BASIC CONCEPT OF INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTInternational development or global development is a concept that lacks a universally accepted definition, but it is most used in a holistic and multi-disciplinary context of human development – the development of livelihoods and greater quality of life for humans. It therefore encompasses foreign aid, governance, healthcare, education, gender equality, disaster preparedness, infrastructure, economics, human rights, environment and issues associated with these. International development is related to the concept of international aid, but is distinct from, though conceptually related to, disaster relief and humanitarian aid. While these two forms of international support seek to alleviate some of the problems associated with a lack of development, they are most often short term fixes - they are not necessarily long-term solutions. International development, on the other hand, seeks to implement long-term solutions to problems by helping developing countries create the necessary capacity needed to provide such sustainable solutions to their problems. A truly sustainable development project is one which will be able to carry on indefinitely with no further international involvement or support, whether it is financial or otherwise. International development projects may consist of a single, transformative project to address a specific problem or a series of projects targeted at several aspects of society. History Although international relations and international trade have existed for many hundreds of years it is only in the past century that international development theory emerged as a separate body of ideas.[3] More specifically, it has been suggested that 'the theory and practice of development is inherently technocratic, and remains rooted in the high modernist period of political thought that existed in the immediate aftermath of the Second World War'. Post World War II The second half of the 20th century has been called the 'era of development'. The origins of this era have been attributed to: • • • • the need for reconstruction in the immediate aftermath of World War II;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_development - cite_note-5 the evolution of colonialism or "colonization" into globalization and the establishment of new free trade policies between so-called 'developed' and 'underdeveloped' nations The start of the Cold War and the desire of the United States and its allies to prevent the Third World from drifting towards communism. It has been argued that this era was launched on January 20, 1949, when Harry S. Truman made these remarks in his inaugural address. We must embark on a bold new program for making the benefits of our scientific advances and industrial progress available for the improvement and growth of underdeveloped areas. The old imperialism - exploitation for foreign profit - has no place in our plans. What we envisage is a program of development based on the concept of democratic fair dealing. 1 their governments were crippled by debt and concerns about the environmental impact of globalization were rising. This approach is embraced by organizations such as the Gamelan Council seeking to empower entrepreneurs (e. By the late 1960s. and in the United Nations in 1945. combining humanitarian goals with the creation of a political and economic bloc in Europe that was allied to the U. thus changing the nature of the development dialogue to focus on human needs and capabilities. In the 1970s and early 80's. They were led initially by the International Labour Organization (ILO). The Cold War had ended.—Harry S. Truman. This agenda was given conceptual support during the 1950s in the form of modernization theory espoused by Walt Rostov and other American economists. The changes in the 'developed' world's approach to international development were further necessitated by the gradual collapse of Western Europe's empires over the next decades. In response to the impasse. there were some writers for whom development theory had reached an impasse and some academics were imagining a post-development era. put forward the concept of Human Development. By the 1990s. ranging from civil disobedience and conscientization to appropriate technology and Rapid Rural Appraisal. In response various parts of the UN system led a counter movement. the modernists at the World Bank and IMF adopted the neoliberal ideas of economists such as Milton Friedman or Bella Balsa. with the meta-narrative of modernization being replaced by shorter term vision embodied by the Millennium Development Goals and the Human Development approach. the United States had already taken a leading role in the creation of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (now part of the World Bank Group) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The critics have suggested that this integration has always been part of the underlying agenda of development. however. both established in 1944.S. which were implemented in the form of structural adjustment programs. Then UNDP. even though headed by a conservative US republican. At the same time. The launch of the Marshall Plan was another important step in the setting the agenda for international development. which in the long run has proved to be successful. While some critics have been debating the end of development others have predicted a development revival as part of the War on Terrorism. however. not paternalistic aid programmes or corporate charity. influenced by Paul Streeten. 1949 Before this date. now independent excolonies no longer received support in return for their subjugation. Nevertheless. and that the way to overcome poverty is through emancipatory social movements and civil society. capitalism had become the dominant mode of social organization. some development agencies are exploring opportunities for public-private partnerships and promoting the idea of corporate social responsibility with the apparent aim of integrating international development with the process of economic globalization. thanks to Mahboub ul Haq and Amartya Sen. a large portion of the world's population was still living in poverty. there is limited evidence to support the 2 . through microfinance initiatives).g. and UN statistics showed that living standards around the world had improved over the past 40 years. To date. then by UNICEF. while their opponents were promoting various 'bottom up' approaches. the critics of modernization were advancing a dependency theory to explain the evolving relationship between the West and the Third World..