GENERAL SCIENCEThis Chapter is taken from our: ISBN : 978-9386146991 Physics Physics is the branch of science which deals with the study of matter, energy, and the interaction between them. • A scalar is a physical quantity that has only a magnitude (size) E.g. : Distance, speed, time, power, energy, etc. • A vector is a physical quantity that has both a magnitude and a direction. E.g. Velocity, displacement, acceleration, force etc. Some physical quantities like moment of inertia, stress, etc. are neither scalar nor vector. They are tensor. Seven Fundamental Physical Quantities and their Units Physical Quantity SI Unit Symbol Length meter m Time Electric Current Temperature Luminous intensity Amount of substance second ampere kelvin candela mole S A K Cd mol Mass Kg kilogram Some Derived Physical Quantities and their Units S. No 1. 2. Physical Quantity Force Work cgs unit dyne erg NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION • First law of Motion - An object at rest will remain at rest or in uniform motion remains in uniform motion unless acted on by an external unbalanced force. This law is often called the law of inertia. i.e., resistance to change. • Second law of Motion - The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the unbalanced external force applied on it. • Third law of Motion - For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. CIRCULAR MOTION • Motion of a body along a circular path is called circular motion. • Centripetal force - while a body is moving along a circular path an external force required to act radially inward. A pseudo force that is equal and opposite SI unit newton joule Relation 1 newton = 105 dyne 1 joule = 107 erg to the centripetal force is called centrifugal force. Cream separator, centrifugal dryer, etc, work on the principle of centrifugal force. FRICTION Friction is a force that is created whenever two surfaces move or try to move across each other. Friction always opposes the motion or attempted motion of one surface across another surface. Instances where friction is important Walking , Driving ,Picking something up, Car brakes, WORK, ENERGY & POWERS Work • Work refers to an activity involving a force and movement in the direction of the force. • The SI unit of work is the joule (J), SATELLITES • A satellite is a smaller object in space which orbits around a larger object Planet in space. • The energy associated with position is called potential energy (U). W = mg • gmaximum at poles and gminimum at equator. Electrical Energy into Sound Energy. • Escape speed (ve) is the minimum speed with which an object just crosses the earth’s gravitational field and never comes back. • Energy cannot be created or destroyed. there is an apparent loss in the weight of . One horse power = 746 watt. Its unit is N/m2. Solar energy into electrical energy. Solar Cell– Power • • • • Mechanical Energy into Electrical Energy. the gravitational attraction between the planets and the sun holds the planets in elliptical orbits around the sun. depth from the earth’s surface. It can only be transferred to other objects or converted into different forms. Power is the rate of doing work. kinetic. • It is difficult to breath on higher altitude due to less amount of air. • The energy associated with motion is called kinetic energy (K). Electrical Energy into Light and Heat Energy. • Rubber is less elastic than steel. • Atmospheric pressure is measured by • Sudden fall in barometric reading is the indication of storm. gravity gives weight to physical objects employing a downward force to keep them grounded. • Water starts to boil below 100°C. chemical. And if the body retains its deformed shape after the removal of deforming force is called plasticity. Archimedes’ Principle : When a body is immersed partly or wholly in a liquid. like our Moon. Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude. • Slow rise in the barometric reading is the indication of clear weather. Loud Speaker. This is Law of Conservation of energy. • It may exist in potential. like the communication or weather satellites that orbit the Earth. Conversion of Energy Dynamo- Electric Motor- Microphone.2 kilometres per second and on moon it is 2.4 km/sec. It is a scalar quantity. • g decreases due to rotation of earth. Electric Bulb. or they can be natural. placed at an altitude of approximately 35. • The SI unit of energy is joule. 1 • gmoon = g 6 earth • The value of ‘g’ decreases with altitude. Sound Energy into Electrical Energy. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS AND FLUIDS • Elasticity and plasticity: The property by virtue of which the body regains its original shape after the removal of deforming force is called elasticity. • On Earth. • The fountain pen of a passenger leaks in aeroplane. electrical. or other various forms. • According to Newton’s theory. • Slow fall in barometric reading is the indication of rain.3 Energy Capacity of doing work is called energy. • A geostationary satellite is an earthorbiting satellite. nuclear. • The weight (w) of an object is equal to the mass of the object multiplied by the acceleration due to gravity(g).800 kilometres (22. GRAVITATION • Gravitation is a natural phenomenon by which all physical bodies attract each other. • The force of gravity depends upon the object’s mass or the amount of matter in the object. Power = Work / time The SI unit of power is joule/second. • It is difficult to cook on the mountain.300 miles) directly over the equator. • Bleeding occurs from the nose of the man. • The escape velocity of Earth is about 11. thermal. • Pressure is defined as force acting normally on an unit area of the surface. • It can be either artificial. Electrical Energy into Mechanical Energy. • At –40° temperature. such as electrons and protons create electromagnetic fields when they move. Whereas water displaced by the immersed portion of a ship is equal to its weight. Radiation: has the following properties: (a) Radiant energy travels in straight lines and when some object is placed in the path. Iodine (dark solid). (b) It is reflected and refracted or can be made to interfere.2 joule • It always flows from a substance at a higher temperature to the substance at a lower temperature.In it the vibrations of particles are parallel to the direction of travel of wave. Specific Heat • The amount