperature variation. 3. Solder joint are supposed to: 1. The surface to be soldered is filled. The tip screw if necessary before iron is connected to power supply. The iron consists of an insulated handle connected via a metal shank to the bit the function of bit is to: 1. Clean component lead & copper pad before soldering. PCB pattern & tip of soldering iron. Use proper tool for component handling instead of direct handling.12.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 1. Apply solder between component leads. Manual soldering with iron. Page | 54 . To store and deliver molten solder 7 flux 3. The soldering iron switched on & bellowed to attain soldering temperature. Use optimum quantity of solder. 9. Analogue Multi Meter 2. Use multi Use always an iron plate copper core tip for soldering iron.Every time soldering is over.13. There are two categories of multi meters1.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 5. Iron should be kept in contact with the joints for 2-3 seconds only instead of keeping for very long or very small time. power supplies. the accuracy of printing of scales. They can be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices such as batteries.Tighten storied wire instead of single strands solvent like isopropyl alcohol. Slightly for the tip with a cut file when it is cold. 8. Use a wet sponge to wipe out dirt from the tip before soldering instead of asking the iron. Accuracy of readings obtained are compromised by miscounting division markings. motor controls. parallax observation errors. 3. also known as a volt/ohm meter or VOM. Digital Multi Meter A multi meter is a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work or a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several functions in one unit. A standard multi meter may include features such as the ability to measure voltage. zero calibration. 11. Mirrored scales and larger meter movements are used to improve resolution. and wiring systems.13-Multimeter A multi meter or a multi tester. 6. errors in mental arithmetic.1-Analog Multi meter Resolution of analog Multi Meter is limited by the width of the scale pointer. number of ranges. 10. and less than perfect eyesight. Page | 55 . put a little clean solder on the tip. appliances. 7. two and a half to three digits equivalent resolution is usual (and may be adequate for the limited precision actually necessary for most measurements). and errors due to non-horizontal use of the mechanical display. vibration of the pointer. 3. current and resistance. and traceability of the calibration of the instrument.Analog and Digital Multi meter Page | 56 .13. The figure of both multi meters is shown as follows- Fig.999. Meaningful high-resolution measurements require a good understanding of the instrument specifications. Such a meter could show positive or negative values from 0 to 199. good control of the measurement conditions. The Digital Multi Meter is presented in four series of Flash Presentations. These are designed to understand the functions and settings needed for taking different measurements of a circuit.2-Digital Multi meter The digital multi meter is the type of multi meter which shows the output values in the digital form. A digital display can easily be extended in precision.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 3. the extra digits are of no value if not accompanied by care in the design and calibration of the analog portions of the multi meter. These are used to measuring the current and voltage. Commutator is placed at the armature shaft. The gear box is placed between the both shafts. For the base. The one end of the wires is connected at the brushes and other with the load (i. The one end of the shaft is coupled with rotor shaft of a DC generator. Now the shaft of 12 mm diameter is taken. the high carbon steel. This surface makes the contact with the tires of moving vehicles. Then cylindrical roller with shaft and bearing is then assembled within the peak (cut section) of the breaker. The roller should be fixed in such a way that the top surface of the roller should be above the peak of breaker. This results in a steadier current. 3. is always traveling in the same direction. The brushes attached to each half of the commutator are arranged so that at the moment the direction of the current in the coil reverses. The cylindrical roller is mounted on the bearings. This taper part will then fixed on the base.5 inches. The angle of the taper with the base is kept 25o. This electricity is alternating in nature. 2. 5. cutting the wooden sheet as per dimensions.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 Assembly Of The Components The mechanical and electrical components of the project can be assembled together to achieve the desired objective.e. This gear box transfers rotations to generator shaft. Page | 57 . The peak of the taper part is cut to fix the roller cylinder at that place. On the both ends of the shaft. Thus the power from the generator is supplied to the LED Light. fixing the roller bearing. electricity will generate. Commutator is a slip ring that has been cut in half. Thus due to rotation of generator armature. the plywood is cut in the length of 59 inches and width of 35. with both halves insulated from each other. high speed steel blades or other cutting machine is used.2 inch diameter is fixing at the peak. The shaft is fixed in the inner race of the bearing. The current that flows into the external circuit. The assembling of various components have been done as per the following points1. The cylinder having 12 inch length and 6. therefore. the taper part (speed breaker shape) is made. First. 