ARISTOTLE, RHETORIC IIA COMMENTARY . William M. A. Grimaldi, S.]. +t ~ ++ + + § NBW YORK FORDHAM UNIVERSITY PRESS 1988 CI Copyright 1988 by FORD.." .. UmVUstTY AlI,lghts.......J. LC 79-53373 ISBN 0-8332--1049-9 PrinId .. CULTURA PRESS Wctte=, Bdgium CONTENTS SIGLA VII PREfACE IX Chapter I 77b 16 - 78a ]0 Chapter 2 19 78a 31 - 80a4 CHAPTER 3 Boa 5 - 80b 33 49 CHAPTER 4 • 80b 34 - 82a 19 65 CHAPTER 5 • 82a 20 - 83b II 87 CHAPTER 6 83b I2 - 8sa IS 105 CHAPTER 7 8sa IS - 127 8sb 10 CHAPTER 8 8sb II - 86b 8 1]5 CHAPTER 9 86b 9 - 87b 20 151 CHAPTER 10 87b 21 - 88a 30 165 CHAPTER II 88a 31 - 88b 30 173 CHAPTER I2 8sb 30 - 89b 13 183 CHAPTER 13 89b 13 - 90a 28 WI CHAPTER 14 90a 29 - 90b 14 209 CHAPTER IS 90b 14 - 90b 31 21 3 ARISTOTLB. 'RHETORIC' II VI CHAPTI!R 16 90b 32 - 91. 19 217 CHAPTER 17 91. 20 - 9 I b 7 221 CHAPTER 18 91b 8-92a7 CBAPTBR 19 92.8 - 93' 21 23S CHAPTI!R 20 93' 23 - 94a 19 CHAPTBR 21 940 19 - 9Sb 20 2S9 CHAPTI!R 22 27S 9sb 20 - 97' 6 CHAPTBR 23 970 7-oob 34 291 CHAPTER 24 oob 3S - 02. 30 337 CHAPTER 2S 02a 30 - 03' IS 3SS CHAPTI!R 26 , 03' 17-03b 2 BIBUOGRAPHY 371 SIGLA A. Anaximenes Bonitz, Ind." COMMBNTAllY Cope Cope. Imrod. edd. LS OCD pw S. "1:",,...'0." Spengd Stutlits 77b 16 77b 16 Texts Aristotle. M. Fuhrmann', Teubner edition (Leipzig 1966). H. Bonitz, I"d." Aristot.lieus (BeIlin 1870). W. M. A. Grimaldi, '.J., Aristotle, RHETORIC I: A Comm.ntary (New York 1980). E. M. Cope, The RHETORIC ofAristotle, rev. and cd. J. E. Sandys, 3 vols. (Cambridge 1877); except where otherwise designated, the citation is to Volume II. E. M. Cope. An Introduction to Aristotle's RHETORIC (Cambridge 1867). The editors of the five recent critical texts of the Rhetoric: A. Roemer. TeubneI, 2nd ed. (Leipzig 1898/1923); M. Dufour, Los Belles Lettres, 2nd ed. (I'ari. I¢o); A. Tovar, Instituto de Estudios Polltieos (Madrid 1953); W. D. Ross, Scriptorum Classicorum Bibliotheca Oxoniensis (Oxford 1959) = OCT; R. lWsd, De Gmytcr (BeIJln 1976). A Gree1<-English Laicon, edd. H. G. Liddell, R. Scott, H. S. Jones, and R. McKenzie, and ed. (Oxford 1948). Th. Ox/or. Classical Dictionary, edd. N. G. L. Hammond and H. H. ScuIlard, 2nd ed. (Oxford 1970). A. F. von Paal}', Real-EncyclopiJie der classisthen Akertumswissen.<haft, rev. and ed. G. Wissowa, W. Kroll, et a1. (Stuttgart 1894-1972). H. W. Smyth, Gruk Gramm., (Cambridge, Mass. 1956). W. M. A. Grimaldi, S.J., "1:"'1'8'0', TB"I'~e'" el"tI, in Aristotle's Rhetoric," American Journal of Philology 191 (lgS0) 383""i18. L. Spengd, Aristoklis Ars rh.torica, 2 voIs. (Leipzig 1867); except where otherwise designated, the citation is to Volume II. W. M. A. Grimaldi, S.J., Studies in the Philosophy of Aristotlls RHETORIC (Wiesbaden 1972). All text references to the Rh.toric are thus abbreviated; e.g., 77b 16 = I377b 16, etc.; A, = Book: I, 3 usually with cbapru alld text ref=, e.g., A I, 54a I, r I, 03b 10. The Greek: of the text is essentially that of Roemer's Teubner edition. Citations in bold face designate cross-references. All references to cIas.sicaI authon are to the Teubner or Oxford editions. Where these editions are IlOt used, the edition and editor are identified. r, Complete references to all the soorce material, cited throughout this book: in brief fashiOn, will be found in the Bibliography. PREFACE UNDER ORDINAIIY CmCUMsrANCES this volwne would have appeared a number of years back. The ordinary did not prevail. The approach to the text is the same as that in Volume I: all observations are directed to the reading of the codices accepted by the editors of the five critical editions and by Speoge!, Cope, unless there is a reason not to do so; the lineation is that of Roemer's Teubner text; when understanding appears to eall for it, grammar notes, or a translation, or a completion of dliptica1 Greek is given. On the other hand there is less effort to restrict supporting references to the literature in English. The strUCtUre of Book 2 is relatively simple. The opening chapter is transitional with a reference back to the discussion of the eotecbnic pistis, lOro" of Book 1 and then a brief statement on the remaining two pisteis, >TOo" :rulOo" by way of introduction to chapters 2-17 of which they form the subject. It is worth noting that both unfortunately receive relatively passing attention in the commentaries and critica1literature. This reflects, it would appear, an established attitude that both were non-logical in character, constituting what has been called "indirect proof," and so were clearly extrinsic to the proper purpose of discourse for Aristode (e.g., 54" 15-31) which was asswned to be exclusively logical proof by way of enthymeme. With 2.17 the analysis begun at 1.4 of the entecbnic pisteis (lOro" "d80, >TOo,) by way of the particular topics is concluded. Before moving on to the common topics, AriStode in chapters 18-22 reviews and enlarges upon a number of key concepts mentioned in 1.1-3, e.g., the koina (possibk-impossible, etc.), the two common ways of demonstrating (eothymeme.example) the enthyrneme as syllogism. In 2.23 he presents the common topics for inference by enthymeme followed by a chapter (24) on common topics for apparent (fallacious) enthymemes, and one (25) on ways to refute inference by eothymeme. The concluding chapter (26) mentions some further observations on the nature of the ent:l:tymeme. For support of the work on this volume I am grateful to my own University for a Faculty Fellowship, to the Classics Departments of Princeton and Stanford for Visiting Fellowships, and to the National Endowment for the Humanities for a Senior Fellowship and a Summer Stipend. I would like to thank the Princeton University Library and its staff where a substantial part of the work on both volumes was done and also the Fordham University Library and its staff for their many courtesies. In the course of the work on both ]. Harold Chemiss (t).. Thomas Conley. (t).]. Thomas Bermingham.]. s.]. (t).]. Antoni Raubitschek. and to the Director of the Fordham University Press. ForJIram University WILUAM M. Gerald McCool.. s. . Mary Beatrice Schulte. s. Elmer Henderson. H. s. GRIMALDI. s.. A. Finally my thanks go to the editor who worked with much care on both volumes of the commentary.CS some people have taken the time to discuss a problem or a matter of inteIp1'etation with me. 'RHETORIC' II vollllD.]. s.x ARISTOTLE. Joseph Dolan. the following come readily to mind: Professors GeoIgc Glanzman. George Flctdtcr. ) of the subject matter (given in Al. has placed before us the special topics (srd7j. S9b 25-32). see SBa 17.J in affecting the judgment of the auditors III· Conclusion: 78a 28 .78a 28 1... at A 2.dBo" >l80... but the speaker must appear to 6. 77b 21 -78a 6 general introduction to chaps. a 26-35.. which he calls Myo" or what reason can tell US about the subject.. pp.~. 58a 29-33 A. or the material element of discourse for the three kinds of rhetoric.: rational explanation) in Book A. However.. to be acceptable to the audience and thus worthy of belief role of the "d8. since rhetoric is concerned with judgment on the part of the auditors.30 Clearly this refers to the contents of thefirst book 77b r6 : J 'Ex ..LYfdV in which A. (Myo. awl .la~" '. and the notes to A I. a 27-28. 2. and the auditon in tum must be disposed toward the speaker (thus the need for iJSo. see Studi.20 a transitional synopsis of Book A II . and then take up his presentation of the other two ". So obvious is the reference that it has been the occasion for lengthy discussion on the unity and coherence of our traditional text on the grounds that A.. . of B 2-17.. Development: 77b 21 . granting X"0. ..CHAPTERr I· Introduction: 77b 16 . and he proceeded to do this in the first book for the ". not only must there be a logical explanation (Adyo.I~" . 2-17. disposed toward the auditors and thus wortby of belief. stated that he would first cliscuss the special topics. having presented a part of the first . our ".) qualities re~uired in the speaker for his iJSo..X"o.so.In. 28-49 and also COMMBNTAIlY I 34M6. should now continue it with the second part as found in B 18-26." lvr8X"01. Chapter IS.. ... is unique in the history of the discipline. BTBZ'.el ... proceeds..." In this respect I would disagree with Fortenbaugh.Z... 7.TBZ'. speaking of A. As a matter of fact.... they . This study. and it is A. l. Td". oaths. to use the emotions in a way which does not arise directly out of the argument of the discourse is to use them not as . but as "taT".AlUSTOTIJ!... the stated differences between "[an. criticizes at . 9. and large experience..TSZ'. (c£ S4a IS : 2. Direct appeals to the emotions which have no intrinsic relation to the matter of the discourse are as separated from rhetoric as . There still remain the other two .[m••.Z'. the "eaypaT". 63b 4. speaks of two parts of rhetoric.. ''''''Z'.' are essentially critical for rhetorical argUDIent. an observation certainly in accord with A. digressions intended to do the very thing which A. The use of the preposition i" once again indicates the fact that these special topics (eld.) and that the methodology differs in no way from that seen in Book I. pp.'s handling of the emotions acknowledges this: "n suit la .06 "edrpaT. and the A... as far as we know.••• which must be analyzed by the methodology of the special topics. II 20-21.. can be of help must be placed before us so that we may funnulate intelligent opinions and statements fur use in deductive (enthymernatic) and inductive (paradeigmatic) argument.[aTS." 49n24.!. 7sa 22 : 2. 91 b sf[ to a general summary of the major concepts of his theory first enunciated in A 1-3. It is this which Dionysius says demands mature understanding.[a. 68a 33.. S.Y I 354.. 560 14-15 (dod 6•.' provide us with the substantive material for argument in each of the three kinds of rhetoric. also belongs to this analysis. sum up in a sentence what he has achieved in Books I and 2. S4a I7).-iX''! as are witnesses.. 162-<'13. has been and will continue to be occupied with the first part until the end of Book 2.... see Studies. etc...... extended investigation. Raphael.]-4.) for each of the three "taTS'.. As soon as he begins his analysis 'of in chap. says as much at 543 I. for example.&0.d. Only at the conclusion of this review does A.1m. A. "Aristotle's Rhetoric on Emotions. A 2.axOwaw). and IJ.'s detailed study of the theoretical side of the discipline. 33-34. (A I.97a 6) to the second fonn of topical analysis.&0.. TO". . SSb 35-37). 66a 18. Dufour. S9b 25-32. 58a 26-30. It is only when he has completed this study that he toms at B IS.. 2.'s analysis by particular topics of each one which demonstrates how and why this can be so. S7a 32. De compo I. it is obvious that A. is offering an analysis of the emotions by means of the particnlar topics (. A.. See COMMENTARY I 354-56. extraneous material."". see also A 2. 1. 6.mSme methode que dans la dc!tennination des lieux specifiques qui alimentent chaque genre oratoire. to study both and ~O.'. .. therefore.TS. torture. The varied ways in which these two . that of the general topics. e... 'nHETOllIC' II 2 77b 16 .. a 23...rd... 6sb I9.]-I8: such appeals are not ". TO". This analysis occupies the final section of B.' (55b 35-39).All three .."". See COMMBNTAll..t. . (96b 28-34) and continue with a transitional sentence (96b 34 .o.. ne. Dionysius of Halicamassus. . b 16-17 "po. 58a 18ff.e. Studks.i1p. in each of the three kinds of discourse.... or 11'I1'. see 550 4-7. refers specifically to chaps. J "epl .e.COMMBNTAllY 54a 24-26: namely. ".56b 4. Hal neOTaae" which in this phrase are both the subject matter and the source material of theenthymemes. z . 69a 22. i. Studks. 12-17.. The opinions and propositional statements so derived articulare the subject matter in the three geeera ("eel TOVT"'.. see also Cope. 6Iia 3 I : 4. . As rhetorical statements..53-55. ..&.e. The d&~a. I05a 34 . For this reason I would interpret the "at as altereative (Denniston... see A 2.. I.... 78a 28-29. My". 59a 7-10. the MEa... p. a 16)..lv Cope. 6cili.80.v . For each of them he has developed by way of the special topics the ".».eel yae . 59.. I... 6:nol. 59" 8. c£ 88b 30-3I. I. to warp the judgment of the person addressed.pme.. says at a 19-20 (". 104" 12-15. 15.".I7. most probably in its meaning which denotes the two instruments of demonstration: enthymerne and paradeigma. 68a 33-36..U. See 5"" 15 : 1. and ~Oo" he repeats our statement here at 77b 16-20 but now extends it to include ~Oo..... Ins!. b 18 : 1 "oiG.mv 55" 19 : l... z p. De ortlt... pp. 55a 8.' l . 3.. such neOTaae" assume the form of ebeoTa.. 292): "what kind of opinions or statements.) and are the source material (.'a which are the probable statements..1t "viewlt . i..a which are the necessary ones.. and neOTaae" are formed on the basis of the analysis via the particular topics (ex Tl. p." See.." "opinion... p. 35.u. Cicero. e.uG. 55a 4-7. 27.. finishes the topical analysis of . 55-68. TOVTOJ» of the argumentation.. They are then used in rhetorical argument by induction or deduction.Vo. 1-17 of this book. or TBHI'>1e. Top. etc.e... (c£ 9xb 8-23) at 9Ib 24-29. p. For neOTaae"..'s text. orat. Quintilian. seeA 10. called 101'0' (rational explanation).b I.u. COMMBNTARY I 352-56. is not happy with the grammar of the sentence.~ This is not the first time we have met adE«& in this sense of "idea.. for example. but his comments cannot be reconciled with A.1. See.Ii" . see COMMBNTARY I 3SS-56. In the first book it was the particular topics for Myo. b 19 : 1 "lcrT€'~ i.oyeicr8c" the three kinds of rhetoric.' "cd "pOTcicre. and most probably "dOo... S6a 36 .n".. and also s8a 18.. as A. pO. or propositions about the subject matter in question. 