of heat that is required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one degree (14. • Echo: The repetition of sound due to reflection of sound waves. its shadow is formed at the detector. • Transverse wave. WAVES • A wave is a kind of oscillation (disturbance) that travels through space and matter. liquid or plasma. • Temperature is measured by thermometer. • Mechanical waves are caused by a disturbance or vibration in matter. whether solid. It has compressions and rarefactions. • Wave motions transfer energy. but large ship float. Sublimation : It is the process of conversion of a solid directly into vapour. Dry ice (solid CO2).6°F.g. Hoar Frost: It is just the reverse process of sublimation. Anatomy of an Electromagnetic Wave • Charged particles. which is equal to the weight of liquid displaced by the body. So. Convection: It requires a medium and is the process in which heat is transferred from one place to other by actual movement of heated substance (usually molecule of fluid). . • Waves in water and sound waves in air are two examples of mechanical waves. Conduction: It is that mode of transmission of heat in solid where heat is transferred from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature by the aid of particles of the body without their actual migration. It has crests and troughs.In it the vibrations of particles are perpendicular ⊥ to the direction of travel of the wave. • All objects placed in a liquid experience an upward force called the buoyant force and the law is called the law of buoyancy. • Sonar: It stands for sound navigation and ranging. etc.4 the body. It is used to measure the depth of a sea to locate the enemy submarines and shipwrecks. • 1 cal = 4.. Latent Heat • The amount of heat required to change phase (liquid to gas or liquid to solid etc.) without change in temperature is called latent heat. and these fields transport the type of energy we call electromagnetic radiation. not matter from one place to another. Relation between Temperature on different scales. Temperature : It indicates the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. eg. or light. C F − 32 R K − 273 Ra − 492 = = = = 5 9 4 5 9 • The normal temperature of a human body is 37°C or 98. is called an echo.5°C) is known as Specific heat. °C or °F. • Longitudinal wave:.5°C to 15. • Density of water is maximum at 4°C. • Mechanical waves and electro-magnetic waves are two important ways through which energy is transported in the world around us. (c) It can travel through vacuum. • The weight of water displaced by an iron ball is less than its own weight. small ball of iron ball sink in water. gas. HEAT • Heat is a form of energy which causes sensation of hotness or coldness. • Temperature measuring units are Kelvin. Its unit is joule or calorie. Frost and snowflakes. celsius and fahrenheit thermometers read the same. e. inverted . • Pitch is the property of sound that we perceive as higher and lower tones. wood. translucent and opaque matter Matter Nature Example Transparent It allows most of light to pass through. • Sound waves cannot travel in the vacuum because there is no medium to transmit these mechanical waves.Nature of image parison to object At focus Highly diminished Concave mirror At infinity Real. have no mass. X-rays etc. and liquids as longitudinal waves.28 second. also called compression waves. etc Opaque It does not allow the incident light to pass through. radio waves. Reflection of light Reflection by Plane Mirror The image formed by the plane mirror is always erect. • Infrared radiation is emission of energy as electromagnetic waves in the portion of the spectrum just beyond the limit of the red portion of visible radiation. mirror. 499 seconds). etc. metal. water.e. shorter than that of visible light but longer than X-rays. • When temperature is increased the speed of sound is increased. • The light reflected from moon reaches to earth in 1. Translucent It allows a part of light falling on it to pass through. Spherical mirror Spherical mirrors are of two types (i) Concave mirror (ii) Convex mirror Position & nature of image formed by a spherical mirror Position of object Position of image Size of image in com. • Sound is transmitted through gases. i. • Transparent. • Speed of sound in air is 330 m/s. 300. Uses in medical diagonosis. glass. • It requires a medium to propagate. • Sun’s light reaches to earth in 8 minutes 19 seconds (i. and travel at the speed of light. plasma. high frequency waves lying roughly between very high frequency (infrared) waves and conventional radio waves. It is used in water purification. • Audible sound for human is from 20 Hz to about 20000 Hz. oiled paper • Ultraviolet radiation is an electromagnetic radiation that has wavelength from 400 nm to 10 nm.5 • Electromagnetic waves differ from mechanical waves in that they do not require a medium to propagate. of the same size and at the same distance as the object is. • Light is made of discrete packets of energy called photons. • Sounds less than 20 Hz are called infrasonics. • Photons carry momentum.000 km/sec.e. with high speed electrons. • X-rays are electromagnetic radiation having a shorter wavelength and produced by bombarding a target made of tungsten. • Microwaves are short. • Sounds higher than 20000 Hz are called ultrasonics. Speed of Sound in Different Mediums Medium Speed of sound (In m/s) Air(0°C) 332 Iron 5130 Air (20°C) 343 Glass LIGHT 5640 • Light is a form of energy which produces sensation of vision on our eyes. Examples of electromagnetic waves are light. inverted At Focus Highly diminished Virtual. Some Phenomena based on Refraction (i) Twinkling of stars (ii) Oval Shape of sun in the morning and evening. nose by doctors. (iii) Mirage in desert (iv) Increase in duration of sun’s visibility. Some Phenomena of total Internal Reflection (i) Endoscopy using optical fibre.At centre of curva. inverted Between focus and Between centre of Enlarged centre of curvature curvature and infinity Real. erect Virtual. exceeds a particular value (called critical angle for which angle of refraction 90°). Scattering of Light: Sunlight gets scattered by small particles present in the atmosphere. search light. (ii) In sodium reflector lamp. (vi) Shining of air bubbles in water. Defects of Vision & Remedies Myopia or Near(short) sightedness: • A person