4. they slip from one half of the commutator to the other. For cutting the roller. After selecting the base. LED Light). The cylindrical roller has a transmission shaft.m. The rotation of the transmission shaft is transferred to armature shaft. The working of the assembly can be easily understood as the following way. The functioning can be shown by following figure- Page | 58 . electricity).e. When the weighted vehicle having kinetic energy. Thus a spinning coil in a fixed magnetic field will produce an alternating current. is always traveling in the same direction. came upon the roller surface and passing it. the roller starts to rotate in the same direction as the wheel of the vehicle. between the magnetic poles. This gives the prime rotation to the cylindrical roller. This energy is utilized by the speed breaker. The brushes attached to each half of the commutator are arranged so that at the moment the direction of the current in the coil reverses. There is magnetic field between the poles. The current that flows into the external circuit. one that travels first in one direction and then in the opposite. There is a large amount of the kinetic energy in a vehicle when it is in motion. The one end of transmission shaft is coupled with the armature shaft of the dynamo by compound gear train. Now the armature rotates at a rated r.p. The small part of cylindrical roller is kept above the surface of the road.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 Working Of The Assembly The basic concept is based upon the transformation of the mechanical energy (kinetic energy) of the moving vehicle into the electrical energy (i. therefore. Current Generation Process This current is stored in the battery bank. Page | 59 .GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 Fig 25. These batteries can be used for either directly at the place where the electricity is generated or other places easily. 98 kilowatt power. Thus for running of these applications. So one such speed-breaker on a busy highway. Stored electricity can be used for other purposes. about one kilo watt of electricity can be produced every single minute. There are many applications and devices which are necessary for the human being in daily life. Page | 60 . They are using widely for energy production.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 Conclusion The non-renewable resources like coal. the energy is necessary for the various applications. Hence causes to generate electricity. 4. They have kinetic energy. natural gas are limited in nature. ―A vehicle weighing 1. So the option of the non-renewable resources is necessary. 6. Convert the totally waste energy in some useful work. This energy can be stored in battery bank and used for further use. For government economic consideration. natural oil. This energy can be utilized to give the additional rotation to the dynamo. Their kinetic energy is used to generate the electricity. where about 100 vehicles pass every minute. The government works to save these resources.000 kg going up a height of 10 cm on such a rumble strip produces approximately 0. So we need to have a mechanism that could able to utilize the energy of the vehicles. The figure will be huge at the end of the day‖. The rate of consumption is quite higher. Saving the other energy resources. Now in the daily life. It means all the generated energy due to such vehicles is going to waste. 5. there are lots of vehicles running on the roads. 2. But during the braking all kinetic energy is lost. 3. Operating cost is less. The major advantages of this project as given below:1. But in the future. Thus after some time they will remove from the earth. the energy is required in future. Generation of electricity at low cost. They are the part of the life. They consume lot of energy for their working. GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 On the basis of above discussion and advantages of this project. we can conclude that. it is very necessary for the future use for electricity production at low cost and from totally wastage energy. Page | 61 . GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 Future Scope The future scope of this project is for street lighting and road applications which consume the electricity. 3. For home appliances For street lighting For signal lighting For small industry applications For other application on the roads like loud speaker. of vehicles increases as the days goes on increasing. Page | 62 . This is a non conventional energy resource. This will help the government for economic purpose and give the way to utilize their energy for other purposes. direction indicator etc. The street lighting is flashes by batteries. the battery charged and at night it will use for lighting. signal light. During the day period. of vehicle passing through the road will cause of large amount of energy generated. That will eliminate and the government‘s electricity can be saved. The no. 2. The government provides the electricity for lighting purpose. 4. road indicator. Thus it is an efficient and effective way to generate the electricity in the future at minimum cost. Higher no. 5. The various application of this project in future are listed below1. 9. 7. It can generate electricity in forward as well as in reverse direction. Light in weight. Operating cost is less. Saving the other energy resources. 3. 2. Generation of electricity at low cost. Stored electricity can be used for other purposes. 8.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 FEATURES OF THE PROJECT There major features of this project as given below:1. 5. Page | 63 . 6. 4. Convert the totally waste energy in some useful work. For government economic consideration. It can also work in night as we have provided a storage battery. B. 4. Thareja Page | 64 .com http://www.com http://www.eia.google.physlink. 2. http://www. Bansal V. Electrical Engineering Dr. Design of Machine elements C. Theory of Machines B.doe.GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY USING SPEED BREAKER 2012 BIBLIOGRAPHY Websites:1. 6.gov Books:A. 5. 3. Bhandari B.en.org http://www.com http://www.woodshell.wikipedia.youtube.K.com http://www.L. R.
Comments
Report "Generation of Electricity Using Speed Breaker"