24. 4 lveu .. When A. statements derived by the methodology of the erd'l.. but see A 9.g. makes an unspecified reference to chaps..I'T87.. c£ 58b 8-29. the three kinds of rhetoric. T'''. 436-39.. KUhner. Eucken. e.... but for something grasped by reason. 54" I.. In Book I the particular topics for logical "len" were specified for each genus (e. p.~ . 138--39 and Cope. p. B 18.. 55a 7. and follows..lOy.. S. The ideas here are resumed at 9Ib 8--29.~ See sSa 37: J . for the nexus of this passage with what pIeced. 2<Y].... . e. will diJfer in this respect.". in Aristotle does not stand for the faculty of reason.cn. 2. & Gerth." speaks of him as 'Judge" and as exercising judgment. Z tb. 9Ib 16-20) is not critical... Tq. is well expressed by Antisthen.. This is not done for "clO.Oa€LX"LXO~ ••• ". b Spenge!.. "believable.. c£ 96b 3: "to speak..[cner.2.aj•• 1 would think that at 94h 8-10 this is the fundamental meaning of M.XV. 76a 34. is questioned by Spenge!.see..... about each kind of discourse by itself". acceptable on reasonable grounds".. where the meaning is... Spenge!. : " S7'L 23. z 'IJ P'I'<op"''IJ A....d.. pp. c£ Ssb 25 : 1. AOY"'" On My. as I understand it." There is a similar use of our phrase at A 8. 66a 9 where it is contrasted with 7jO". at S6a 3 : Z 1 have since noticed Ross's comment in a note to 1095a 10 in his translation of the EN: ". 2...b 23 : 1 3. pp.!. 54b 6-8. 2<Y7).. it is. Neither grammar olfers examples of the adverb placed after the infinitive but C£ A I. says correctly: . p. and meant to indicate that the discussion of "clO. M." .3. 77b 24..l••. It appears to be the absolute infinitive.. 56a 3-4. who is formally concerned with the "spectator. d~J. Cope concur in the inclusion here of epideictic• .. Cope..d.. I<Y]. Cope read the parentheses. I have recently noted that Else.g. Blass.d.. explanatory and credible.l. As seen above. 2012. or perhaps sometimes for an operation of reason.. applicable to all three branches of Rhetoric). IS. 58b 2-6. quite clear that nonnally My. is a reference to the .:tOy." >TO.'s ordinary way of referring to the TiXV'/... 6 TO TI ij. 120.. On the range of the word M.d ... 820. as here. 112. in A. b 21 : J "pl". iaTi.. S. 1 think..d .." M." See also S'78 2. SSb 2. Richards. 56b 29. 76b 1.<6~ "T"'.. . C£ S9a 28.."T'''. pp. 33-34. "Ueber den Gebrauch.. S6a 3 : z .e... A 2. b 21-22 (x.5.' called logical "laTl.the explanation of the intelligibility of the subject matter as the mind grasps it. see Barnes.. A 2. Cope. See A I.. C£ A 2. In support of the explanation of aVTq. C£ S6a 5 : z.AIUSTOTLlI... I .585. p.. 2<y]. My. loT. see. i. . 221D-22II. {Hel.. 19-20. I take both "eel /!"aen •• and ldl'1 with yiv. 58a 31 and C£ Spenge!. 'RRBTORIC' II 4 20 ':'~ ••. On ""en. who defined it according to Diogenes Laertius 5." 818. and that Cope.d. In connection with the comment at sSb 2.3: .. see S9b 16. p. see SSb 2." ijO.... A My.g. as it were..lv) The edd. On the meaning of My..g... see Studies. The passage. ~ .. The inclusion of ouly two kinds of rhetoric (see A I. 224. read by the edd. Brandis) or includes the auditors as well and thos is related to chaps. 57& 2 : 1). The question before os.ov ... met in B I2-I7? Limiting >l80. then. here.. SSb 38. u. here to the ""'6%".%"o" he considers 1i80.volitive. x .. S6a 2 which is spoken of there as one of the three "taTS'.'" On ""T"axsvdC. 76b 3. and "d8••.. T. 481-83. and presumably forming together with chaps.""mol!. On the meaning of "common" here.TO. 12-17 (Spengcl. IntroJ. as he is about to present the special topics for psychological proof ("dB.. as far as A. 12-17.. by themselves without any need to distinguish them for each kind of discourse. and "dB. of A 2.6.COMMBNTAlt.. which notes that we have in this chapter not a discussion of 1i8...volitive. ""'S%"O~ Brandis.. A.'s discussion of the "ttIT" called 1i8. and >l8. UYO..-O. 1".' . he has his own views on the second two "ta . Returning. argues on the contiary that 1180.. which fonn the subject of B 1-17.. TO. to the question: does >l8. as effective instruments of rhetorical argument not so much in themselves but as helpful means when f.).. in rhetorical discourse. is whether the meaning of 1i8.s.ed with the stupidity of the auditors! DufOur. "Ueber der Rhetorik. attend to the psychological attitude of the auditor which would be his "dfhI and his 118o. finds no difference between the meaning of 1i80. Spengcl. It should be noted that A. is restric. person speaks to person in the dfurt to communicate. gives us an introductory chapter to the material. c.. in this chapter refers only to the 1180.. here (or even in A 2) refer only to the >l80..v.. 24-8-49. who speaks of the major importance in the minds of all in the fourth century B. In other words.". Dufour). II 18. of the speaker's >l80.aTru.TO" an· interpretation subject to a number of problems. would agree. sees our present chapter as exclusively concerned with the speaker's 1i80. alone but a general introduction to the two "ltIT••. Perhaps the most direct way toward an answer is the review of the chapter proposed in the outline given at the beginning. TO..). in this chapter and that of chaps. 10913. as one of the three artistic proofS is restricted solely to 1i80. As has been said (548 IS : 2. He has given us the cognitive and now moves to the affective . he can discuss "dB. therefore." a position of Cope's somewhat underlined by Maykowsh... S9b 14 and cpo A :. Since he looks upon logical proof as the only "taT'.." pp." >l8. which is clearly (see below) one of the three entechnic "taT. and this means the whole person: cognitiveaffective . However. see 9Ib 8-23. mentions here both speaker b 24- and auditor and appears to be saying in what follows that the speaker most do two things: establish his own 1180'. IS. Cope...-....".. with the completion of the special·topics for logical proof (My. This of course would mean that 1i80.. Since these two aspects are common to all three k:inds of discourse.. bTSZ'." >l8. in discourse? Or does it include the >l8.. T... pp. u. dxe. is concerned..y .ted to the speaker (Cope..T. 12-17 on the auditors 1i8•• A. of >lB..aT" . sarily determined in large part by the speaker's understanding of the >l80. again. probl<IDS such as the following..'T6%.. It is obvious from this that evm when the term >lBo. S60 2.. it is not at all clear from the use of >lB. In fact.w (77b 24) without a knowl- "'. Twa) XQTQU"""dC. returning to A 2.t.ia. e..o. ". 560 2/f. in presenting his own >lB.) we must. 'IBBTOBlC t 11 speaker (even while granting the importance of this proof to A. as effort by Cope and Brandis (c£ also Buchheit. I 33 acknowledges. the discussion of 718'1 at AID. S6a 22-23.. TO.~o. Finally. This view is supported at A 8. Further reflection on this last passage (560 4-I3) makes it clear that the speaker's >lBo. and. m6X"0' correcdy (S6o 2O/f. one may well ask how a speaker can Td.. has used >lBo. one can dismiss only with difficulty the speaker's need for such knowledge of >l80.. is using it in Cope's restricted sense.) encounte.g. 69a I8-3 I underlines this extension in A.0. But essential to what he has to say of it is the met that the speaker must know the 7IB'I of the varied kinds of government. and 56a 8-I3 suggests this may have hem occasioned by a problem at the time (c£ S4& I5 : z). "eml' (01 • . up to this point in our text that A..". of the audience. >l8.Bo" B 2-Il).".. p. he clearly refers to this limited sense only at A 2. of those addressed.. as the ". of the importance of action on the part of the audito. as Cope. consequendy.. to that of the auditor's is to acknowledge that an understanding of the auditor'. in the crucial words dE. is not something which can be totally divorced from a knowledge of the >lBo. understanding of the >l8..iaT". must be established by the language employed (a 8-10). Aiyo. explicidy remarks that if we are to use the ". This would mean that they are nec. a study found in the discipline of ethics. coming back to our present text... no) to mean that the speaker must adapt his >l80. in the light of the extended treatmmt given to the other two (Myo" A 4-14. Aware. is critical to the speaker's >l8.. 130) to assignA 9 and B 4 as additional explanation does not work since the remarks there can apply as readily to another's >l80.tI1TBI. for that which would make one in one's discourse dE. this is odd...6 ARISTOTLB. Relative and important to it is the . Again. to interpret chaps.. and l:!.0. of the audience." ". in which concept government is viewed as a moral person (66& I2. TOW c!Heoa~a. 66a 8-I6 where we meet the >lBo. sec.6.... 1'JI1:6%.. 158. In short. is used of the speaker more than his own >l8. I2-I7 with Cope (p.· further.'l1To. that the 7}B... This app.peaker'. p. TW'V dxe'oaTwv is also . On the mce of it. thus &r in the text. inter alia.... Both these qualities of the speaker's >l80. 66a 10-12). as A. 78a 7-20) the only fonnal explanation of >l80.lant bT6X".. as we should be. A. to the rhetorical art. If it is correct.O""a~0"ln'6t"'1" toyoungpeoplc(B I2) is not that which would produce the same effect among the mature (B I4). . make a study of the types of human character. and [ntrod.[an. Here he speaks of 7I87J in general and their role in men's actions. then we have in B I (77b The 24-29.. is at issue. In actual fact. uences and typifies his usual way of responding emotionally.v i.X'" ..y80~. &lxClLS i.. belief. 59. .0.yBo~ in the speaker as well as to the mood and general disposition of the auditors. The adverb means: "in • certain way. see Bonicz. ... 62a 26. Cope. C£ 88b 30--31.(o"<. Part of the problem in this introductoty section of chapter I is that . 2 ..0. refers to . again.e. 67b 29.oAClI'~<iV. the role of the general character and set disposition (. aab 30--31. understands by . C. c£ 77b 27-28..:2b 13 : 2). 67b 29: 2. as explained.i0811.y80~.y80~ (see 69a 18 : 3) than the transient and more ephemeral "atlo~. 77b 24. see Studies.. as it does at A . 66a 10--12.78a 6) without such knowledge. see 77b 29-31 and note."". 58b 8IE) and judicial (58b IOIE) rhetoric are particularly sensitive to . 458e . protasi. Bywater ("Aristotelia V. b 3) which would be more typical of what A. it would appear to decote a more established state or attitude (see also A 6. "01. a~T.. With "al it joins together the articular infinitives. Such an effort sounds unpleasandy like that of Gorgias in his reply to Socrates' questions at Gorg. one of whose elements is the "dO'l (6. Or. Spengel.. The subject is the auditors understood from nqO~ aVTov~. b 26"I:E b 26-29 that . This last is explained at b 30 .. This verb governs the following infinitive with the subject accusa- tive." n6) is not happy with an understood b 27 : 1 2 subject.46oe.78a 6 in terms of an emotional disposition ("d80~) but does not absolutely preclude."al. b 25 : 1 &'Clcpip.'v. the reading of the edd." As we see the verb at A 10.. For a further discussion of . b 25-26 GUI'PouACliS •.yOo~ represects the dominant disposition in a man with respect to the appetitive part of his soul. to d.e••). Cope reads "a>~. as well as the attitude and disposition of the auditors (b 28-29: lciv .I1I.acpl. Eucken (De Arislotelis dicendi ratione) in his discussion of Ti says little about TI. a usage not uncommon in A. is read by the edd.• A£yOV.y80~) of the auditors. c£ A 9.': subject to d.y80~. how he can make the auditors well disposed or dispose them at all (77b 28 . Index. b 27-28 ""'~ &. deliberative (A 3. except Dufour who reads without it as do Specgel. 56a IotE where it is quite clear 8. and being a donlinant disposition it in/j. .. insofar a• ...COMMBNTARY 7 edge of the auditor's .p6~ C£ 15.. p.y8o~ and "a80~ are not at all totally separate within the human person...-a See A 2.• TVYX""a>q. 6".e. 68b 4. •. cf. 55a 4. what make the difference are the character of the speaker and the way it is perceived by the auditors (b 26-28: TO TO ..I.acpses£).' TI. v Cpo .'." 302-303). "absolutely different".. 4. 3 respeuively. b 3' lib. Spengel. as Cope.". lxoucr... whiclr are usually a sign (A 3. 2326b. the more transient feelings and emotions of the auditors taiba than their more permanent and established dispositions.55a I. Kassel. 78a I : I . .". for tense of 6. De orat. Td rpa.:0 . 2. The parallelism in statement betw... {IoVA1JTO> 6. is most I"obably speaking of this geore as he does of the judicial in 78a 1-3· a 4 : I bu9upoilV'L'. I\'. with TIurot ("Observations critiques [IJ.'s and would puoctuate with a colon after the secluded passage to main. 56.. see LS..ell t he. Such a sanguine person would respond quite readily to an attractive pmposal set down for his deliberation (TO ~C1".: does introduce a specifIcation of the inunediately preceding statement whici is then developed (b 3I ...nd 3If[..ARISTOTLE. . 2.. 61x". a 3-6 x.. brackets it as a possible additim of A.g.:L"C'(lL 'riJv Xp{O'LV uHe passes jud. Q.Ii.". e. I do not see it as necessary since the restatenJ. 2. 27-28: .." i. TO •• "alo. O!""' . neWTO. e. 54b 19 .'" a 2 'KGU.v possibly taken more precisely as a future more vivid COldition.Oo. "". read by the edd.. would indicate that A.. 56a 15-19.. their i!lI7j.. is the reading of four edd... i..e.... z ><II"~ pky£80. Cicero. and Met.O' rae ..t £{'V. Cope and Kassel read "aTo TO .. 16-17.. and the reason is indicated primarily by ."".'''ea... FrilOdship. . 54'1 11-21.". 