suffering from Myopia can’t see the far (distant) object clearly but can see nearby object clearly. Human Eye The normal range of vision for a healthy human eye is from 25 cm (least distance of distinct vision to infinity (far point). Red colour scatters least and violet most. • If the refracted ray bends towards the normal relative to the incident ray. This phenomena is called total internal reflection. (vi) Sun appears above horizon at sunset and sunrise. (iii) Rivers appear shallow (iv) Coins appear raised in glass filled with water. based on scattering of light. blue colour of sky. (ii) Sparkling of diamond. then the second medium is said to be rarer than the first medium. (v) Pencils appear broken in the beaker filled with water.Of same size ture ture At focus At infinity Highly enlarged Real. But if the refracted ray bends away from the normal. erect Between focus and Behind the mirror pole Convex mirror At infinity Infront of mirror Real. white colour of clouds etc. erect Total Internal Reflection When the angle of incidence. (iv) In solar cookers. ear.6 Between infinity and Between focus and Diminished centre of curvature centre of curvature Real. Refraction of Light The bending of the light ray from its path in passing from one medium to the other medium is called refraction of light. (v) Appearance of air bubbles in glass paper weight. Virtual. for a ray of light passing from a denser medium to a rarer medium. (iii) In opthalmoscope to examine eye. the ray reflects back in the same medium from the boundary. . then the second medium is said to be denser than the first medium. Uses of convex mirror (i) As a rear view mirror in vehicle because it provides the maximum rear field of view and image formed is always erect. (ii) As a reflector for the head lights of a vehicle. Some phenomena like – reddish appearance of the sun at sunrise and sunset. inverted Enlarged Between pole and Diminished focus Uses of concave mirror (i) As a shaving mirror. inverted At centre of curva. Microscope It is used to see magnified image of a tiny objects.e. Remedy: Concave lens is used to diverge the rays at retina. etc. D. copper etc. MAGNETISM Magnets : The material or body which attract magnetic substance like iron. The SI unit of charge is coulomb (c). etc. It is used to see far off objects clearly. air conditioner. Electric cell : It is the device used to convert chemical energy into electrical energy. Remedy: Convex lens is used to converge the rays at retina. Astigmatism: Astigmatism is the most common refractive problem responsible for blurry vision. Application /uses: As voltage regulators for – (i) T. mica. trains. • Lens being too curved for the length of the eye ball. ELECTRICITY • Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and flow of electric charge. nickel. fans. • Its uses (i) In D. computer. exhaust. rubber.g. table fans. (iii)In running tram-cars. ceiling. which determines their electromagnetic interactions. (ii) Induction furnaces. etc. (ii) In pumping water. Hyperopia or Hypermetropia (long (far) sightedness) • A person suffering from it can’t see near object clearly but can see distant object clearly. • Eye lens is farther back in the eye. Motor • It converts direct current energy from a battery into mechanical energy of rotation.Measures the potential difference between two points in a circuit. • The resistance is the obstruction offered to the flow of electric current. • Ammeter. • Electric current (I) is a movement or flow of electrically charged particle per unit time. Causes: • The eye ball is too short so image is formed beyond the retina. E.C. ebonite etc. refrigerator.. cobalt. • The band of seven constituents colours is called spectrum.V. and changing magnetic fields generate electrical currents.C. • Cornea is not curved enough. Causes: Protein builds up in the eye lens & make it cloudy.Measures current • Voltmeter. (iii)for welding purposes. Remedy: • It can be corrected with suitable eye glasses (lenses). Conductors are the substances which allow the passage of electric charge with low resistance. Cataract • It is the clouding of the lens of the eye that prevent a person to see. Dispersion of light : The splitting of white ray of light into its seven constituents colours (VIBGYOR) is called dispersion of light. elongated) so image is formed before retina.7 Causes: • The eye ball is too long (i. Insulators are substances which do not allow passage of electric charge. • Fuse is a safety device that protects an electric circuit from becoming overloaded. Telescope It is used to increase the visual angle of distant object. Transformer • Transformer is a device which converts low voltage AC into high voltage Ac and viceversa. Cylindrical lens is used to correct astigmatism. • Cataract surgery is performed when eye glass does not suit. Target group: It can affects both children and adults. Silver is the best conductor of electricity followed by copper. silver. glass. • Electrical currents generate magnetic fields. • Electric charge is a property of some subatomic particles. wood. AC Generator/Dynamo/Alternator • It is an electric device used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. • The force of attraction of a magnet is greater at its poles than in the middle. . etc. • Nuclear Fusion : The process in which two or more lighter nuclei combine to form a heavy nucleus is known as nuclear fusion.8 • Similar poles of two magnets repel each other. loud speakers. electric bells. Thomson Madam Curie Marconi Year 1808 1827 1835 1867 1895 1896 1897 1898 1901 . a-ray Properties b-ray g-ray Origin Nucleus Nucleus Nucleus Composition 4 2He 0 –1e Photon Nature Mass Charge Penetrating power Ionising power Velocity Positively charged -31 6. e. • If a bar magnet is suspended by a thread and free to rotate.4×10 +2e Negatively charged kg 9. b and g particles MODERN PHYSICS • The nucleus of an atom consists of protons and neutrons together called nucleons.1×10 –e Minimum Maximum -31 kg In between the other two Between 1. hydrogen bomb. • Opposite poles of two magnets attract each other. • Electromagnets are used in generators.2 × 10 7 m/s In between the other two 1% to 99% of velocity of light Neutral zero zero Maximum Minimum 3×108 m/s Nuclear Fission: The process of splitting of a heavy nucleus into two nuclei of comparable size and release of