[14] They argue that poverty can be equated with powerlessness. the rhetoric of development is now focusing on the issue of poverty. have an obligation to help those who have not. where an increasing number of poor people live . academia and charity to develop such a partnership.as demonstrated by the almost nonexistent progress on the goal of improving the lives of at least 100 Million slum dwellers. they are independent of. Each goal uses indicators based on statistical series collected and maintained by respected organisations in each relevant field (usually the UN agency responsible but also the OECD. Theories There are a number of theories about how desirable change in society is best achieved. The first seven Millennium Development Goals present measurable goals. Concepts 3 .ways in which progress towards the first seven goals could be made. which have achieved those goals. As such they may represent an extension of the concept of human rights. United Nations signed the United Nations Millennium Declaration. including new initiatives such as Millennium Promise.notion that aid budgets are being used to counter Islamic fundamentalism in the same way that they were used 40 years ago to counter communism. Most of these initiatives however work in small scale interventions which do not reach the millions of people required by the MDGs. and include historical theories such as: • • • Modernization Theory Dependency Theory World Systems Theory Millennium Development Goals In the year 2000. while the eighth lists a number of 'stepping stone' goals . and the 2007 Brunel Lecture by the ICE's future president Paul Jowett. which includes eight Millennium Development Goals to be achieved by 2015 or 2020. The Institution of Civil Engineers Engineering With Frontiers panel and its recommendations. are representative of a change of approach in the UK at least to start drawing together the huge capacity available to western governments. but by no means unrelated to. This represented the first time that a holistic strategy to meet the development needs of the world has been established. Recent praise has been that it will be impossible to meet the first seven goals without meeting the eighth by forming a Global Partnership for Development. Such theories draw on a variety of social scientific disciplines and approaches. industry. The goals imply that every state has a set of obligations to the world community to meet and those other states. No current organisation has the capacity to dissolve the enormous problems of the developing world alone .especially in cities. IMF and World Bank) The MDGs have catalysed a significant amount of action. with measurable targets and defined indicators [17] Because the MDGs were agreed as global targets to be achieved by the global community. individual national interests. in Development with Dignity Amit Bhaduri argues that full employment with dignity for all is both important and possible in India. While some define poverty primarily in economic terms. creating industrialization and intentional industrial policy. while the UN Millennium Project's task force on Water and Sanitation links the sector directly to dignity in the report Health. The UN System Network on Rural Development and Food Security describes participation as: “one of the ends as well as one of the means of development” 4 . It is widely considered to be one of the most important concepts in modern development theory. the very first article of which starts with: "All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. and related to all of the development sectors. Poverty reduction rejects this notion. This is considered important as it empowers the recipients of development projects to influence and manage their own development . For example. others consider social and political arrangements also to be intrinsic .During recent decades. development thinking has shifted from modernization and structural adjustment programs to poverty reduction." The concept of dignity in development has been extensively explored by many.thereby removing any culture of dependency.” Participation The concept of participation is concerned with ensuring that the intended beneficiaries of development projects and programmes are themselves involved in the planning and execution of those projects and programmes.often manifested in a lack of dignity. Dignity is also a central theme of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Poverty is the condition of lacking economic access to fundamental human needs such as food. Poverty The concept of poverty can apply to different circumstances depending on context. Dignity Modern poverty reduction and development programmes often have dignity as a central theme. consisting instead of direct budget support for social welfare programs that create macroeconomic stability leading to an increase in economic growth. Dignity and Development: What will it take? The Asian Human Rights Commission released a statement in 2006 claiming that: “Human dignity is the true measure of human development. poor countries were encouraged to undergo social and economical structural transformations as part of their development. Under the former system. shelter and safe drinking water. and is culturally and socially suitable for its beneficiaries. For example. Something which is sustainable will not use more natural resources than the local environment can supply. Capacity building Capacity building for some is concerned with increasing the ability of the recipients of development projects to continue their future development alone. without external support. which develops and provides appropriate technologies for development (ITDG has now been renamed Practical Action). The concept of right-financing has been developed to reflect the need for public and private financial