55a I!f-20.S.. S.'s comments on contemporary tecbnographers in A I..g. different.. See 6!)a I : " f9a 2-3.en our passage and that at 560 15-19 suggests that A. in kind.. d6. p.42. C£ A. and mildness or patience are discussed in B 4.o. Spengel.d.0 ""pci. 780.arpie. (save Kassel).gment".fOliO): A.. is speaking here ""'ut the nd01J.. b 28-29 Dtensive. pe.in the thought connecrion between 77b 25-29 .. >l6V).... 78a 2: otl~ presents a rather vivid description of the element of uoreason which can be introduced in" !he auditor by an irresponsible appeal to the emotions. b 2!f-3 I -. 13 If[ It is possible...e. ~IIV'<!OV The future tenses in the passage. A difference in magnitude here would mean a difference in degree of the thing being judged. to the man of strong desires and of good hq>e.... 3: . which is that element in the appetitive soul which does not act under the immediate guide of reason. 10720.. 'tUyyci..'m.78a 6) with respect to the auditor.6"'.OVP'1T1. 58b 14£) of deliberative discourse. anger.. Cope.iy.. b 31-32 06 yip . suggests. see Der Text.II...Ov. 'RHBI'ORIC' II b 28 xu..4 2.178.••00 "aA•• . 5-<5 where Pericles (for Socrates' estimate ofhim as a speaker.".e. See.. A 9. these are the only causes (78a IS). .0.. ThCl!e is the passage in Thucydides 2. apart from some kind of logical proof in the sense of A 2. s6a 3-40 19-20. 2 ". is patent... A I. as given by Thucydides.&.b.. 27.. then." 2 .d eXpo.. h·. possibly borrowed it not only for the Rhetoric (see also Spongel. etc.P"(~o~"" is the reading of four edd.0.. without any desire. 94".. paralleled in a number of authors." The contrast of both with b"OvpoVlm .. A.g. 140. or demonstration in the stricter sense by way of deduction or induction. B 20.. 67b 29. as subject here and in the following instance: "then.. both of which work against the speaker: anaB7j~ denotes the listless person. 66a II). 2I.. 8. As the word is used in the Rhetoric. In Plato's Gorgia.. "any time the prospective matter is attractive. as the conunentators have noted.6... "annoyed.g. 6uI1XBqai• . . a man .. 38.. 17b 23-24..i xal &UIJJ(.35f[.. if it is apparent to the auditor. a person negatively disposed.£.." i. Spengel.. and each of them must of necessity be present. From what is said. will either diminish or destroy the speaker's credibility. p. p. that A.78a 9 COMMENTARY 9 n 2 The present general condition reinforces this characteristic response of the optimistic man. TO <1161'. a 8: I The idea here is rather closely a 9 : I cppclv'l"'~ x.. 19. 77b 25)... B I. This meaning for "irfT'~ usually appears in a verb form (e. Cope. Ross conjectures an i) after anaBei following Richards.... A I. it submits to either meaning. 209) but also for the Politics 1309a 33-39. ssa 5. p. r 13. 5.e. 55a 5-<5.. is quite similar to the one here . i. &"0&&[1. 9.lrfTBI' I. 03a 15.. 487a-b (and see the rest of the number) Socrates says that he would consider himself fortunate were he to engage in a discussion with Callicles.. His comment.g. x ..e.d sc. it appears to him that the proposal will eventuate and will be gllod. who argues that the same man cannot be both. The absence of anyone of them..TBX'O'.60..so much so that it suggests to Cope. I do not find the conjecture necessary. disgusted at.EUOfLEV This is the state of mind we call conviction.. but we also find the noun (e. as: I x.C..!..1 olivo. belief which is ordinarily effected in us by the competent use of the three . 56a 6..10. 18a 5. 107. proposes not alternatives but two diametrically opposed and contrasting attitudes.94b 8. see Phaedrns 269e-f) defends himself and his policy before the people at a rather trying time in 430 B. 2. '7. • tiih. e. 3 £~. 17 (which echoes our passage). We come now to the explanation (a 7-20) of the way one establishes a credible >iBo~ TOU UYO'TO~." . 68a 32.. 25. when. IS. are deceived. See also Cicero.a. I experience a very deep joy as I perceive that both the speaker and his words become each other and are in tune with each other. 7. a mean determined by reason. The three qualities which A. . in EN 1172b 15-18 attributes the success of Eudoxus' explanation of pleasure to his ~Oo~ which caused people to accept his theory. "whenever I hear • man discouning on excellence or some phase of wisdom. p.o. and we are told at II66b 30 .33-34. meaning in the middle voice.9. As A. 19 where we are told that it will be discussed with rpcAia in chap. "virtue is a habit of choosing [E<.Il'jIEIl6ov. in speaking of the elfectiveness ofPhocion as a speak:er (Lives: Phodon 744"). this is its ordinary • 6. 63b 14. in 1l06a 12 he called the virtnes I••• . 260c 3-4. 67b 26-27. 77" 18). 4.] would determine it. 8. 60b 14.o. at A 8.• IIssb 33/[. such as the man of practical wisdom [d 'Pea••po.66b 1 (see 66a 36 : 1••) as moral excellence.e. it is joined. frequently uses it this way. the mistake in the statements made and the advice given (a 10) would be unintentioual.g.. In the EN it is discussed in connection with friendship (e.. As Laches says in Plato's dialogue of that name (188c-d). In this sense. 5.10 ARISTOTLB.u67a 21 that while it is lik:e a friendly feeling it is not friendship but appealS to be the beginoing of friendship.. De officiis.IIQ7a 2. 660 28. mistaken. 23." Plutarch notes the importance of >}Oo. 20) and de .o.e. one who is truly a man and worthy of the words he 'peaks.a appealS in Book: I (i. 62a 13. as Cope. 600 I1-I2). The former is intellectual in character..). In the one place where a form of eiJ. we do not meet the word again.. Such is snrdy the fact in the first instance . see 66b 20-22.. 2.j (A I. It is a virtue of the intellect. ef1. he remarks that "perhaps it [his effectiveness] should be referred to his >}Oo. with moral goodness as the criterion of the . 66b 3.. S. 64b 14f[. We have seen in the filSt book: two of the qualities mentioned: 'PeOV1}a" (A 7.] residing in a mean relative to onrsdves. the intellectual competence as well as the moral and personal integrity he conveys to his listeners. in the speaker.. and A. neoa<e"'''~. . 3Sff. IIS7b 17-19).uctorilas. ~RHBTORIC' II who possesses the three qualities of h"anjp1J. "aee1Jaia. 64a 32. 9." The man of good will (.a..peaker·s credibility. says at EN lloob 36 . combining intelligence and prudence.. Apart from 78. c£ Demosthenes. ssb s... i. The importance of good will is recognized in the casual remark: of Socrates in the Ph""Jrus. the source of man's good action•• an excellence identiral with the habit of making good moral choices (neoil'eea. expressed another way: they constitute what is called the speaker'." And A. The latter is defined for us at A 9. mentions constitute for him an estimable >}Oo. since merdy the word or command of a good man carries a conviction outweighing endless arguments and periodic sentences. as here.g. who mentions prudenli•• iustiti•• inlellegenli•. says.• silvo". On the Crown 281) is the one who is well intentioned toward his hearer.. 35. 66a 36 . and its inIportance for ddiberation and good moral action is discussed in EN. s4b 10. 'Ppavlp. ssb 17-21. S3-<53. and knowledge is definitely implied. in the third..a. the meaning of the word must frequently come from the context.cil.>v i.. see also 80a 30 : I. • •• sJ. hold. 7Ia 13. tip'll"') where good" will and virtue are mentioned as the source of the speaker's credibility. A. A I.. the determinations made in A 9. Four of the edd. a 16-17 'PpOvlp. as 66a 8-9. see 68b 22... "a.u-. 61b 38. 1320b 19) read lK reV.b 6.t '"'. ssa IS-I8. Kassel (who cites Pol... and A II. in the second. poxOwia. e.. .. and the discussion in de Romilly.g. possibly (but slightly) the fact in the third the fact in the second instance (-IIdoode." "fair".•. 12 indicate.. see also ssa 23. made the same observation: namely. is crasis for xa! a.. implies a voluntary action grounded in deliberate choice . •• aoodeo. "good. Spenge! read I" rde. Cope. S70 1-'7 it is clear that rhetoric treating.d~ i.. cf. 80a 30: I. characterizes the man possessing c1qsn!.ov"<E<. 66a IG-U (rq.yvw""o.. Post.v "form. Since knowledge is clearly present in all but the first. a II : 1 ci'PPOaUv'J'l We have not seen this word in A....... a 12-13: a 13 : II &o." On its dilference from l"iuraaOa" see An.&.. a r8-I9 a yup •.v"<. 74a 9-17. for the most part... 1 a IS-I6 a"'. The second instance is not at all in accord with the way A.GL See Ci4b 12." 'P@o><po.. 29-33. with material not absolutely certain must engage in this kind of intellectual activity... b 4-17.. a 12-13) since the motive. 68b 10-18. 67b 21 : 2 and Cat. that in developing propositional statements on virtue and the honorable for another the speaker simultaneously reveals his own it0o. on rhe word see 6Ia 2S : 2...cil.o~ a 13)..o"se . (.a.. 89a II .e.ee A 10.. lob S-II. 2 &o. a 17 &'llPIJI'clvc. a . YLY''':'''''''''"<''~ In the first instance is missing. 2 cl""E.. dean!. the analysis of the particular topics of epideictic rhetoric which concentrated on virtue and the honorable.. 13. 74b 9-10. the clause at a 14..... . See. ••• Myoucnv C£ Oem."... avreV' yde. r.". For some idea of what the word carries within itself.e.Gl " . but questionably 'P@o"'l"" a II-I4 .. At the beginning of A 9. an opinion on a thing. On the Crown 282. 660 25-28. siJ. and it states the possibility of misstatement deliberately or inadvertently... see 74& 26 : I." "reasonable.. views the purpose of rhetoriC:li discourse.j yup . "<Ol.ra" would apply strictly to the second and the third... see Stla 6. ... pp.6aio.78a 18 II COMMBNTAlIY (-II ya@ . a II-12).o. but its cognate Htpe"" gives us the idea contained in it.oua. From A 2.• Aiyo."<' lXElv See A 8. 6.io' O"Ko. c£ 78a 9 : 1. pp. Eth.. One can search among the earlier technographers without much success for anything remotely resembling A.VII.'lla is taken up specifically in chap. it is to the Rhetoric among the works of the corpus to which we must tum for A. I824/£. 246. or.g. but nothing more.VllI.. 3S3-54. B. ." Despite the effort of Fillion-lahille I am not persuaded that there c:xisted an earlier "eel "d8.rj... A study of these passages strengthens an earlier view that A. 2--1I. Hicks. the Rhetoric to Alexander by Anaximenes (which from internal evidence I would consider prior to our Rhetoric..IO (Antiphon). seems to be aware .a is not mentioned again.g..tAla. S.o~. b 2. p. 201) on the causes of anger: "Aristote les c!tudie dans la RMtoriqlle 112".g. see S.o~. B.80.. ". and described in detail. II (Thrasymachus). but the kind of statement which will evoke them or the circumstances in which they should be used is presented. Fantham. ". Prodicus and Thrasymachus are mentioned together with Hippias and Protagoras by Quintilian (IIISt.0. XXII.~ 3. takes note in A 2.971 are discwsed in chaps. Indeed. p. a point [requeedy made.. s6a IS-I9. .II67" 2I. and it is seen in the poets.8-ro. and the technographers.&871. I429a I7.'s "d871 (om. S40 I6-26. ""ao~. e.g. B. Nic.~ and their role in the rhetorieal dXV71..X. I. e. see. Introd.. mentions Thrasymachus. 2--u. 4Mo..a is questionable to me. pp. IIosb 20 sqq.. Cope. At 040 r4-rsA.0. Rhet II.<le. referring to "d971 as specific emotions "de£ined and enumerated by Aristode. ?I440b 28.23 (Corax). Apart from these loci.o~) appear a number of times where their meaning is assumed. however.A(CI~ ".'s analysis of . e. e. There are hints of some awareness of the emotions..39...v. The following from Radermacher are typieal of the kind of passing reference made to them: B. on the meaning in the word.A..IX. in A. I3-I4 (Gargias). v. Certainly there are b -ro'~ "eel Ta . 3.. a 20 : I lv .. 'RHETORIC' II 78a 20 in general on the matter of the repetition of II. 269-70) that B 4 on ""Ala is also A. It contains but a few casual remarks on the .6.s.22 (Alcidamas). as A.~ .. r2) as early writers who discussed the emotions.8 (prodicw). six of A.' s treatment of the emotions.). c£ liN II66b 30 . c£ Studies. pp.<le'~. p. of the practical utility of the emotions.1. . see beginning and end of 77b 24a I9 eWo~ XCIi q. prose writers. It is not usually remarked. Z "rei nliOlJ There is ample evidence for the knowledge among the Greeks before A. Whether we are to assume (see.o. see VahIen. IISlc. Beitrage. the . I98. cc. orators. B..071 (78a 20) other emotions beside ""Ala which indicate e6vo. There is one fairly detailed TiM in our possession. 7Sff. r428. 36.12 ARISTOTLB. that with the Rl~toric we come to the first theoretieal and formal analysis known to us of "d90~ and its importance in discourse. Gautlrier & Jolif (Ill.... For the mood of "a-raa"sv&a. Brandis.II..~. of A.'s study of the .a. B. 11:ciO'l On -ro'~ "eel c£ S. p. ..As far as deliberation and human action are concernedwhich are the more proximate interest of the rhetorical discipline . nemo tamen quantum scimus affectuum in origine natura commodis vd incommodis explicandis operam posuit. some form of emotional. Yet the very fact that we move toward reality at all is the desire to understand. 26']c-d.. We are often given to understand that the only access to reality is via the intellect. 403a 16f!:). lOOf!:) are "commo des esp~ces du d6ir •. one hopes) of.eemed unnatural to the Greeks. 34. When we tum to plato and to the Phaetlro. unhappiness with or fear about the coherence of our intellect with reality. In fact.commitment. All of which is somewhat .. The continued disregard can be seen in the work of modern commentators. has noted in his analysis of human action in A 10. while they are not desire (6e"'~) (see. and the "d97J...d. distress. maio elles en diJf~t en ce que les passions sont toutes accompagnecs d'unmouvement corpord. is the result of dissatisfaction.. In man the presence of ideas carries with it the presence of emotions. withour dismissing the critical importance of the intellect. 8).. sont Iices a I'organisme" (Chaignet. 