large energy is called fission. its South Pole will move towards the North Pole of the earth and vice versa. X-Rays X-rays are electromagnetic radiations of very short wavelength (0. (ii) They affect photographic plates.1 Å to 100 Å) and high energy which are emitted when fast moving electrons or cathode rays strike a target of high atomic mass. fans. Maglev etc. Properties of a. TV sets.g. atom bomb. eg. Uses /Applications • Magnets are used in making magnetic compasses which help sailors and navigators to know the directions.4×107 m/s to 2.Fox Talbot Alfred Nobel Roentgen Henry Becquerel J. Important Discoveries in Physics Discovery Atom Law of floatation Photography (On paper) Dynamite X-Rays Radioactivity Electron Radium Wireless telegram Scientist John Dalton Archemedes’ W. Properties of X-Rays : (i) These are highly penetrating rays and can pass through several materials which are opaque to ordinary light.J. motors. telephones. mixers. Fleming 1904 Proton Goldstein 1886 Principle of relativity Albert Einstein Raman effect Neutron Some more Inventions C. Gillette USA J.9 Diode Sir J.Marconi K. Biro K.E. Gutenberg G. Catlin B. Otis J.G. Harrison and A. Thimmonnier James Watt Harry Brearley Alexander Graham Bell John Logie Bared Galileo Galilei Hungary Scotland France France Germany England USA USA USA England USA Sweden USA Germany England Germany England USA Britain France Scotland England USA Scotland Italy 1938 1839 1642 1742 1892 1831 1879 1923 1884 1937 1852 1855 1878 1885 1884 1455 1901 1895 1834 1830 1765 1913 1876 1926 1593 .E. Celsius Rudolf Diesel Michael Faraday Thomas Alva Edison Dr lee do forest L.V.S. Macmillan Pascal A. Lundstrom David Hughes Karl Benz Edward Butler J.G. Raman James Chadwick 1905 1928 1932 Invention Inventor Country Year Aeroplane Wright brothers USA 1903 Barometer E. Waterman Sir Frank Whittle E. Torricelli Italy 1644 Ball-point pen Bicycle Calculating machine Centrigrade scale Diesel engine Dynamo Electric lamp Film (with sound) Fountain Pen Jet Engine Lift Match (safety) Microphone Motor car(petrol) Motorcycle Printing Press Radio Razor (safety) Refrigerator Sewing machine Steam engine (condenser) Stainless Steel Telephone Television Thermometer C. Solid. E. so they are called fluids. • Boiling point is the temperature at which the liquid form of a substance changes to a gas. e. • At a given temperature. • They takes the volume and shape of the container.Chemistry • Chemistry is the branch of science which deals with study of matter and various changes it undergoes. rusting of iron etc. • They can flow. • The three types of physical changes aremelting. An atom has a central nucleus.g. oxygen. Gases • Gases have neither a definite volume nor definite shape. oil. water. etc. brick. evaporation and freezing. • A physical change is a change in matter that involves no chemical reaction.etc. hydrogen.g. an element is in one of the three states of matter. Solids Gas Heterogeneous Organic Metalic Liquid • Solids possess definite shape and volume.– air. eg. STATES OF MATTER Matter Physical classification of matter Chemical classification of matter Pure Substances Mixtures Solid Homogeneous Elements Compounds Metalloids Classification of Matter Matter • It is defined as anything that occupies space and has mass. metals. burning of paper. Liquid or Vapour (Gas). mercury. Electrons revolves around the nucleus. • Chemical Change A change in which the identify of the original substance is changed and new substances are formed is called a chemical change for example souring of milk. The nucleus carries a positive charge. Inorganic Non-metallic • Melting point of a substance is the temperature at which its solid form changes to a liquid. Liquids • They possess definite volume but no definite shape. ATOM • • • • An atom is the smallest unit of an element. etc. . milk. mainly contains nitrogen (approximately 78%) and oxygen (approximately 21%) with lesser amounts of argon. Hydrogen and Oxygen Bleaching Powder Calcium Calcium. This water is unfit for washing and use in industrial boilers. Aluminium. gaseous mixture. odorless. Element • Everything in the universe is made of a combination of a few basic substances called elements. Sulphur. • Neutrons have no charge. and other gases. tasteless. and Oxygen CaCl(OCl) CuSO4. carbon dioxide. 7H2O Na2SO4. • Heavy water is deuterium oxide (D2O). Carbon and carbonate Oxygen Caustic Soda Sodium hydroxide Sodium. • Electrons have a negative charge. Hydrogen. • The element is the simplest form of matter composed of atoms having identical number of protons in each nucleus. Hydrogen. Sulphur. neon. Sulphur and Oxygen Caustic Potash Potassium Potassium Hydrogen.5H2O KOH CaCO3 NaOH NaHCO3 NaCl MgSO4. Oxygen and hydrogen Glauber's salt Gypsum Laughing gas Lime water Lead sulphide Lead and Sulphur Sodium sulphate Calcium Sulphate dihydrate Nitrous oxide Nitrogen and Oxygen Calcium hydroxide Calcium. helium. Compound • A compound is a pure substance that contains atoms of two or more chemical elements in definite proportions that cannot be separated by physical means and are held together by chemical bonds. eg. ate Carbon and Oxygen Common Salt Sodium chloride Sodium and Chlorine K2SO4Al2(SO4)3 Galena PbS Epsom Salt Magnesium sulphate Magnesium. hydroxide and Oxygen Chalk Calcium Calcium.10H2O CaSO4. Substances & Chemical Compositions Common Name Chemical Name Alum Potash Composition Formula Potassium. Sulphur and Oxygen Sodium.Sodium. AIR AND WATER Air is colorless.11 • Protons have a positive charge. Chlorine and hypochlorite Oxygen Blue Vitriol Copper sulphate Copper. hydrogen. Hydrogen and Oxygen Baking Soda Sodium bicarbon. Sulphur. 