support systems that foster and enable development. cheap or basic . the lead within the UN system for action and thinking in this area was given to UNDP and it has offered guidance to its staff and governments on what was then called institution building 5 . Schumacher championed the cause of appropriate technology and founded the organization ITDG (Intermediate Technology Design Group). It is a parallel concept to sustainability. It is one of the key concepts in international development. F. For others it has had a wider connotation for several decades. such as participatory rural appraisal. and the chlorinated system would be the correct response. This has led to efforts to design project planning and organizational development methods. more financial resources than the local community and markets can sustain. while in a big city in the same country it would be inappropriate to provide water with hand pumps. which are accessible to non-literate people. For example.a project is appropriate if it is acceptable to its recipients and owners. and will have the necessary support from the community.simple hand pumps may be better. rather than hinder it. Appropriateness The concept of something being appropriate is concerned with ensuring that a development project or programme is of the correct scale and technical level. and is critical in removing dependency on overseas aid. The economist E. Sustainability Sustainable business practices lead to economic growth and empowerment for farming communities in northern Uganda. as it furthers the ability of society to function independently in its own microcosm. This should not be confused with ensuring something is low-technology. government and other stakeholders to carry on indefinitely. in a rural sub-Saharan community it may not be appropriate to provide a chlorinated and pumped water system because it cannot be maintained or controlled adequately . A sustainable approach to development is one which takes account of economic.Local participants in development projects are often products of oral communities. social and environmental factors to produce projects and programmes which will have results which are not dependent on finite resources. economically affordable and sustainable in the context in which it is executed. The value of remittances sent home by migrants in modern times is much greater than the total in international aid given. UNDP recognizes that capacity building is a long-term. It remains a protean concept used by different agencies in different ways to serve their respective agendas. knowledge. non-governmental organizations and water user groups. health. 6 . FAO for the rural sector and agriculture. local authorities. in areas such as civil aviation. One essential element common to most serious organisations working in the field is that it covers much more than training. but they achieved mixed results. including community participation (of women in particular). in which all stakeholders participate (ministries. There are many different measures of human development. nutrition to do their tasks well. agriculture. All UN specialized agencies were supposed to be active in support of capacity building in the areas for which they were technically qualified e. USAID UK/DFID and some of the Nordic donors were also active in the area. By 1991 the term had evolved and become 'capacity building'. but the success of their efforts were affected by the perception that national political interests motivated their efforts. This involved building up the ability of basic national organizations. UNDP defined 'capacity building' as the creation of an enabling environment with appropriate policy and legal frameworks. WHO for health etc.g. human resources development and strengthening of managerial systems. academics and others). and very important in judging what further development is necessary or desirable. adding that. capital and knowledge. as were some of the Soviet bloc countries. Migrants' ties with their past homes and communities lead to international relationships and further flows of goods. These evaluations were carried out as part of the UN General Assembly's triennial policy review during which it looks at and provides overall guidance of all UN system development activities. Measurement The judging of how developed a country or a community is highly subjective. professional associations. meteorology. By 1995 the UN General Assembly had commissioned and received (1998) evaluations of the impact of the UN system's support for capacity building. many of them related to the different sectors above. skills and technologies move with them. their culture. continuing process. institutional development.since the early 1970s. often highly controversial. Some of them are: • • • • • • • • • National GDP Literacy rates Life expectancy Human Development Index Gini coefficient Per capita income Maternal survival rate HIV infection rates Number of doctors per capita Migration and remittance Migration has throughout history also led to significant international development. As people move. The seventh Millennium Development Goal is to ensure environmental sustainability. possibly with a rural clinic serving several different communities. This is different to a relief response. politics and human rights. The sixth Millennium Development Goal is to halt and begin to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS and to halt and begin to reverse the incidence of malaria and other major diseases. and a healthy environment) of sufficient quantity and quality to supply an acceptable standard of living.Sectors International development and disaster relief are both often grouped into sectors. The provision of access to healthcare is both an engineering challenge as it requires infrastructure such as hospitals and transport systems and an education challenge as it requires qualified healthworkers and educated consumers. but also often includes an education element and is closely connected with shelter. where it is the provision of water and sanitation in sufficient quantity and quality to maintain life. Reaching these goals is also a management challenge. this is the provision of water and sanitary provision (toilets.cite_note-sphere-26 The provision of water and sanitation is primarily an engineering challenge. Water and sanitation In development. by 2020 Health This is provision of access to quality healthcare to the population in an efficient and consistent manner and according to their needs. it is appropriate and often practical to provide a high standard hospital which can offer a full range of treatments. Health services need to make the best use of limited resources while providing the same quality of care to every man. which correlate with the major themes of international development (and with the Millennium Development Goals which are included in the descriptions below). The fifth Millennium Development Goal is to reduce by three quarters the maternal mortality ratio.org/wiki/International_development . woman and child 7 . bathing facilities. illustrating the complexity of the problems they seek to deal with. The standard and level of provision that is acceptable or appropriate depends on many factors and is highly specific to country and location. in a remote rural community it may be more appropriate and practical to provide a visiting health-worker on a periodic basis.wikipedia. in large city (whether in a 'developing' country or not). For example. including reducing by half the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and achieving significant improvement in lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers. The sectors are highly interlinked. but some of the more established and universally accepted sectors are further explored here.http://en. The fourth Millennium Development Goal is to reduce by two thirds the mortality rate among children under five. There is no clearly defined list of sectors. it is concerned with providing housing of an appropriate quality and type to accommodate people in the long-term. The second Millennium Development Goal is to provide universal primary education. This is distinct from shelter in relief. Achieving this level of services requires innovation. but the most important for international development are: • • • The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and its associated treaties The Convention on the Rights of the Child The Geneva Conventions (this is of more relevance to relief than development) Human rights cover a huge range of topics. but also covers secondary and higher education. employment. Some of those more relevant to international development projects include rights associated with gender equality. location. which is concerned with providing sufficient shelter to maintain life. Shelter The provision of appropriate shelter is concerned with providing suitable housing for families and communities. as it requires qualified teachers who must be trained in higher education institutions. It is highly specific to context of culture. There are many of these. and at all levels by 2015 Livelihoods 8 . Human rights The provision of human rights is concerned with ensuring that all people everywhere receive the rights conferred on them by International human rights instruments. However. social welfare and culture. climate and other factors. Education The provision of education often focuses on providing free primary level education. The main goal is to make public health truly public. In development.everywhere. when they graduate from primary school they are inducted into a secondary school system that is not able to accommodate them. A lack of access to education is one of the primary limits on human development. donors are unwilling to provide support to higher education because their policies now target the MDG. The third Millennium Development Goal is to promote gender equality and empower women by eliminating gender disparity in primary and secondary education preferably by 2005. and is related closely to every one of the other sectors. The provision of education is itself an education challenge. Almost every development project includes an aspect of education as development by its very nature requires a change in the way people live. justice. quality improvement and expansion of public health services and programs. The result is that students are not educated by qualified professionals and worse. without compromising their human rights and while maintaining dignity. The two parties cooperate closely to achieve a goal set by the community. have proven problematic in forming policy as they ignore issues of wealth distribution and the lingering effects of colonialism. items or projects for their own development. see development as a form of Western cultural imperialism that hurts the people of poor countries and endangers the environment to such an extent that they suggest rejection of development altogether. which he founded. Concerns The terms "developed" and "developing" (or "underdeveloped"). Some theorists see development efforts as fundamentally neo-colonial. for example.This is concerned with ensuring that all people are able to make a living for themselves and provide themselves with an adequate standard of living. for their work in providing microcredit to the poor. capital provided by development agencies is utilized by communities to improve their quality of life. Several organisations and initiatives exist which are concerned with providing financial systems and frameworks which allow people to organise or purchase services. The first Millennium Development Goal is to reduce by half the proportion of people living on less than a dollar a day and reduce by half the proportion of people who suffer from hunger. which is represented by resources and financial investments. in which a wealthier nation forces its industrial and economic structure on a poorer nation. The 2006 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded jointly to Muhammad Yunus and the Grameen Bank. Combined with existing resources. which will then become a consumer of the developed nation's goods and services. 9 . Post-developmentalists. are allocated to communities by development agencies based on the specific needs of the communities as voiced by members of the communities. Finance Start-up capital.
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Report "Basic Concept of International Development"