69a 15-24: cIll' 01 phi 6. the intelligible object and reason itself can move to action only when joined to Ife. In short. to the effect that among the pre-Aristotelian philosophers "quamquarn multi fuerunt . and c£ De an. p. Bailey commenting (ILIOU) on Lucretius 3."h3OQ-30Z. that while they are not the causes of action they do enter somehow into human action. see.]. for example.4 l}97J :cal "d97J xeiicn:a. 436. pp. c£ Sb/ai". the rhetOricians who followed A. .g. Ixxxviii." Further. Kenny..g. in 'particular. feclings and emotions are not idle appendages.136-160 (the mind as a special part of the soul and as the seat of thought and emotion) uses Homer by way of illustration and remarks that the . refinement.la lne&<ova. as Conley.a. as A. Actio"... it is certainly necessary to recognize that man does not move toward the real or the true or the probable by intellect alone. I would consider sound the statement of Ringeltanbe. while taking other thing. 27Ib.10).1I . Hubbell. rejection by the understanding of our finding. in part. 3.. we are made aware of the importance of the affective part ofman to discourse. The constant correction.the n&97J are of critical importance. In the psychology of A.. "Ud97J.. disnrissed his analysis of the nd97J (On Rhetoric. p. Phaear.ln0tes. from Iris Rhetoric. col.78a 20 COMMBNT AllY 13 of the wOI:k of Anaximenes."~ (De an. 338). prominent Supreme Court jurist... I. Charles Evans Hughes: "Ninety percent of any decision is emotional" (cited in Douglas. but pervasive instruments which together with the intellect constitute the means whereby man comes to know the world. There he said. p. p. Similarly.eparation of thought and emotion .tartling in the light of.accompanies intellectual conviction. 76nn33. 01 dA d. but of no more (e. 277b-<:). comment (exaggerated. e. if Philodernus is correct. purdy subjective and private. is one of the three elements ("dO.a<l of these qualities.. In the De anima we find that the emotions (403a 16-2-7) are also corporeal. quite right in his ...14 AIUSTOTLB... .. From among the three ("dO.." In Cal.e. 42720 . Hicks or Hamlyn on De an.. as part of man's moral nature. faculties. the quality resulting from the change: ". Tjj 'I"'xii y. for example.. 1Q04a sff.. is aware of the dual activity of body and soul... In the EN "clOa.. Since the opening chapters of the De an.. Met.000. as we are now meeting it has something to do with man'. for example. in one sense is the quality [na<onl'] in respect of which a thing can be altered.).. nosb 19-20). l~. and so in turn a . has a number of meanings in A .. property (De . In this respect I would consider RUSIO.al TW. in another sense is the actualizations [bBey. heavy and light.. feeling. inseparable from the body. The emotions as we meet them in the EN are described primarily as psychic phenomena (Tci'. For. or the effect of the alteration. and cpo Plato. 1022b 1S-2f conveys the central idea that dOa. whereby we are said (nosb 24-2S) to be able to experience the "dO.. as emotion. habits. sweet and bitter. The 6""cip." to the extent that the 6wa.. particularly in the emotions (403' Sf[)..!) with which man is naturally endowed. affection (see..'s major concern is to identify nom among these three related elements the one which makes for moral excellence. S (sb 2Sff. In the Ilktorie we meet "dOo. and all such others.. Thus we speak realistically of an irascible. as parts of this deenl (or "a"la) would appear to be this: the dO. S3.. The relation of the "dOf] and the clvvcip.) of the Categories he discusses "o<&T.. or envious... Since A.. denotes change . or friendly person. there is substantially the same statement. but in an applied and specific sense as powers. e.. A habit is an acquired. 'RHETORIC' II 78a 20 The word "dOa.)." reacts in a certain way (w 11 "aHcii.va. sessment of the ndO.! form a part of his moral nature. identifies moral goodness or badness (demj. the nature whereby man realizes himself fully as man.!' : that in virtue of which men are said to be "such and such" ("a.. 403 b 10K.. "a"ta) with the l~s". there is no reason to think that this . stable disposition which (nosb 2S-26) controls the dwa. To the extent that they are subject to control by a man'. as a moral being tending toward genuine human good.! and d""d. deenl.000..) A. are in SC! morally neutral capacities (Hosb 31-32 we are neither praised nor blamed for our "dO.o. see EN 1097b 22 . dominant habits (6:&b 13 : 2).!. 9a 2Sff. 403a 16). p.". "dOa. the "dO. and therefore in the more restricted sense in which we find it in the EN nosb 19ff.. U" can shape a d~..either the change and alteration itself.. In general it denotes some change Of modification in an entity.! dvvcip... 6""0..). moral nature.cbas" "-6'!1.! in the Rhetoric.434>.1098a 20. white and black. make it clear that A.." l~.... the actual changing processes [. quality. In chap. accident..g.s" are explained not in the general sense of the word. The definition given in Met. i.. emotion. sensation..". Rep.! named at nosb 21-23. thought.) found in t\le soul.LUa. attribute. it would seem clear that "dOa. . is intransitive] diJfer in respect to the judgments they malte.. see the interesting but not necessarily conclusive article of Duprat.er statements from his other works. see Hardie. together with a bodily reaction. and this perception is fonowed by the impulse to acquire or avoid..'s statement on pleasure. amore ut non cognoscas eundum esse (" See A.organic disturbance: the stimulus is seen as good or bad for the person." This is to say that an emotion introduces an alteration within the person which alfects the critical &culty of the judgment.lS9b 31. and is not a forrnaI study of the nature of the emotions.appetency .. cf... p.p.. 898 I~2. as Parmeno says in the Eunuchus of Terence. 22S£: "di bani. . While recognizing that the extenSive treatment of the nd67J in the Rheloric has a specific objective in mind. "Aristotle'sRhetoric on Emotions. em ". it must be seen by the person as beneficial or harmful. AU emotions are feelings.. Fedings are dementary aJfective states (pleasure. thus some kind of knowledge is prerequisite for an emotion. and 69b 33 : 1 on A.. Ii .~. or from rr28b 14-IS where A. An emotion calls for cognition . There is no reason at all to think (Cope.. Emotions are more complex alfective states of stronger intensity occasioned by a stimulus which cawes a psychic state accompanied by physiological changes in the body (the effect of seeing a crazed man approaching with a loaded shotgun).." 4Off.'s "picture of the emotions . in what fonows I shaD work from the perspective A.. and for the Ethics. p.Tapdllo... it is pleasant to read in a recentstudy of emotion (Lyons. men undergoing a change [.'s comment. p. see Fortenbaugh. then.' ." an observation which echoes that of Bacon (Cope. 7) that A. A S6a IS-16. pain) which fairly wen defy further analysis beyond saying that they be viscetal (pain in the stomach) or mental (pleasure in an idea) and do not appear to require antecedent mental activity. 68-93. 34) that A.p"".. On the other hand. On this point. quid hoc morbist? adean homines immutarier ex.'S statements with trepidation. speaks of the emotions.0. 8): de iis quanlum Ian.. furtl. adding. In order for the stimulus (object or situation) to arouse an emotion. but aD feelings are not emotions. "aD these modifications because of which a 20-21 Ii. is by and large the correct one. adopts in the Rhetoric with respect to the emotions. acute el bene disseruil. Indeed. 60b 14: z. is speaking particularly of deliberative or judicial rhetoric because of the use of "eia. see 77b ZI : 1.rr26b 10 and the language used there. paucis fieri pOluil.. from EN 1I2sb 26 . pp. In conclusion. there is no reason to think that we should approach A. it appears clear that the idea of bodily activity is present. we can say of the emotions that it is ordinarily accepted that there are two kinds of aff"ective phenomena: the feelings and the emotions. Indeed. cf. I do not agree with those who believe that we should not expect precision of statement in the Rheloric. where necessary and possible.IS COMMBNTAIIY understanding is absent from the Rhetoric. On tn .. in 7 dxae. places before us in the Rheto. 13 with mpect to der>i are in no way at odds with the above.. Each list duplicates the other for the most part: if we accept (and there seems no reason not ta) an equivalence between alazlvtl (Rhetoric) and alaeb. and ." The statements at 78b 1-2 and 82.60'0'.... as an analysis of each passage will reveal. With the other emotions the contrary is discussed more briefly. "ea0'"l" 3 (however. In this triple division.. all (except Oupo. Appendix. and all but two (0. In the EN nosb 21-23 we are given II.ic 14 "dO.Oupla) are not in the Rhetoric.1i. P. 8sa 14-17. 6. or imagination" (Fortenbaugh. all of which are present in the EN and also (except "000') in the Rhetori. He engages in an extdlSive aDaly" of the contraries with der>i. (EN)..16 ARISTOTLE..4." '". On the other hand I agree with Fortenbaugh's thesis on the role of coguition in these Aristotdim emotions (see his Aristotle on Emotion). (Rhetoric).ic. says of the phrase: "significat A*"1 11 ljdo. and view it as further confumation that in the Rhetoric A. or not at all.00'0. II.ar1a is mentioned in the devdopment of Xlle". but two (0.g. "Aristade's Rhetoric on Emotions. A.. a specification of the kind of physiological and psychic changes he has in mind.8'7. In view of the common presence of these emotions in the orber works I am not sure that the "dO'7 of the Rhetoric were sdected because they "essentially involve some kind of thought. the "al is altemative (Dennistan. '. will discuss the emotions in claps. d.. 7. "pBaa..". and .aX""Tia. of the kind of change in the penon with which he identifies ndOo. "pBaa. and h. a. [. The division is observed in the following chapters in varying degrees: more completdy for some emotions than for others. a 23 KEpi ha<m>V i. The =options in each list are: "eao'"l' and Xlle" exclusive to the Rhetoric.e.. Four ndO'7 are also given in the EE I220b 12-14. Clj'AO'. see. with respect to each "dO. 2. of which all but two (0"1'0" xdea) are found in the Rheto. 'RHB'IORIC' II 78a 23 a 21-22 O[~ ••• oJjSoviJ See also EN IIosb 23.000. 2 through II as pain of contraries. or bdief. a 22 or_ cinil I<TA. As Vater. 63b 28 : z.'0" 8. 62a 29 : Z.pea" (EN). to which are added at noBa 30 . In the MM n86a 12-14 six "dO'7 are named. cf.. exclusive to EN.76... introduces without formally saying so an analysis of the emotions by causes. 80a S : :I). e.10. and their opposites. COMMBNTaRY I. is analyzing the fundamental nature of human discowse as reasoned and reasonable.b 10 alaeb. the presence of pi:asure and pain is a specification for A./rol'ia." 64). in our case here pleasure or pain follows sinrultaneously on the "dOo. and Clj'AO" II.0. are to be considered contraries is questionable in the light of 88b 22-23..a. 292)." we must mue a division into (61QI(ler~ Bk) three subject areas.1'0'. cf. p. Causal analysis is an effective tech- .ipea. la.) are included in the EN list. The list in the De an.. ". 63 b 28-29.. EE 1220b 13-14. A.. xdea. 9. The pain and pleasure are not simulcmeous. n/lao'"i') in the EN. A. and whether (seeahove) ". 403a 16-19 contains eight . things.. see. and final causes of the emotion. constitute it). slul. "p ••• p'!!'-£". for e.... for the force of the periphrasis see S. the persons who are the objects of the emotion.t .III.. dispositions. and again with efficient causes when he takes up the things which bring about the emotion. a 27 £!'-"o... This same division is set down for the analysis of wrongdoing (A 10-12) in the diseussion of judicial rhetoric. Such refleetive analysis can hdp more toward understanding the emotion than a merdy phenomenological presentation..~ T • • • • "olo. and with oJ..I. 1961.e.uOa. he is in effect taking up an analysis which can be specific only by way of determining in this particular instance material. along with the interaction of many of these dements in varied ways. B. see LS."" EN II25b 30-3I..'s study in the Rhetoric.a".~ periencing the emotion. does not speak of the four causes." sc."""'ple. those things which occasion the emotion. he is engaged with the causality of the emotions and with varying aspects of the four causes. conditions external to him.. d. 357.. Thi. when he considers the persons toward whom one experiences the emotion. the disposition of the individual exa 2. i. the material of the first book. material (what it is made out of. e.o"i). efficient.iO>Oauw clerIC. on hI. ..'. in a comparative statement. finaI (what is its purpose). Used correcdy it is invaluable for revealing the nature of the subject of investigation.... hi nolo. C£ 1 i>..4--25 m.. i. absolute. (a 29). And understanding is the objeet of A. sense knowledge and rational knowledge.. A.e. A. decides to study the emotions under these three aspeets. At the same time when A. efficient (what brings it into existence). 1857..e. and detailed answers for such a complex experience as an emotion are not easily come upon. a 24 or"" The adverb. on 3 b... when he considers the disposition of the person experiencing the emotion. see Bonitz.. For example. V.3. he is coping with efficient and final causes.g. Index: ><al. With the emotions. formal (what sort of thing the emotion is).e. o•. i.COMMENTARY 17 nique of inqniry opening a subject to a thorough examination from all possible aspeets. all the other emotions. In the same way. is not surprising since specific... considering that an emotion involves body and psyche. it can break down the complexiry of the subject without destroying the personal and subjective quality of emotional experience.op oW x. cpo 78b· 9 (i"".. "to cause anger in another".'