7H2O FeSO4. molecular mass = 20). • Water consists of hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio of 2:1 by volume and 1:8 by mass. and Oxygen Green Vitriol Iron sulphate Iron.2H2O N2O Ca(OH)2 . chlorides sulphates of Ca and Mg. (H2O) • Hard water has bicarbonates. • Anything above pH 7 is alkaline. silicates. brittle.HNO3. and often react with some metals to produce hydrogen gas. egs. such as propane. turn blue litmus red.Sodium hydrogen. • Acids. all metals are solid. Occurrence of Metals • Minerals are naturally occurring chemical compounds of fixed composition and characteristics. Non-Metals • Non metals are electronegative elements which have a tendency to gain one or more electrons to form negative ions called anions. • Except Mercury and gallium. ductile. . Base: (NaOH). H3PO3. bitumen. as an insecticide and for washing old oil paintings.12 Litharge Plaster of Paris Lead monoxide Calcium sulphate hemihydrate Sodium silicate Lead and Oxygen Calcium. • Human blood pH should be slightly alkaline (7. Metals • Elements which are hard.metals and non. H2CO3. butane and pentane. • When aqueous (water) solutions of an acid and a base are combined.H2O Na2SiO3 CaO Pb3O4 NH4CI Na2CO3. lignite and peat. Hydrogen and Oxygen Quartz Sodium. etc.Sodium carbonate Sodium. Hydrogen ride and chlorine Soda ash or wash. PbO 2CaSO4.metals. and malleable. H2SO4. • Bases are chemical compounds that taste bitter. Hydrogen and Oxygen Metals and Non-Metals • There are two types of elements. possess lustre and conduct heat and electricity are termed metals. (Ca(OH)2).35-7. Uses of Some Metals and NonMetals Compounds • Silver Nitrate (AgNO3) is called lunar caustic and is used to prepare the ink used during voting.7H2O • Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3) is used in jeweller's rouge. Sulphur. • Non metals are non lustrous and bad conductors of heat and electricity. bleaching agent. oxides. anything below pH 7 is considered acidic. FUELS • The substance. Hying soda drogen and Oxygen Soda bicar bonate Sodium bicarbon. • Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) is used as an oxidishing agent. H3PO4. Silica and Oxygen Quick lime Calcium oxide Calcium and Oxygen Red lead Triplumbic Lead and Oxygen Sal ammoniac Ammonium Chlo. HNO2. and carbonates. Coal • Coal is made up of carbon.Nitrogen. BASES AND PH SCALE • Acids are chemical compounds that taste sour. ate Carbon and Oxygen White vitriol Zinc sulphate Zinc. ACIDS. • The pH of a solution measures the hydrogen ion concentration in that solution. • LPG (Liquified petroleum gas) is a mixture of hydrocarbons containing three or four carbon atoms.45). sulphides.10H2O NaHCO3 ZnSO4. etc. Carbon. • The common varieties of coal are anthracite. etc. Sulphur. (RbOH). • Silver Iodide (AgI) is used for artificial rain. (KOH). a neutralization reaction occurs. turn red litmus blue and feel slippery. which produce heat and light on combustion are called fuels. Lemon juice 4. Crates etc.0 9. 0 6. 5 4. Nonstick kitchen wares Rubber erasers Foam Thermocole Poly (Styrene buta.0 Use Polythene Packaging material. each composed of carbon atoms linked into chains. orange. 5 to 7.Rubber bubble gum diene) Bakelite Electrical insulation buttons Melamine Crockery Lexan Bullet proof glass RADIOACTIVITY • Radioactivity is discovered by French physicist Henry de Becquerel in 1896. grapes Acetic acid Vinegar Maleic acid Tartaric acid Lactic acid Hydrochloric acid Oxalic acid Unripe apple Tamarind Milk Stomach Acidic & basic nature of some household substances 1. Orange juice 5. 4 8. . pH Value of some important substances Sodium Hydroxide: Alkaline Ammonia Baking Soda Human Blood Pure Water: Neutral Milk: Acid Tomatoes Wine and Beer Apples Vinegar Lemon Juice Battery Acid Urine(Human) Tears Sea water Milk (Cow) Coffee Tooth paste • Plastics consist of very long molecules. Solution of washing soda. detergent solution. 6 5. Vinegar Fizzy drinks 7. bottles etc. 5 6. • Polythene is composed of over 200000 carbon atoms. Toothpaste (Ascorbic acid) 3. 0 8. high frequency. • Gamma (g) Particles These are electromagnetic radiations of low wavelength. Tomato juice 6. wash 4. • Beta (b) Particles These are negatively charged light particles. Basic (Alkaline) 1. Some common man-made polymers and their uses Polymer Tomato Acidic PLASTICS AND POLYMERS 14. Bathroom acid 2. 3 7.13 Sources of Some Naturally Occurring Acids Acid Source Citric acid Lemon. 5 7. • Radiations are of three kinds: Alpha. 35 to 7. carry bags. 0 1. Slaked lime & white 5. Electroplating • It is a process of plating one metal onto another by electrolysis. 3 to 6. Beta and Gamma • Alpha (a) Particle is positively charged helium atom that has very little penetrating power. 0 3. 2 2. • Polymers are large long chain like molecules formed by the chemical linking of many smaller molecules. 0 2. 6 4. ropes etc. (Colas & Sodawater) Soap solution or 3. 0 11. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Pipes insulation Polypropene Nylon (Polyester) Teflon Vinyl rubber Polystyrene Bottles. and high energy. Milk of magnesia (Antacids) Vitamin C tablets 2. Fibres. most commonly for decorative purposes or to prevent corrosion of a metal. 0 5. who observed that uranium mineral gave off invisible radiation.45 7. It is used by diabetic patients. etc. • It is used in jewellry & industries. Graphite • It is called black lead • It is soft. sulphanilamide. a white powder used as an insecticide. Sulphadrugs : Alternatives of antibiotics. funnel. • It is non-metal. Antibody : Kinds of substances formed in the blood. Carbon and Its Compounds • All organic compounds contain carbon. chloramphenicol etc. and chromium plating. prisms. and the vast majority also contains hydrogen bonded to carbon. (v) Crown Glass is used for optical apparatus. . (ii) Flint Glass. virus etc. • It is highly transparent • It is bad conductor of electricity & heat. (iv) Potash Glass or Hard Glass is used for making beakers. GLASS Glass is a mixture of an alkali silicate with the silicate of a base. Sulpha gunamidine. (viii) Jena Glass is used for making laboratory bottles.14 • Types of electroplating capsopper plating. or preventing the growth of bacteria in animal systems. (vi) Crook's Glass is used for spectacles as it absorbs UV rays. moderator in nuclear reactor. sulphadiazine. Allotropes • Allotropes are substances which have same chemical properties but different physical properties. Allotropes of Carbon Diamond • It is purest form of carbon. colourless liquid. Antacids : Substances which neutralise the excess acid and raise the pH to appropriate level in stomach are called antacids. dark grey • It is good conductor of electricity & heat. (vii) Glass Laminates is used to make windows and screens of cars. etc. SOME CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES AND THEIR USES Soaps and Detergents : Soaps are the sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids. For example penicillin. Chloroform : A sweetish. (iii) Soda or Soft Glass is used for making bottles. that