£ a 28 : . what condition. in the case of emotion.Awv i. 68b 3-5. i..24-31. habits.. formal. appetitive and cognitive faculties.d on the use of "al here..e. attitudes internal to the person as well as people. the meaning of hi here and at a 27 see LS. z C".. LS. . a 29 1tO.ent an analysis of eaclr of the three "ll1Te. objective in the Rhetoric is in no way different from that put forth in the ph••drus 25ge 1-3: good speaking (writing).18 AlUSTOTLE. As has been said before.. TeO"O. The analysis. as persons.. . "O'fJaw!.. and fi8o" there is no need to discriminate the "eDTaa.""0' . In presenting these neoTdae" for "d80. 59a 6-8 and s9b 25-32... in the references from the fifth and fourth centuries cited in Dover. see sSa :>....D. 'RHBTOlUC' II a 28-29 liL€ypliljl""EV "'. is meant to instruct one in the way to proceed in making one's own analysis of any specific subject for discourse. a 29) down to the end of B 17: namdy. A..by way of the particular topics.~ "'pO"'IiO'£L~ "We drew up a list of propositions". are in no way essentially different whether the discourse be deliberative. 9. The statement at 66a 31-32 speaks in a way similar to our passage. sSa :>6-35. 17-:>S and sSa 18. "d80" fi80' .a6yo~.. judicial. init. and both passages clearly indicate what A. is an adverbial accusative.~ .... e. sSa 35. according to the three genera since the speaker and the auditor.'... s8. An approximate idea as to how ordinary Greeks of the time might have viewed some of the concepts behind the emotions can be found passim.. Suclr an analysis provides the speaker (writer) with a wealth of possible statements for intelligent discourse in any of the genera of rhetoric. thinks he has been doing in the first book and now intends to do ("eel TOUT.g.. see A :>. see 77b 24. the second ("let us analyze the emotions in the manner mentioned") refers to the method to be followed in B 2-II and indicated at 78a 23-25.'iJ'"""EV ""I &. 66a 31-32.w"EV There are two statements here: the first was spoken to in 78a 28-29. p... 3. like that in the Topics. S9b 16. or epideictic. furthermore.. 'POdvo~. that is. Along the way A..80..... of the angry. He asks what is the emotion in itself. sees the emotions (which are exclusively personal) in a social context.8b 9 (6) .80a I the persons with whom men get angry.. what is man's disposition under the emotion: namely. xde'~' lleo~. . Conclusion: 80a :>-4 78a 31-33 l .!.79' 10 (. attitude. psychic. his mental.33 II . In the case of neaoT'7~. instinctual drives. 'P. 790 28 ..) . as they are occasioned by and directed toward the other person. in each of the following emotions this bipolarity enters into the definition of the emotion: der>i. Development: 78... 31 . this is explained via II.790 8 (e) 790 9-10 explanation of de6mtion anger cIi=d tOWard an individual and accompanied by a c:ert2in pleasure meaning of dil&"Q)Qta. 793 10-27 the disposition. . and their effect upon man's rclations to other men. Together with this phenomenological analysis A. Introduction: 78.lla. things cause the emotion. uses his philosophy of man to explain why emotion modifies the person as it does.8. their extemal causes. ""ao~. this is explained via II. He is aware of the non-corporeal as well as the corporeal character of emotion and of the complexity of factors (motives. the objective aspect of the emotion III . and the things which occasion anger.. II . physical disposition.e. I. alaxVv. 33 .aav. the subjective aspect of the emotion 3.". as affective modifications men experience and as they experience them in everyday living.jlo~. studies the emotions in the Rhetoric empirically: as he finds them in man. intdlectual and personal valuations and convictions) which structure the emotional response. Td v.8b 10 .I.pocrq"ov"o~ It should be noted at the outset that A. and finally what persons. i. 33 ... conclusion and transition 2. C. 2 1 78. In fact.CHAPTER definition of anger I .I.. He takes the emotions for granted and looks at them in the concrete modes in which he finds them among men. interpersonally. small diJference in Cicero's mind between the definitions of anger in the Rhetoric and in the De anima.leiseendi libido which to me sounds suspiciously like Ges. We are told there that anger is more powerful than hatred since anger is accompanied by 1v".. 3II. DiS['. avn1tnnjO'B. e.ywe1a is seen by the angry man as an dd. m. attitudes (basbfuhIess). T. The resultant anthropology. would agree with Cicero.ywe1a. he illustrates the various kinds of definitions with definitions of anger by the dialectician and by the natural philosopher (d tpVO''''. as far as I can see.Ov.. At Top. the important role of emotion in human discourse)..w. I3XZb 32-34. their difference from fedings Uoy). >!6''''1'''.'7"ba.".21: "libido poeniendi eius qui videatur laesisse iniuria. there would be.. The two emotions not formally analyzed. At De an.. This judgment is sound despite the aspects of emotion not handled by the author. is remarkably adequate. In this matter Hicks.) "a condensed form" of the Rhetoric definition. Aubenque..g. and in Diogenes Laertius.1tnnjas. do"rriino. are ele... If so.a.. but the ""-planation of each consrantly assumes its rdation to another person. Yet 79b 10-17 would indicate that d1. Our Rhetoric definition was apparently the one adopted by the Stoics.la T'. The definition of anger by the dialectician (lIeB.." Cicero repeats this at 4.Wet/O'arsOa. virtues (collrage).3) as A.6b 10 helpful toward an understanding of our chapter. USb 28-34 and 127b 26-32 A. Ttl. the physiology of the emotions.9.13: deYoi d' In. in the course of introducing problems connected with the study of the soul.3. Lives of the Philosophers: Zeno 7. see. . examines the nature of two elements in our definition: 1~ and d1.b 2. Tusc./ which makes it difficult to allow reason (calculation) to operate.. d1.'s definition of anger.. Cicero." avT. "ae'. Our Rhetoric definition is given in a slightly abbreviated form in Topics 1560 32-33 as an example of the correct way in which to define. does the same.g. Ethic.ARISTOTLE. I RHETORIC' II 78. the bipolar aspect does not appear directly in the definition. 0'. character traits (shyness). 403a 29 ...'Tm. There is some discwsion of anger at EN IU5b 26 . TO.1'ywela. Also consonant with our definition in part is Pol. e. . "eoatj"o. and at I5Ia 14-19 the explanation of anger shows that the pain is caused by the slight (our 6•.e.').la takes the place of our . ne0O"7". on 403a 26...a'O'%""Tia and dxae'O'Tla. On the definition given here... calling the De anima definition (lie ••'.44 as .w o..'.. 4. 403a 30-31) is the relevant one..nAtnnjO'.". This is the definition of anger apparently referred to by Plutarch (De vir/utt morali wb) and Seneca (De ira 1.ywe1a.. 31 rpd(Jo" 9deao. despite its brevity and its more immediate purpose (i.la n. both of which in his words are inadequate.la."oVvTa >}6. We also find the Rhetoric definition in Stobaeus. hnO". see EN II35b 28-29 where dd. their teleology.19. 176: deyoi tdY oW laTl. m.e1y bipolar from the character of their opposites.)..rr:z.we1a. 3:>-90. 68b 32 6ga :> (with the references there and also 69" I : 2.78a 31 COMMBNTAllY :>r Certainly the definition of the Riletoric is a good working definition with a genus (lfe.I'iv7). see also FiIlion-l2hilIe. pp. Fortenbaugh. need.: manifest revenge ." So-SI.." In our own phrase this self-gratification is emphasized by the public character of the revenge .OP. and a cause (dl. says at EN rraOO 22-2S. morali W1>-<: on this. As A. AtA roo 69b II-I2..which itself is a response to what was in its own turn manifest disregard. 63a 26.". From the analysis of the components of the de"''''''o. eE 69b I:> : 1 and 2. intellective faculties. rII3b 19.".... Ross (alone of the edd.. on anger as found in the philosophers after A.. "Aristotle's Riletoric on Emotions.' dei~.. i.O"I'l. 63a 20 : 3.rpa . does allow for this play of reason. In the £inal analysis.pl.. 70b 13 where we are told that "no one is angry with one manifestly beyond the reach of receiving vengeance.. The latter is not happy with it althongh it is well attested and carries the meaning:of that which is manifest to the senses. what happens in the body." a 3r : 1 . see Ringe/taube. and My. 63a 8. " .. argues for its validity as it stands. 9-10.. "Aristotle's Rhetoric on Emotions. locomotive.E" among the nntritive. ""I'''eta pnts an end to anger..II49b 3 A....oeY>1 and br. 3I9-S71..v I'.1Cstence. &1\ C£ 60b 14: 2 on definitions in the Rhetoric. 7Da I7-r8. a differentia (T'w"e1a.. 313-17.T6'l.. olfers an extensive consideration of the place of lfe. were called 4101'.. 6ga 4. 68b 21 and elsewhere (see 74b ]I). 87b 22-23 (with which cpo Top. 403 b 7-9) because of the absence of a reference to the matter of the emotion... l. We find it used in this sense at EN 1I3Sb 28. 4:>n6. Taking revenge carries with it the idea of satisfying the self in the action.. The fundamental reason for this reaction is given in the next note: by the act of retaliation the person asserts his personal value and his right to e.e. z 6py/j ap~l~ At A 10. he also interestingly observes (a 30) that "revenge is more hUDWl. in man is the response of the organism to sensed lack. 3 '!:l". and in our own text at B 10. A 6.6. This was explained briefly at 69b 12-1 S with a reference forward to our present chapter. see Ssb IS : 3. was the motive (for the seven motives see 6ga :>-'7) for acts of revenge (Ta nl'me7)T<"d). lfeBE. and II. Aubenqne. we were told that oeYlf. considers the definition inadequate (eE De an.)we can see that A.0"1'7). See also Chaignet.E •• I'eTa . I09b 36-37).) and Spengel seclude rpaIVol'I:v7J. On anger.EvlJ~ nl'''ela here signifies revenge as at A 10. appetitive. See also Fottenbaugh. element in the soul . not penalty as at A 6. together with 0"1'0. sensitive.namely. modifies somewhat the idea of unreason in anger when be tells us that it seems somehow to listen to reason. Cope..yme1a). <p". 7Da 22. At EN II49a 24 . pp..t~"'1." 4S-48. and see Plutarch. see 69" I : z. (but see 6gb II). De vin.).. pp.>= those movements in the appetitive soul not under the direction of reason.). and. in the course of which it becomes clear th. however. In effect.wel« .ct either against oneself or against those close to one.t constitutes o). 6. Further.)." .')lOlpia. As he interprets it.... B 3. e.py>! IUTtv.A.~8"TW') is governed by dlt. it is used to make specific the meaning of shamelessness which is an artitude of disregard for those things which bring dishonor either to the . a ucontem.y? If anger is occasioned by the latter.1 rpatvopivrI yae d6"...79a S. IRHETORIC' II 78a 32 Anax.6-rov lj .ywe£iv. Here.lteern in the eyes of another.iv I'IJ "pocnj"ov. .namely. anger implies a sense of unjust treatment from another in the act of . see 68b Io-n.<oil o).. in • similar vein remarks th.)." The next phrase which he rightly calls a part of the definition becomes a genitive absolute and is so interpreted by Jebb & Sandys: ··when such slighting is unmeet. 68b 23.." As a genitive absolute it expresses at most a circumstance accompanying the action.. Our reading bas • good tradition.. 77b S : 1. how he is valued by others .. 73b 28 : 1. i. vital affirmation of oneself.:l'YOJe1a. in fact.".t anger is "I. 68b 32 -69& 2. Cope attempts to interpret the passage by filling out the phrase: .s done wrong and suffers for it justly since he considers this but right. one should """'Peet that specification in the definition.a) TOO' aVToV.t EN II3Sb 2S-29 A.to be involved. (d6. an action directed .1t. Z.e.. Tovar.s such. What is intended seems clear £rom the context of the whole passage: anger . I440a 32-34 notes that we can incite anger if we a 32 o). .t the person slighted considers his honor . and it is one of no regard for the other person as • person. p. Ross.<iN "". shewn in. . . .t Sob I6-1S A. d). As we find the word atA la.. see. 30S.o~ This is the reading of Roemer. offences. Thus it would seem that this sense of being dishonored by the act of ci). says as much: 1... or an insult from one who is not qualified to act in such a w. Whetheritis done with deliberate choice is another question. 9).. but the difficulty found with the passage is reflected in the cadd. p.<iN. ""TO.'YOJp~piv01J'. a 32-33 ". remarks that a person is not angry if he h." Aubenque. is: Wh. &c. Kassel read diflerently.'y"'pICIY show persons that they are napa TO npoa>j"o••). I2o) calls • basic desire in man "to exist. Dufour. Cope.the insult to oneself or to those close to one.ywe1a will be defined and further specified at 7sb 10 . not through. " (el. is done with knowledge. Soa IS-2I. a!axvvop80a. but through the favor of another's recognition. .. II..elf or to another. reaction d'un ette dont I'existence a ere injustement contestee.. S3b 12-IS..g. (d~.YOJpla enters into the reaction which is anger.'Y"'p. . and.ptuous indifference oj.).. £Or example.. e. anger arouses in the subjeet a desire for Tlpweia.. TOO. again (see 78a 31-33 init.AllISTOTLB.. 80. Soa rS-2I: afno•. It denies what Ricoeur (Fallible Man.ywpia denies • basic quest in man for T'P>!. The attitude of the person who does the slighting is well desctibed at A II. Tcii.~8ivTOl') el.gainst • slight offered by one unfit so to .1~ oj .. The question.oil. 7Ta 14-17. Spengel.'YOJpia is a voluntary act (B 3. In fact. evidenced by. however.wa). 