is. silica. window panes. • It is hardest natural substance. For example bacteria. etc. • Pyrolysis is the process of decomposing a substance on heating • Coal & Soot (carbon black) are the examples. for keeping acids and alkalies. but does not have any food value. capable of destroying Amorphous Carbons • They are product of pyrolysis. Antibiotic : Medicinal compounds produced by moulds and bacteria. etc. Antigen : Substance capable of stimulating formation of antibodies in a host. • Its atomic number is 6 & mass is 12. Type & Uses (i) Milky Glass is used to the melt glass. It is used as a solvent and anaesthetic. silver plating. Antipyretic : A substance used to lower body temperature. flasks. tending to inhibit or destroy harmful pathogens. It is used in making – pencils. Saccharin : A white crystalline solid which is 550 times sweeter than sugar. DDT : Dichloro diphenyl tricholoro ethane. trains and aircraft. sodium silicate and calcium or lead silicate. used in lenses. study of poisons study of urine. study of hypnosis study of fish the study of peace study of beauty Laryngology Mastology – – Meteorology Myology Neonatology – – – study of larynx study of mammals or mammary glands or breast diseases study of weather study of muscles study of newborn babies – study of teeth Nephrology – Obstetrics – Pathology – Odontology Oncology – Pharmacology – Physiology study of the kidneys study of midwifery study of tumours study of disease study of drugs Pyretology – – study of processes of life Seismology – study of earthquakes Virology – study of viruses Radiology Toxicology Urology Xylology Zoiatrics Zoology – – – – – – study of fevers study of X-rays and their medical applications.15 Branches of Science Adenology Angiology Arthrology Barology Bromatology Carpology Cetology – – – – – – – Cosmology – Craniology – Dactylography – Demology – Ecology – Endocrinology – Entomology – Geology – Hematology – Hepatology – Herpetology – Hypnology Ichthyology Irenology Kalology – – – – study of glands study of blood flow and lymphatic system study of joints study of gravitation study of food study of fruits and seeds study of whales and dolphins study of the universe study of the skull the study of fingerprints study of human behaviour study of environment study of ductless glands study of insects study of earth's crust study of blood study of liver study of reptiles and amphibians study of sleep. urinary tract study of wood veterinary surgery study of animals . These are located on chromosomes. • Edward Jenner is famous for creating the first effective vaccine for smallpox. • Ribosomes are present only in grandular endoplasmic reticulum. • It consists of Nitrogenous bases-Adenine. x & y. Sex Determination • X and Y are the sex chromosomes which are responsible for the determination of sex. • Hippocrates is considered to be the “father of western medicine”. • Alexander Flemming discovered Penicillin. • Salim Ali known as the “birdman of India” • Har Gobind Khorana is a biochemist who won the Nobel Prize in 1968 for demonstrating how the nucleotides in nucleic acids control the synthesis of proteins. ribose sugar. identification and Taxonomy • Aristotle is often called “the father of biology”. 46 chromosomes are present in human body cell. CELLS • All living organism are constituted of structural and functional units called cells.(father of immunology) • William Watson (1909) introduced the term Genetics. plants and the animals. • RNA is single stranded. • It is found in bacteria. • Largest isolated single cell. and Guanine. • Study of genes is known as genetics. Uracil. • Gregor Johann Mendel discovered principles of inheritance. Whittaker (1969). Fungi. • Robert Hook coined the term ‘cell’ in 1665. In which 22 pairs of these are autosomes & 23rd is sex chromosomes. • The eukaryotic cells with nucleus occur in all protists. • Robert Hooke assembled a compound microscope and discovered cells in cork. • The function of plasma membrane is the transport of the molecules across it. evolution. • Mendel conducted cross hybridization experiments on green pea plant (Pisum sativum). • Cell membrane is composed of lipids. Cytosine. Animalia. • Smallest cells. Classification of Organism • Most acceptable classification was given by R. Thymine. function. • Nucleus is centrally located spherical and largest component of all eukaryotic cell. • Gene is a segment of DNA and basic unit of heredity. nitrogenous basesAdinine. blue green algae. Plantae. Nucleolus is present in nucleus.16 Biology INTRODUCTION Biology is the study of life and living organism. • Charles Darwin is famous for the theory of Natural selection. • Cell wall is present in plants cell. mycoplasma. • Watson and Crick gave the model of DNA. fungi. H. • Mitochondria are also called “Powerhouse of cells”. and also found in mitochondria and chloroplast. ie. • Cells are grouped into tissues. distribution. Cytosine or Guanine. • Louis Pasteur proposed ‘Germ theory of disease. Mutation • Sudden change in the sequence of DNA is known as mutation.Mycoplasmas. 5-carbon sugar and a phosphate molecule. • Except mammalian RBC all living cells have ribosomes.egg of an ostrich • Prokaryotic is without nucleus. • In 1866 Ernst Haeckel coined word “ecology” • Camillo golgi discovered golgi body. • It stands for deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). He also proposed pasteurization for sterilization. These are Monera. including their structure. . protista. • It is double stranded. • Leeuwenhoek invented a simple microscope and studied living cells. They are involved in energy generation. tissues into organ and organs into organ system. • Ribosomes were first observed by Palade. It consists of phosphate. • DNA is found in nucleus. etc. Chymotrypsin.17 Digestion of Food Name of the Digestive juice Name of the enzymes Substrate End product Saliva Ptyalin (Salivary amylase) Starch Maltose Intestinal juice Sucrase (invertase). Calcium caseinate Proteoses and Peptides Amino acid. Dipeptidase Peptides Maltose and Glucose Proteoses and peptones. etc. rhodopsin E Tocopherol Not precisely known D K Sources Cholecalciferol Stimulates calcium absorption by small intestine. Riboflavin Part of coenzyme FAD Ariboflavinosis: skin Milk. Maltase. Rennin Pancreatic Juice Proteins. yogurt. leafy vegetables. Xeropthalmia: ‘dry eyes’ Milk. Glucose. NADP used in respiration Pellagra: skin. Coenzyme needed Pernicious anaemia for making red blood cells. Carboxyl peptidases Peptides Intestinal juice Amino peptidase. etc. Infertility Found primarily in plant oils. Possible haemorrage Green. green. Animal products etc. and galactose Pancreatic juice Amylopsin (pancreatic Starch. . orange. Cyanocobalamin Ascorbic acid Not precisely known A Retinol Visual pigment. Rickets: bone deformity Found in dairy products. gut and Widespread in nerve disorders foods. etc. etc. etc. Lactase Sucrose. Lactose Glucose and fructose. Amino acids Vitamin Required by the Body Vitamin B1 B2 B12 B5 C Chemical Name Function in Body Deficiency Disease Thiamine Part of coenzyme for pyrophosphate respiration Beri-beri: nerve and heart disorders Found in whole grain cereals. leafy vegetables. Proteins. etc. needed for respiration and eye disorders Nicotinic acid (‘niacin’) Part of coenzymes NAD. needed for proper bone growth Phylloquinone Involved in blood clotting Scurvy: degeneration Lemon. eggs. amylase) Glycogen Gastric Juice Pepsin. Maltose. of skin teeth and blood vessels. etc. Casein Trypsin. Tadpole larva of Frog Insects Skeletal System uman respiratory system consists of H external nostrils. bronchiole and lungs. foods grown in iodine-rich Found in thyroid hormone. Reptiles and Amphibians Skin Earthworm. found in red blood cells. for proper fluid balance. Seafood. etc. fish.18 Minerals Required by the Body Minerals Sodium (Na) Source Function Table salt large amounts is present in for proper fluid balance. Meat. •• Urine contains ammonia. etc. •• The human heart beats at the rate of about 72-80 per minute in the resting condition. • Annelids and chordates have a closed circulatory. etc. Leech. •• Kidney plays a major role in the elimination of water waste in the form of urine. eggs. in processed foods. Birds. trachea. uric acid. Kwashiorkar is produced by protein deficiency. Organ meats. milk. etc. Chloride Calcium Phosphorus Magnesium Sulfur Iron Iodine Table salt. large amounts is present for proper fluid balance. Potassium Meats. milk. etc. etc. etc. Occurs in foods as part of protein. It is the graphic record of electronic current produced by the excitation of cardiac muscles. Human Skeleton (comprising 206 bones) Appendicular Skeleton Axial Skeleton Skull Vertebral Sternum column Ribs Girdles Limbs . etc. larynx. Amphibians Gills Trachea Fish. etc. processed foods. meats. nasal cavity. Important for healthy bones and teeth. soil. nasopharynx. •• ECG stands for Electrocardiogram. Respiratory System The organ system which aids in the process of respiration is called the Respiratory system. Important for healthy bones and teeth. etc. etc. Protein Deficiency Diseases Human Respiratory System •• •• •• arasmus is produced by a simultaneous M deficiency of proteins and calories. etc. Nuts and seeds. • Generally present in arthopods and molluscs. Circulatory System • These are of two types open circulatory system and closed circulatory system. processed foods. etc. Milk and milk products. Found in bones. etc. urea. Found in protein molecules. Crabs. poultry. •• It is process of removal of undigested wastes from the body. etc. Organs of Respiration in Animals Respiratory Organ Animals Lungs Mammals. development of breasts in female. Anti-diuretic hormone Adeno – Corticotrophic hormone Regulates the growth of bone and tissue. Yersinia pestis Chronic infection of skin and nerve Blood disease Vomiting. Thymosin Helps in production of lymphocytes Melatonin Thyroxine Cortisone Insulin Estrogen Testosterone DISEASE AND DEFENCE MECHANISM Regulates. Regulates sugar metabolism. High fever. exposure to cold. Controls the amount of water reabsorbed by the water. scaly scabs (the infected part of the body becomes senseless). circadian and sexual cycle Regulates rate of growth and metabolism. breathlessness Intestine Corynebacterium Respiratory tract diphtheriae Mycobacterium leprae Pasteurella. nausea. Endocrine gland 1 Pituitary (Master gland) 2 Pineal 3 Thyroid 4 Thymus 5 Adrenal 6 Pancreas 7 Ovary 8 Testis Hormone Action Growth hormones. sore throat. nodules. Difficulty in respiration (mainly in child of age 2-5 yrs). Too little insulin leads to high sugar level in blood and weakness (a condition called diabetes) Development of secondary sexual characters e. Aids in conversion of proteins to sugar. cortex of this gland produces the hormone. Too little-over weight and sluggishness. abnormal discharge of electrical activity in the brain cells Affected Organ Symptom Skin and intestine Skinulcer.19 Endocrine System : Hormones and their Action S. . Ulcers. fever. Too much-thin and over active. weakness and haemorrhage which turn black. Follicle stimulating hormone stimulates ovary to produce female hormone. Development of many masculine features such as growth of moustaches and beard Common Lung Diseases •• •• Common Heart Diseases •• Coronary artery disease or Arthrosclerosis : •• Angina (angina pectoris) •• Common Brain Diseases •• Heart Failure (congestive heart failure) Bacteria Diseases Disease Anthrax Cholera Diphtheria Leprosy or Hansen’s disease Plague (i) Bubonic plague Pathogen Bacillus anthracis Vibrio cholerae Asthma Bronchitis (Inflammation of the Bronchi) Epilepsy: Epilepsy is a condition where a person has recurrent seizures. acute diarrhoea. dehydration etc. Defending the body against physiological stress e.g. No.g. muscular cramps. fear of water. particularly head. high fever. Loss of appetite. eyes and joints High fever. Fever. backbone and nerve Nervous system Whole body (muscles) Loss of appetite.A virus (ii) Hepatitis . nausea. . eruption of blood on body Chicken pox Dengue fever Vericella virus Whole body High fever. Central nervous system Bacillus pertussis Respiratory system Diplococcus pneumoniae Typhoid Disease Mycobacterium tuberculosis Lungs Lungs Salmonella typhi intestine Pathogen Affected Part Painful contraction of neck and jaw muscles followed by paralysis of thoracic muscles. tiredness. sore throat. backache. It leads to paralysis. chest pain. High fever.B virus Herpes Polio or poliomyelitis Skin Rubella virus Whole body Polio virus Rabies RNA virus called (hydrophobia) rabies virus Swine influenza (flu) Liver Herpes virus Influenza (flu) Influenza virus Measles German Whole body H1N1 flu virus Whole body