01. in the fifth century dB. aVTo...oii as dIe use of the article with a~. The phrase .g.. ~arks that there is no need for the indefinite pronoun hete or at 78a 3S ..." This does answet the problems posed. in the angry man's mind. II S77) TW. for obligation: "eotnf".W. nerne~ obligation imposed by fitness.8s. 19." This interpretation is confirmed by the statement at 79b II-I2. 67b IS : 2.: 1!n"". ut I379b 2. an act committed by one who should not.. II. 1 reveals: e.pocn\xov".) at 78a 32. A I. 8sb IS.) in a parallel construction with the article and the prepositional phrase (0£ Gildersleeve. 7Ib 22. fot he offers this explanation of his text: "intellege ~OW . If one examines the instances given by A. seemly.. 800 2. xe>j (3. And yet even this statement requires qualification.. 20).w. BI. 10 where it is explained by <h>d". 13. obligation imposed by nature (cf. 3.oii says (p."'ee. But I believe dut they can be answered by the text as we have it if we take a 33 (TOO ••• "'eotnf"ov~o" and see 79b 12) as a subjective genitive with 01'.1} TW. propriety. A 9....g. 67b I4-2o. 14...".wo. p. 1/ (. From all that A. . 2. 66b 9.a. (I.. "I!otnf". av. sees the problem. for example. graece probari non potest. o£ I379b II ••• dl'. eI."'e1a..g.. to such a person (c£ 67b IS : 2). 68a 13 : 2)."'ee" BI.. who ~writes the text at a 33: dl'." and conjectures 11 (. 16a I. aVroii): e.06 presents a problem: AIe we to take TOW av.. the object of dl'. S4b 33.. began to replace xeof to denote need in general and eventually it became dominant.7) "I!o~"o. namely. at a 32 and.) . .06 (. The distinction possesses some validity for differentiating the words..d.7) "I!o~"Ov''''' 01. 9. 7."'eB") to complete the second member of the phnse. it becomes clear ...."I). (."'e1a he is speaking ....3 COMMBNTARY against someone...78• 33 2. 7. which is to say that he is acting "'aea "I!0afj"o. as I have done? Or are we (still keeping the phrase a.~"". either it is completed by . obligation imposed by utility.ow av.. IIn2.g. 11 (ok) ~OW 00. "anger is the impulse for manifest retaliatinn attended by pain because of manifest disdain on the part of one who is unfit to treat with disdain anything concerning oneself or those close to one.1) "I!oa"l"o.". 8Sb 18)..b I.. and we should be told its object.oii? & we meet the phrase elsewhere...'" (e. xe>i.. 79b IOJ[ The one who commits the act is one acting . av. a 33 . on 800 2-3. or it is assumed that it must be completed.bout is a certain kind of dl'.. commit such an act: see 78b IOJ[.o~ Cope. 9. 1} ~OW av. 19). Le. expediency.. eel.w •...d. 234): "Hoc Kassel. Kassel.. Spenge!. in a way which is over and beyond what is fitting. 16. will say in the chapter it is clear that the dl'.. in tum. I3.-3.k (79a 8. as a glance at the extensive use of the words in the opening passages of Demosthenes.• de.. de•• obligation imposed by morality."'e1a. . "eoa>1"" (2. in this chapter of those with whom one becomes angry.a.. av. governing the phrase at a 32.. see Goodell. However (cf. discusses the four different word. 18. Phil. '7. I believe. e.. 86b 13 : I). one cannot become angry with one'••uperiors. " If we insist that A. Spengel.. For the use of the reflexive pronoun.2: "Deinde nemo tam humilis est. In this respect . C. 306. n. who was certainly not an inferior..EAAev or an intended action. says in effect the same thing..d n with cod.. For this reason I do not see Cope's objection.e..."elll) i. " TOW at!ToV (Twa) T'..ivr! n"... a 34-35)..3. its effect (T'". defined (tpa ••o. Insofar as it involves n. defined in the Rhetoric which is in part response to an act by a person.. that according to A. a. we are faced with a further problem at 78b 31-34 where Achilles is angered at the slight from Agamemnon... considered inferiority an essential element in ol'y"eia. anger cannot ordinarily be directed against cl."e>iaaoBa~ a 36-37).. 70b 13..ons is not something A. see also 80b 21-22. too.. I126a 4-6. not the Macedonian peoples. for actions are done by individuals.. an accompanying condition ("al "dan ..YXlI definition: the object of the anger (TOW . "0". De ira 1.e actual action ."we1a) ordinarily has its cause (oA'y"e1a) in an act that can be committed only by a penon.. well . : atlTo..." is the reading of the edd.. Certainly 70b 14-15 leave that possibility open. For example. u..o offer reason to believe that A. A.. Anger is caused by d. $C.."1w II .ll.. action directed against a person... anger differs from hatred." " ."e1a.. But it is not anger .Be"''''!' (and see s.'. Furthermore. I have . is opposed to the general cl.ince noticed that Aubenque. a 35-36).. see S. We are given the necessary consequents of this a 34 : 1 ilva.. anger ...0..uT.. anger clearly has theindividuaI . With our reading this Twa would be understood with TOW aVToii."e1a (giving evil for evil). secondly.. atA II. The individual.g. e. 82a 5-<5. Demosthenes in his effort to rouse the Athenians to the dangers from Macedon constandy speaks of Philip. So.ARISTOTLE.8' j!". But he appears to admit the possibility at EN I12Sb 31. Whether we can become angry with inanimate or animate things ..• a. here a Cleon. formally considers in the definition given.... II29). .Be"''''!'. its object. the cause for the anger ("al (fT•••• lI.ses or generic groups and achieve its objective.v i.. per. qui poenam vel sumrui hominis sperare non possit.. .u. 'RHETORIC' II 78b I that the one who causes anger is not necesoarily an "inferior.. 2 -n.. see 59b 2.. 78b I II ilp. In suclr instances anger is purely a sense reaction whose source is sense not reason. tpa<dl. and a1. and is the alternative to aVT6. a 3S -78b I .• individuals.U T' Cope reods: n." but rather someone who should not by all that is right (or with Cope's explanation of "eoa>i"": by all that is naturally proper) show disdain to the other. points out later. I22S.. p.".. could agree with Seneca. Since the pleasant is good.weia" then the nature of retaliation (see 7Sa 3I . II6b 26 (CG. just as the one who caused the anger is seen as the evil which brought about the disruption in him. admits when he places it among the 4-10)100 /Jei~. is the reading of four edd. While anger may be ''blind and unreasonable" (Cope. Further. Spengers objection focuses on the do. 17-24.. pp. Spengd b 4-S . revenge is seen by the angry person as the good which will restore hinr to bimself... (see 7Sa 31 . "it is pleasant to think that you will get what you desire" (b 2).aTQW aVTtji.. a pleasure occasioned by the expectation of .. following Spengel.. and pleasure occasioned by the idea of retaliation. and he argues that what is to be proven is that tire angry man led on by the hope of revenge is filled with pleasure. as should be clear from 70b Io-lS. the angry man knows . and all action of a voluntary character is done for the good or the apparent gnod. atA 6. see also Alexander on Top. a. &~ ••• "':'"t<i> reads it but thinks it is not A. I fmd no difficulty with " dA •.. or the plea.• erpie:rao d~.I-22. Kassd. A. At. As we are told at A II. Cope. acts of revenge (A ro. lb. see B 19. However.C'OMMBNTARY b 1-2 €. n!. AV"'7 (78a 31) and ojdovol are not present simultaneously.€creext "LVII iI&ovYjv See ?Sa 21-2. The definition given at 78a 31-33 entails a desired action on the part of the angry person. Here he is explaining the preceding clause. But it would appear that this is exactly what the clause demonstrates. as we see at EN 1126a :1. The feeling dominallt in tbe emotion anger is ojdoVlj. p.g. The discussion in A II of what constitutes pleasure and what kind of actiolll" gives pleasure should assist toward understanding the statement here.).aT<ii. aUTtji. a possibility A. 2).~o.lant or the apparently pleasant (69b 18-20). secludes it.. 62b S-6. and as no one desires to. If anger is an lIe. here the necessary presence of pleasure of some kind with the emotion of anger. "':''<Cj> seen as beyond attainment it is not seen as a good for the person (0£ 88b 2) and so is not the o~ject of any appetitive impulse.clearly impossible is b 3-4 cN&€l~ . everything for which we have a desire within us is pleasant.. A 6.. 70b 30-32. 6za 24-2S. 92a 24-2S. raises the desire for revenge above a blind response by the preceding phrase. has engaged in. 70a 16-17. a"Ttji). was said at 7Sa 21-22.". 12). see Bottin. 69b 13-14) are done for the satisfaction of the agent (Iva dnonA'IeWOtfj. To the extent that the .2. See also A II. Pol. 1314" 23-24. if tire act of vengeance is seen as possible (d~. The word lneuIJao denotes the invariable attendance of one thing upon another. e.'s observation. J) implies pleasure in the action. b 2 ilW predicate adjective qualifying the statement in the articular infinitive.. C£ comment in preceding note.0.uwe1a.do what is seen as impossible. TIns is the kind of clarification A. I RHETORIC' II 78b 10 that he can commit it and so is pleased. of the image.. the "ai..... . 'P .. mE~E'"'' 70b II-IS.1 6• • . a.. there are three kinds of oA'Yo>ela. "al a. G(jPU.. .podatic 6.Ta•. 7Ia 9. A II. Tfi dtaJlolt:l] creates pleasure. 258). Cope." & A. We will find the word entering into the explanation of fear (823 21)..fJa. b Tcp T&pwee'iaBa.e.. Iliad I8.. The relation of knowledge and affect in the image remains one of fonn and matter. ilfJe'" "Seeing that oA'Yo>eia is . Ricoeur (Freedom and Nature.S9b I) that the act of retaliation desired is possible." Since the act of retaliation is seen as possible. The imagination.<oi. The clause in... This is one statement. Speaking of imagination.." b Ie-IS beet 8£ . If retaliation is not possible and is seen as such.o. moment [i. or the presentative faculty. there is no anger. courage (83a 17). ' z 8ui '<6 . something he thinks that he can do. at 78b 13 (Spengel denies it. the kyle.)."'o the reason just given at 78b 1-5.. see 6\)b II.. works in such a way that the image is made real and affects the appetitive system as it does in oUt passage. see also I07If.AlUSTOTLB. b 7: 1 ooAw8" yap x . see 6... he has to /mow within himself (C£ A 4. The text between b 10 and .. h) exacting vengeance. S9a 38 .oAovS.ol~: "and because they spend their time mentally on [a. . 70a 28-29 as a "kind of weak perception. To this a second reason is added in the following clause. ...noAa..a. (b Ie-I3) is the procasis whose conclusion is given at b 13-15: Tela d' .i see 62a 29 : z. b 5 8u. This whole idea is emphasized by the triple repetition of . see also Brandon. . p.IO!}-IIO. C£ A II.." tpaJlT:aala was defined at A II.. Cope is uncertain). see. and shame (84a 24) with much the same understanding." Spengel and Cope would agree with this but have reservations about apodatic aI. If the angry person is to have the pleasure of his anger (namely.. this explanation is borne out..g.1 On w. & anger is defined at 78a 31-33.. 19. uses it at 70b 33. the angry person has the impulse to an act of vengeance. see ']Oa 28. 70b 13: "no one is angry with one clearly beyond the reach of vengeance." yae "and so the image which occurs at that b 8-9 "IJ oW ...OT•.ta 8-9. says: "But an image does more than intend the absent object or value generally .it endows it with a quasi presence. The absent manifests itself to me in its affective and kine..aT~lfJ. e.. thetic presence: the aifect and the movement are the matter. intensive: "this is so because a certain pleasure actually is attendant upon anger for the reason given and because . the possibility of r<:taliation). the angry person is pleased (78b ""3: ljdtl .'<. on ... 120. b 6 3~ '" ... t'P18Ta. (.'PI..."oii a synonym for oer~... The is explanatory. .•• U"OAIlI'-I!!iVDI'-EV "But all those things that are (considered to be) a mere nothing. material.Bed'.'s arguing that "since dA<Y"'ela is X. For him the logical apodosis to the in.There are three kinds of goods proper to man: intellectual. Freese) after . ph""tirus 276e. Met. 4Eco•. and the parenilieses hdp to clarify this. The statement in parentheses is an explanation in more precise form of what has just been said. and so are closely related to the thing."at.. Thurot "ObsetVations critiques [II. Spongel. Cope. I see no failure in logical sequence in A.. Tovar. A. z . An examination of 78b IS-26 (8 TO "ae .t.. On 1'116. we assume to be of (actually) 110 account. but punctuated diJferently in one place (see ?lib II-I3)." In oAc"weta (disdain) we have the fonnal cause of anger: an act done against one which is seen as undeserved and unjust. 2974. and note " lvie". (that actually of no account) may be at work here. ssa 3-14.~ . IOoca 19. names here." The distinction between 1'1Ia. Kassd alone place this in parentheses.t.. TCI'WeOv. 660 29.. something. and see ?lib 18 : z. cpo o~a. moral. it follows that oAcx"'ela is 3Y.". 60.u """TelV"""'1l The word was seen at A s.ywela which A. There should be a comma (Tovar. '0" b 10 lvip'Y"l4 50~'1~ See 6xa 24. esteem. Kassd). or possibly a colon (Roemer. A II.). says very little about contempt. 61!p~ On . as it is used at A 9. Spengel)." I do find a difficulty in waiting thirty lines for a conclusion. (that merely thought of as of no account) and oVa... conjecture. b 14-15 : I I<ClTCl<ppOv. c£ ']CIa 27-32. b 13 Tplll 8' a. is read by the edd. TC _l . idea which. previously present only in potency (lv ""'(¥"')' has been actualized by the individual.JGI~ .e. 700 27-32) draw the conclusion at onco. b II-I3 (I<cd yckp ••.TaC) shows that the three specifications are explained in tertns of X: namdy. contribute toward. Dufour. clause is at 79'l 9 (cpa. but c£ ?lib 18 : z. not a period (Cope.. 60b 9 used of things which tend toward. Ross. ~co. serious attention. The result is an act of oAc"we1a: "seeing that dAcywela is an actual expression of an opinion about something as apparently of no account. Ross.. see S. Mea nee! 1'116. Plato. (except Ross). 3 1'-'18tv TL . Cope. (. aEca at b 13.COMMENTARY b IS is read by all the edd. p. The two instances which I find similar to our sentence (A I..".m>Alll'-l!civ0I'-EV). has a brief comment on the word. or quite insignificant...jnoAap(3&'o1''' in b 13." 303 does not agree that the conclusion is found beginning at b 13. All of them in diJferent ways are subject to attack by the tluee kinds of oA. b I2 : I cmou8ij~ i.". and X is 3Y.a TOO' TOCOWW•• a&Ea here is the opinion. dId mwciW. 6. The power of . is called into question by 78b 25-26. speaking of law (a 168). See 748 I I : 2. Xenophon. 129-32..74" 17. while iJPe" is shown frequendy in one's actions. is used once by ·A.• d. to dishonor the other person. it would appear that it is the oer>i. "Hybris in Athens" and Law ill Classi&JJ1 Athens. we are told that it has many parts. 13ub 29-32. • a. the verb• •""'Ie. and at 80a 19-21. Antiphon. 17.g.. as should be clear from the distinction implied between 1JPe" and alHla (personal assault and battery) at A 12. On the other hand.• A II.. 73a 13. '=Ie.g. see also 011 Ihe Virtues and Vices I251a 30-35. b 22-240 The idea of physical action in hybris comes from the definition at 78b 23 and is found in the examples in the Politics where the idea ofhybris is somewhat amplliied.a"p&~ emerges fairly much as A. not necessarily the iJPe'~. but this in tum.. When he uses the verb form (e. Cope. . Il4b 23) it is with the meaning set forth in 78b 15-17. p. at 13ua 23ff. But hybris does not have to include personal assault. and it is in the neoa[e''''~ that the wrongness lies.he commits an act of fJPe'f:.. says: "The concept of JPe'~ was rather indeterminate. The more common form. If the action is done knowingly and voluntarily. has not committed an act of 6Pe'~." See also MacDowell. describes it at b 17-32: a kind of malicious and gratuitous vexation of another by simply frustrating his plans and intentions. Applying this to 6Pe'~.'f: of the agent is actively engaged. 3 {lf3PL~ This is defined for us at b 23-25 in what Cope. 73b 38 . A. the meaning of this word is fairly well determined by what we meet here (b 17-22).. the neoa1ee. 2. refines the idea of IJPe" as e. and he proceeds to do so by showing that it is the moral purpose of the agent which determines wrongness..... or for his own gratification . note on the word.a. Here it will suffice to. assuredly.ARISTOTLE. . is found in Herodotus. Harrison." From this it would appear that hybris is an act. p.a!. 'llRETORIC' II apart from what we meet here in chap. I 239-40. a gratuitous insult. specifically. 16. and Gagarin. Lysias. O2a 1-3 certainly implies that physical violence on the person of another can be called iJPe'~. . but if he does so for some purpose .""'lPE-.. in the sense of acting spitefully toward. and. which in this instance involves a further act of physical violence as well... 88b 22-28. lmie . say that not all physical assault was necessarily {JPe" and.Pe'~ in arousing anger is noted at Pol.o~ Again. each of which gives rise to anger. he says that "if someone strikes another.. calls the locus cl4ssicus for the concept. he. says that since wrong actions are often admitted but their wrongness denied. From Cope'. Demosthenes. see also EE I221b 18-26.. it might include actions which did not amount to physical assault. it is used again at 82a 2. pp.. we must define wrong action..' alaXeoverla. In a discussion of wrongdoing in A 13. and A. . on the other hand. which engages in physical violence. In the narrative which follows. 7Ia IS.for example. . MI." On the nse of the verb llPelCew..ci~ [rp"'(v. Kassd). A 10. see also Cope. C£ b 24. . Cope. see 78b 23.'s objective is to demonstrate that lmJeeau... Granted the validity of the above. 68b 33-34... Ci9a 2-3. see.1C08. Spengel...li. . 85" 18. A. but his source for these three kinds is unclear...') while Cope reads ~aTacpeO. Spengd) and punctuate with a period (Spengd punctuates with a semicolon. 17-20)... ut discrimen animadverti nequeat". Rhelorik. of the plans and intentions of another. • "" [VIZ . Cope's description (I 239) of hybris fits the idea well: "a violation of the feeling of personal dignity and sense of honour [and c£ my comment at 7Sa 32]. p..IV at b 16. On the other hand... 78b 10.. (a"".g....see. dismissing something as of no value.dC.. x .."'Ppov. the spiteful person. e. 83b 22-23. 23: dA'y"eB" Vahlen ("Kritik: d.. b IS. Spengd and Cope are in agreement with the edd. a shaclcling-here. with Bekker for I-''1dB1lo.• b 13-14. On the interchange between the definite and re- . is a form of slighting. lm)p. and. and ."al of b 15 and b 17 suggests that both ~aTacpeovciiv and d lmJe.. save that Spengd does not use the parentheses and would read <UlalV ("aTacpeO.' at b 15.. 19... (except ROllS. b 18-19 [VIZ .Ow. too." It is the re.. 6). Ross.'" is a form of dA'Y"'ela (e.78b 18 COMMBNTAllY 29 MyaIV. explained as an action of dA'Y"'ee. l"YV'l'JTac here and at b 19.. in the reading and punctuation.I3I3a 16 or 13Isa 14-31 submit to these distinctions. On povA'1uc" see 64b 32 : 4. remarks: "oV et . humiliating..">1 interdwn ita promiscue usurpantur.. The interchange of the negatives 0'. e. wanton language or acts. i...1<od..." 560-61) suggested the seclusion and noted inler .. On this matter Bonitz. b 17 x".... 13....v ... degrading... Intltx 538b 50-51... ~ouA".c.'Y"'poii. 73.">1 is somewhat disconcerting. as each of the three kinds i.g.. 16. who also use the parentheses.v As we saw the verb at A 5.. Dufour) read and punctuate in this way. there is still another aspect of hybris. 60b 13.. Roemer mistakenly prints a colon inside the bracket).. Ross: "avTeji scripsi. ' IZ6'Rj1 This presumably is the reading of the codd.OVl-'.nv) This is the reading of all the edd. and the structure of the argwnent is parallel.. too.acpe"V'I'J'''' is slighting (dA'y"'eBi) since people "aTacpeOVOVu" all thOlie things they coDSider of no value. which is contempt. 8Ia 5 with 81b 37. e.i.... scornful. so. are the subject of dA'Y"'e. that the TO . I would agree with the seclusion. .. Dufour omit the brackets (so.ding accepted by the edd.g. (save Ross.. and this is discnssed at 8Sb 21. I do not believe that the PolitiJ:s passages at I3IIa 23 .. is an effective hindering...g. in particular.iv]· "So.1 0 b 18 : J iP. but men d. Cope does the same but reads a period after "aTacpeOvew.""o. The argunrent in the text as accepted is: "a-r.. b 15-17 a .uy"'eoVuw (slight) things of no value." The edd. -lvn••• would be more appropriate... for which PldnT.... 1. if it i. 15-16) and. "all... i".0 npa.yweBi.• the person treated spitefully.' past potentials indicating here probability (S.aC.. Spengd.. and so dl. is dl. sec. b 19 : 1 b. ).. av 06&~ sc. mcPjl..mocking... 98a 25-26." which seem to be specifications of the more generic neaTn. considers "at otl" cll. Kassd gives no reason for his reading at b 19.ao. 79a 29-32.. and this can be done by word or action. 1784). and I would prefer it... "allu".• Cope.e. read TO PldnT.. in our text. is set in opposition to al. or "PeIC. nea. An act of spite assumes no injury nom the other person or benefit &om him. 'RHETORIC' II 78b 23 flexive pronouns. 1330a 18-20 'PeontC .. refers to the person who shows spite..... The latter represent morc fundamentally what A..30 ARISTOTLE. this states that ~e. but there is also the possibility of physical action (c£ 78b 14-15 : 3) against another..g..-· clJ<po).)..... i. scoffing.jjaCl' "for then he would take thought so as to b 22 hppclv'l"..t"'!'.... Cope's interpretation of b 18-22 is quite diJfcrent (see pp. see 60a I : 1..t oW o6X '1v« again the strange negative (c£ ']lib 18 : .''''O.. 1973). be his friend. e... In these instances the action implied or stated in the word is generally of the chatacter expressed at 79a 30-]1 .. jeering at.."weB' an intrusion. "al Our phrase appears to be more properly descriptive of what is meant by hybri.• 73a 13..s.. oi!T' (v".. 022 1-].la.. the o~ is correct. b 20-21 hpo~. I bdieve.. av CoG. The grounds for the identity between the two is that spite is doing deliberate harm to another with DO other purpose than doing the harm... But. 1261b 33-38. and he follows the codd. b 19) as subject. at b 25.. 'Ptl.. hence the case (S. the potential infinitive to exprcss a likdihood or probability: "that he would tender any benefit worthy of notice.".) cb'Pel~"a.r.....yweta. or ~e. • 6).v b 20 !C.v XClt is the reading of the edd.r. 46!r70. (from h. mistaken.. 74" 3. sI. Ross and Kassd read avTfij which makes the meaning in the next sentence clearer..r." b 21 011... it makes equally good sense to read it at b 25.. read here.'Y"'pEi & the conclusion to the immediatdy preceding reason.. although a number of good codd. as Ross does..... 'Pa ....flawor. . but if we understand i"""dt.a~ 11.pd••• ~o. Haydnek:. clJ)" yWp.i.0. such action signifies in the agent with respect to the other person a dO~a nBel TO .~ •.o•• 78b 10.Y"''' b 23 ...." Interestingly in the Pol. Both verbs have as their understood object the person spited. That such is the dOea is explained in the reason given at 78b 20-32: d~lo•. generally has in mind when he uses iJPe...ywe1a. 14. ..!. b. arrogance (Bi~ ii/iew).." i.w) which.v.. 107. 2 8". 71b I) denotes superiority.-O "nor because something happened to him. three of the edd. .. virtue atA 9. pp. 6.ptX"v The word as we have seen in its use £rom A 7 on (e. There is another way to interpret our phrase (b 24-'S:.)/ie<~." b 26 "-ll""po\iV"-"1 C£ 78a 3I : 3.oUGIO' As Plato says of Ctesippus: 8C10." On aUTq. (=ept Ross).... Cope's discussion.. lyoN • .1. '.. . 79a 32-33 or A 13.g.i) ••• .ClOa. "not in order that some advantage or other b 24-2S p.g...COMMBNTAllY 31 b 24 bpi ol~ lion account of which. 890 9-14. with pre-eminence. which 'is a vice." This is the second reason given and denied as the cause of hybris. 83a 1-3 we are told that wealth is one of the things that makes one a v/ie'O"T7j~. it is the object of the participle. /A1) v/ieU1T1)~ d<d TO •• O~ BI. this superiority is something all desire more or less (A II. e.. 273a. and see A 14. p... 68a'S-26. says of the young (B 12) and the wealthy (B 16) there can be seen in eacIr a drive toward a kind of superiority (v". 63b 20. 3 01 vEol •.e.. 7Sa 13. 'B""". who says: "aiJTo. b 27 cN"-oU~ the reading of the codd.6~ as characterizing two contrasting aspects of youthful character is .8 : 1 6"'.g. but rather the sheer delight found in the action (II""~ 7juOti).~ Ross alone includes this within parentheses and joins it to the preceding sentence. it is clear that the motive for the . Cope read it as an independent sentence. and often superiority as a mark of excellence ..) see B 12.~ has nothing to refer to.weOVvTa<). 17)..• 7U. see 711 18-19. cf. however. From what A.. like that of the young (89b 7-8). but surely the tenor of the passage pencits a constructio ad sensum in which our word would refer to the unstated object of v/ieiCovuw. 74'1 I3-IS. of ••"" •.o may come to the agent. As such. 6sa II. Spenge!.ja 27. Cope. As.illustrative of the following clause in the text (b 28-29. Spengel. Cope. Further." Richards is correct.. confuse excess. Spenge!..)/ie<~ is not retaliation. see B 16. The insolent.. 18-19. b 2S il a·.. From the very next clause (01 rde . Kassel read aVTo[ with Richards.1) .v.ellx. Jy"STO) mentioned byVictorius and taken by Cope (p. nean:up Hal Aiy.. Euthyd. read by the odd. is directed not by petty malice but by ins0lence. results in what we are told here: v/ieICoY<s~.. for the meaning of J"I c£ ~b 22: 2.l3pt~ov. being superior does not denote excess.e.... ". for example... The other edd. as it seeks to realize itself. 70b 34). b 3'. In itself. Freese follows it in his translation: "not to obtain any other advantage for oneself besides the performance of the act. 90b 32-34 and 9Ia r8-19 where the wrongdoing of wealthy men.a<. At B S. Ross. Unseixsw .>. see Bonitz.... the dishonor shown by Agamemnon's actions as they are cited from Homer.648. and spoken again by Achilles at 16." In the context it is more correctly taken in the second way: "that which is worth nothing receives no esteem either for good or for evil.tus.d b 32 -1). cr(j""O~ 1. 1278a 34-40 where.367-369. 1x... b 29 G(3p""~ &...fIfJe'~ dTtpla~ est ""'Ip. i.g. 121b 36. I I and his explanation is questionable. np">!_.59. e. orWaitz on Top.fI{Jesw~ ""'Ipsi•• D..i. Kassel..npla.-a.io...o~ liE ••• . Bock's further criticism. This use of the partitive genitive is not unusual. Achilles came down in history as a man ofmany qualities.0-22. see 9.fI{Je'~ ex fonte dT'pta..356.~ dd.g.v6.o~ namely. see 78a 33. .. 61a 35. ~RHBTORIC' II 78b 34 generally valid..fI{J~.pta... Definitions 4100: . There is no need to do so.e.ge of Pol. e. KaKoG This phrase is taken by some as specifying . from the third century l!.... Cope. b 33 ~ . a general statement: "people think .. "since that which is worth nothing.. of his own conjecture is a misunderstanding of ""'Ipsi.. olov. notes. 19.". ATs poetic. Freese print the first words: W"8t."I.g. Index 149a 49. as Horace. ciT. p.. apart from A.t cure myself of anger without curing mysdf of excessive self-esteem. on. p.. Z npoU1\K. ali •. but in particular a honor.~'vl1a.. the Roberts translation: "the unimportant for good or evil.." 011. The idea in dnp'a here must come from ciT. Ricceur's observation (Freedom and Nature. " b 30-31 m. quia ..~6.. refers to Pol.~6"". repeats our line and re=ks by way of explanation that one who does not share in the honors of the State is like a metic. p. 278) is to the point: "I do Il?... (to hold in no honor...32 ARISTOTLE.n. on neo<1">j"•••.'V S." .. 12. wishing to read it as . A l'iea~ was a mark of honor. 