Throat. breathing problems. Encephalitis.A Hepatitis .20 (ii) Pneumonic plaque Tetanus (lock jaw) Clostridium tetani Tuberculosis Whooping cough or Pertussis Pneumonia Viral Diseases Haemorrhage of bronchi. reddish eruption on the body. nose throat and eyes. Sudden chill. Not fatal Fatal Swelling of skin. retro-orbital pain behind the eye ball.B Hepatitis . Inflammation of upper respiratory tract. whitish stool and jaundice. Small pox Light fever. headache. Lungs Repeated coughing. high fever. Variola virus Hepatitis Hepatitis virus (Epidemic Jaundice) (i) Hepatitis . Continuous coughing. spasm of throat and chest leading to death Headache. backbone and intestine wall cells are destroyed. vomiting. diarrhoea and headache. headache. cough. high fever. Symptom AIDS (Acquired HIV (Human Immuno White blood cells Immuno Deficiency Virus) Deficiency Syndrome) Weak immune system. lungs. reddish eruption on body RNA containing dengue virus Whole body. • RBC’s are formed in the red bone-marrow.white blood corpuscles(WBCs) and Blood platelets. • Blood has a fluid matrix called plasma. Spleen and liver enlarge and high fever develops. • Life span of RBCs (Erythrocytes) is about 120 days. • Platelets (thrombocytes) are responsible for clotting of blood during accidents. Man feels sleepy. • Plasma is a pale coloured fluid which contributes 55% of blood volume. Round red spot on skin Skin itching and white spot on the skin. Symptoms Obstruction in the functioning of lungs. Develop loose motion with blood. Those . infection by contamination Digestive system causes loose motions. • Blood corpuscles are of three types: Red blood corpuscles (RBCs) . None.21 Protozoan Diseases Disease Pathogen (Causative agent) Vector Parts Affected and Symptoms African trypanosomiasis Trypanosoma gambienes Amoebic dysentery (Amoebiasis) Entamoeba histolytica Tsetse fly (Glossina palpalis) Blood and nervous tissue. • Neutrophils and monocytes are phagocytic cells (destroy foreign bodies) • Basophils are involved in inflammatory reactions. Periodical attacks of high fever. Plasma contains 90 to 92 % of water. • The Rh factor is a type of protein on the surface of red blood cells. Most people who have the Rh factor are Rh-positive. • WBCs are manufactured in bone marrow. • Lymphocytes are responsible for immune response. may cause death. Swelling of legs. • Eosinophils are associated with allergic reactions. • WBCs (Leueocytes) are responsible for immunity. • For a healthy adult person the average systolic/diastolic pressure is 120/80 mm of Hg in arteries near heart. pain in joints accompanied by chill. Diarrhoea Giardia Filaria or elephantiasis Wuchereria bancrofti None. Infection by contamination Culex mosquito Sand flies (Phlebotomus) Female Anopheles mosquito Fungal Diseases in Human Beings Disease Pathogen (fungi) Asthma or aspergillosis Aspergillus fumigatus Tinea capitis Athlete’s foot Tinea pedis Ringworm Tricophyton Verrucosum Scabies Acarus scabiei • Blood is a liquid connective tissue. cracking of feet. pain in abdomen Hair fall Skin disease. Baldness Blood Colon (intestine). and lack nucleus. vomitting Kala azar or dumdum fever Leishmania donovani Malaria Plasmodium sp. testes and other body parts. heavy perspiration and fast pulse. TAB Vaccines and Inventors Vaccine • Booster dose • Booster dose Developed by Country Year Small Pox Edward Jenner England 1796 Diphtheria and Tetanus Emil Adolf Von Behring and Shibasaburo Kitasato Germany/ Japan 1891 Cholera TB Vaccine Polio Vaccine Oral Polio Vaccine Measles Vaccine Rabies Vaccine Typhus Vaccine Rubella Vaccine Scurvy vaccine Louis Pasteur Albert Calmette and Camille Guerin Jonas E. Enders. • There are four groups of blood A. Meyer jr James Lind France France US US US France France 1880 1922 1952 1955 1953 1885 1909 1966 1753 . paratyphi A and S paratyphi B) or • Two doses at intervals of 1-2 Typhoid Paratyphoid vaccine months • Tetanus. Salk Albert Bruce Sabin John F. A. and AB). A. B. O). AB and O. S. B. • Three doses (commonly oral) whooping cough/pertussis and tetanus) at intervals of 4-6 weeks. • Polio (Sabin’s oral.Parkman & Harry M. Vaccination Dose • DPT (triple vaccine. • one dose Mumps and Rubella) • DT (Bivalent vaccine against diphtheria • Booster dose and tetanus) • TAB (vaccine against Salmonella typhi. Vaccines and their Doses Age Birth to 12 months 8-24 months 9-15 months 5-6 years 10 years 16 years • Universal Donor : ‘O’ blood group person can give blood to all the four blood groups (O. • Karl Landsteiner (1900) discovered the blood group in human. B. Thomas peeble Louis Pasteur Charles Nicolle Paul D. • Universal Recipient : ‘AB’ blood group person can take blood from all the four groups (AB.22 who do not have the Rh factor are Rhnegative. • BCG (Bacillus Calmette Guerin) • Intradermal and one vaccine • DPT • Booster dose • Polio (oral) • Booster dose • Cholera vaccine (can be repeated every • One year before summer) • Measles vaccine (MMR or Measles. TAB (typhoid) • Tetanus. against diptheria. previously Salk’s • Three doses at intervals of 4-6 injectible) weeks. Germs • Cholera vaccine • Contact lenses (glass) • Corneal transplants • Cough drops • Dental drill (motor-driven) • Disposable syringe • DNA (structure discovered) • Electrocardiograph • Gas mask • Genetics • Insulin (discovery) • Iron lung • Microscope (compound) • Morphine • Pacemaker (human) • Pasteurisation • Pathology • Penicillin • Stethoscope • Thermometer (medical) • X-rays William Morton Joseph Lister (Scotland) Denton Cooley Anton van Leeuwenhoek Robert Koch (Germany) Louis Pasteur Adolf Fick Eduard Zirm James Smith and sons George Fellows Harrington Colin Murdoch Frances Crick.B.23 Medical Science Discoveries Invention Inventor Year • Penicillin Alexander Fleming (scotland) 1928 • Anthrax vaccine Louis Pasteur 1881 • Anesthetic • Antiseptic • Artificial heart • Bacteria (discovered) • Cholera and T. James Watson and Rosalind Franklin 1846 1867 1969 1674 1883 1880 1887 1905 1847 1864 1956 1953 Willem Einthoven 1903 Johann Gregor Mendel 1865 Garrett Augustus Morgan Frederick Banting and Charles Best Philip Drinker Hans Janssen Friedrich Wilhelm Adam Serturner Wilson Greatbatch Louis Pasteur Giovanni Battista Morgagni Alexander Fleming René Laënnec Thomas Allbutt Wilhelm Roentgen 1912 1921 1929 1590 1803 1960 (first use) 1864 1761 1928 1819 1866 1895 .