3 ruMu"'p. not to recognize the other's honor).i"S.." Others interpret it as modifying .. as we saw at A 5. p. It is of interest (see..1"11"..o: "nonne e contrario ..... is able to state at 78b 2l}-30: cl ••• oA'yQJ~..."ta .~o~ dnp'<Z1I cp. the comment at 66b 7 : 1) that the instances of this word and its cognates date.. the usual form found in Homer. but the rdevance to our p.pac. c. 6.0 yup . See Plato.. Thus A. in speaking about the kinds of citizens. "as one angered for these reasons": b 34 : 1 cl>~ ••• 6py. to dishonor.d" b 30 .. In this sense it is an explanation of ol'l'w~ta as it is defined at 78b IO-13. Bock discusses this passage. e. nascitur.E""<ClVa"""J'l niad 9. non dnpla" lJ{Je • . 205.... A. Cooper: "is not esteemed either for good or evil. tw. Spengel. . b <Ii •. a 2 Pll"OP'xo~ set in opposition to d6vvaTov .. e.i.."o~ read by the edd.. or the Cyprians 8: TO'k S. (78b 34): in whatever one is markedly superior one thinks it naturally proper to be held in esteem. c!Elo~) are governed by an understood olona. II 565-. in the social.. q. o~ . Tep n. e. My .e. The article is omitted in this enumeration save in the mt and last instances (6 ". civil structure as at A 5. I prefer the above reading because it continues in a clear way the argument from superiority begun at 78b 26 and continued to 79a 6 (~"'I!0X'f'). although speaking of something clse.. 20... .0. Cooper) that the genitives in 79a 2-4 (""'ITO" c!d""aTo~.."'I!II". TOO dEto~) where the generic article gives the classification for all the abstracts. in wealth the rich man is superior to the poor man.. Cope reads: b <Ii II. 6""a"." The meaning is unclear.) M'o. .39a... "o. or (as Victorius notes) by Isocrates in To Nicocles.. (sl. Cope but secluded by Ross... I cannot see. are unclear. . "and in general men think it proper that they be held in high esteem in whatever they are distinctly superior.... together with the edition of Zenodotus."sesX1J and oZov b (793 rfE). it could mean "natural capability" as at A 6. as.. av . as Cope.196.g. however.g. "ai 6. ".d.~ . ~a'"A>'I''''' Iliad 2..."0 (78b 34)..]0. Kassel. The codd."sesx") TOO dElo~ de"s<lBa.. Tawa.£ptxn is the reading of Ross. Roberts.o~. Spengd read: b <Ii d.. In short. Spengel notes the acceptability of aUro" but conjectures T".. see 78a 33. The reading of our text is that found in the OCT edition of Munro and Allen where our Rhetoric text is cited as one of the authorities for the line. on the generic article..' (. see Gildersleeve.79a4 b 3S : COMMENTARY J 'IJ'n'Ovc. a 3 ot6".. understands .." as the context demands. dEto~ is a clause subordinate to a repetition of the main statement: ne0<N7"'" olOVTa." 79'1 I s.tv .. those who are "inferior...tVWeB'C76a.. This is of interest since in the past the genuineness of Aristotelian authorship of the passage has been questioned on the basis of our citation. here..J"ses"s. II 626). e"<l6a. . I have since noticed that Vahlen (Schriften. .. The construction: 016".. a 4 8u"o~ .w 33 i. both from the sense of the passage and &om the close articulation between .o~. 2 66v.lojOs. for example.. 63a 29 or the individual's position. power.a. 60b 27.. c!e"o". TaUrep.. It is the sense of superiority which will not tolerate the slight. in speaking the fluent speaker to the one unable . The other edd. p. "one skilled in speaking" as we see the word used by Plato in the PhaeJrus 2.0.. 260" 272. does (and some of the translations. de". It is more obvious that they are governed by an understood . and so demands respect and honor..lovalO'. • lpou). Conferring a benefit on someone as is the case here (79& 7-8: oJTO •. 71.'>: a 9-10 CPUVEPc. i$ found in many Iliad I. : in (dl'a.1\8'1 a continuation of the rdative clause oJ.91) or. 3 1\ [3Wl... but it . XoKOV Laert:ius in his life of Zeno tht SI!Jic 7.v..Ta.. and so once again the agent would justifiably expect esteem not disregard.VOle ••aBa.al'. 35 -7Ib 2.II4 to exemplify the meaning of 1'. (78b 34)..u a7 "d"X~. a 10 Clu'1:01 We begin here an analysis of "." There is • possibility of repeating dyaoa><Toiia. . requires some effort on the part of the agent.". at his instigation.6Sh 8 indicates.. " While intention is not the same as act.. '::aBETORIC' II 34 e....J.. Cope. on meaning."" 78... it is found in a good cod. 79a 10 The singular.: "Further. 1.+ 0. "now". Marx. see 54b 7.a.. 31)..'l'we1a (which occasion anger)." I'e. 75' 14-15. . as the note at 6sa 37 . u'P' It seems more reasonable to take this as. Thus I would read it: in ("eocn1"'" oio. "d. editions of Homer.o. "0'. v"'eix''')' This places the recipient in the class of those mentioned at 78b 34-35 (~T TO• . the". a 6 l . 14. Telxovn" • 9 (see outline of chapter). .r.g.. their sense of justice. The first characteristic of the angry person is that he is in pain of some sort (Ge'.OTee'l'io. the second.. .. not about anger. of what is owed to them....8a. Roemer. a 8: I mOi is the reading of four edd.ARISTOTLE.lT. "0). vneeomv.) tlrp' "d.v &. Spengd. and so he is the ultimate cause of the good. it reveals the attitude of bellBvo!entia in the person. says at a 6: ayavmeTova& .. These passages help one to understand the force of our aei•..' ClUTOv ie... 71b I: Td 6l . men think that they should be treated with attention by those at whose hands one thinks one deserves good treatment...g.. and so understand eO "intends or has intended to .. TCoill a 9 ij&'1 c£ 78a 23-25. pac").!gry ont.. "O)..ense of being superior. C£A II..Cl' . or understanding dtn'ICO>Ta.. further reason why men "!!0cn1"'" OrO>Ta..) gives the donor a sense of superiority (C£A II.) V'I" eli. v"d TO. Pain is present with anger. and I see no reason against it._a sense.. • o[3ou}. But I find it difficult insofar as we are talking about forms of d). and so become angry. We find 8I-8a cited by Diogenes a 5 cUM ...) who should in this instance at least return a good for good. When either is denied they fed slighted. .UOle"a8a.ofboing highly superior (e. d. 2 &.. as A.. The first reason is their . Further. Kassd read II amo..a><Toiial T. Both citations from the Iliad read in their context indicate in Agamemnon.. £ij "olEi.iv On this and the following. EN IIub I6-r7). see. 8sa 21-22 A.. is an evil and something man desires .). Descartes observes.. which is called the state of anger. 62a 21-26). 37-39. which is pleasure (A II.7~ II COMMENTARY 3S is not anger (e.'. as noted in 6!1b 33. a II bpI. is to determine the disposition of those who become angry. pleasure. and since pain is seen as evil.. np"'eiar. says well at 8ra 6-8. d A_OUP"'O.. then the disposition of the angry man is that of someone not obtaining a good which he desires and consequently experiencing pain. and can be intentional or accidental (79" U-2S).. along with which there is the presence of desire (IrpleTa. 70a 17) and a good (62b 6). and so we know that its opposite. This frustrated desire brings on the anger. but the pain is the cause of the anger. Since 1u"'1.. and particularly appetites accompanied by pain for what is absent. the natural state. in article 87 of his "Treatise on the Passions": "[Desire] is always an identical movement which malees fOr the search atter good.example.At 69b 331£. . as we see. 43Ia 8-14). 1u"'1." Since the original desire is not realized. is external.n. That which frustrates the desire. From the analysis which follows in our text the pain meant is that which accompanies personal deprivation or the frustration of one's desires. )." and A. 69b33 -7O"Sa statement I find acceptable. the person must be desiring its opposite. ~ IO-27. 62b 6. 62a 21-29. the 1Wnj remains and is present with the new desire for retaliation. and cf. De . rpawopi"'1. EN II72b 36£).. leading to. distress (lvn. as A.ma. Top.. says: ''The angry man experiences pain because the pain occun within him prior to the anger. in effect says the same thing atA Io. has already told us of its opposite. At B 7.69b 2328. some understanding of it is necessary and may be found in what A. Since one desires not evil but the good (A 6.g. peTa. Pain is seen as something evil and so to be avoided. fOr. and any activity by man in accord with the natural state is pleasant. see Top.). 126a !rIO... The concern in our passage. 6ra 2S-27. 126a 6-12). is important to what follows and also to anger. Pleasure is somehow related to activity in accord with. And so if there is pain present accompanied by a desire for the good (and desire bas to do with the pleasant and painful. 78a 31: GeB. and at the same time for the avoidance of the evil which is contrary to it. Top. the desire for that which is seen as a good fOr the person. pain. evil either absolutely. what is productive of man's natural state produces pleasure. which is a concomitant of anger. We are told that the disposition is one of pain. usb 28-34 where in part A. for the anger is not the cause of the pain.u"cNl-''''o~ Some sense of the fOrce in IrpleTa. says appetites are wants. 69b 35. atA II. 6Ib 1-2: lIlIDlOly. or in some respect as an impediment to one's activity (EN IIS3b 1-3. here can be found in A S. we find a relation between man's natural state and pleasure: lIlIDlOly. and so anger quite simply is not pain. We were already told that pleasure is a good and that all men desire the good (A 6. Cope. The objects. calls anger and it is directed at those who block the desire (e. 59b 25-32.oGv Cpo a 14 (<fAA. 'RHETORIC' [[ to flee from. that of the 'pecial topics (on which see 58a 17 : '. to one in such a condition even indirect opposition is viewed simply a' opposition. The frustration of the desire results in 16m/ and with it a desire for retaliation .. or thwarts him indirectly .> 0.. Cope.q..v .. with ""'peet to drink.." the person has a desire for something that is not being realized since he is experiencing A'. 70a 18-27. The methodology of analysis which begins here and is continued with all the emotions i.. sets down in 79' I2r-I7.or if he opposes him or does not cooperate with him or causes him any other annoyance when he is in such a state.• Spengel. p. The connection develops out of ltpiBTai T'V.).. The indirect is shown by failing to cooperate with.1... a 13 61L0[c"S . COMMENTARY I 354-55) proper to each emotion and viewed usually under the threefold division set out at 78a 23-25. I follow the punctuation of the edd.. Kassel conjectures <ned.ISTOTLE. •.€ eM. see A.illl' with itlv Te . This is the reading of the edd. or by being a source of annoyance or trouble (~v. then. On "iv. a 12r-I3 4av "'€ IL-q sc. the individual is angry with all such persons. has a note on HaT' e!lO"eiav explaining its meaning and illustrating its use in A. .O could.. Kassel alone of the edd. 0. a point which he makes at 8ra c5-8.l.. i. or are seen as good for himself by the individual... "Consequently if anyone places any direct obstacle in any respeet to a thirsty man... be considered redundant.aT' efJO"eiav dVT'''eO'... "d. for example.. see 70b 18: 3..• it is not desired.g.''11.are two kinds of opposition. i.. ". by disregarding or dismissing the other penon'. and each is being thwarted.. a desire which he immediately goes on to say at 79' II-IS is being frustrated.. tells us in our present passage (790 10-25) pain accompanies the disposition to anger because the penon is desiring something.0/. The Greek commentator Anonymus takes . c£ below.8. From what A. cpo II II. TI).79a 13 AB. and we find it in the next clause: . direct and indirect. .. 2.. desire avp"eaTTTI). I do not see it as necessary.d a 13-14 olciv ••• lvOX>..'s comment at 790 1']-18. 7COL€'V "He appears to be doing exactly the same thing"." with Tml. When we look at the desires A. p.e. It is possible.or what A. a II-IS olav . ".e'. secludes the clause as a "verkehrtes Interpretament" (Der Text.X1tfJ.."'1.. The reaction "'Ii .. 132).and in doing this he appears to engage in exactly the same kind of action .ja•• deriCBTa.. but need not.e.jj There." a u a. Both are typical of the forms of dA'r"ela at 78b 10-2. we find that they are desires for what would restore the individual to his natural state. of these desires are good.• 79a IS: "... cna pA. transitivdy: "and not bringing it [1. . Epp. etc. see 79a 19. 56.g...e." i. is easily angered. I would not take it as tying our clause to 79" 21-22 (d 6A ..79a 17 COMMENTARY 37 of the Pompeians to the Romans who showed such indirect opposition to them by remaining in Rome is clear: "numero hostium habebantur.. . 132. Hat at 79a 20 introduces either redundancy or confusion. daoycoeta) which is subordinate to the thought devdopment here. Spengd reads it.iJ " . Cope does not. See... n. Index 3S?b 131[.. [but even without that] the sick man. reading the <Bi .g.. e. a 16 : 1 6""'~ b.. Cope.e. see Der Text. Par example. 2869a.. if we read the <. for his reasons). 73b 18-24).~> clause brings to the fore an idea (i. solitarium (S.6. 2 p..... the dey tAo."•• n. If the particle is read..." Cicero.. Spengd. easily angered".. T' is read by the edd. (a 15-18).> clause at 79a 21-22. C£ 79" 18. 73a 17 ("I 8A"~ ne.Il'l'..6ou~~ . and the form it takes is found elsewhere (e. 67a 37 (deytAov Hal TO." 6. as pda"na has been used in the first book. and A 9. . 2896) in which the contrast is understood: e.C£ 79" II.oUvd~ "" "in a word everyone desiring".. Cope do not. Spengd.g.t As we see from EN IIa8a 4--9.)"Ep. Thus I would interpret the "at as linking the two as in apposition: "are irascible. 21..~ Whether it is taken transitivdy or intransitivdy. "one so disposed. Ross read the word.}. 72a II..g. Secondly..oiiv'<E~> a conjecture of Bekker's accepted by four edd. Finally. for example. but I would prefer not to read it.. " . ad Alt. Kassd secludes the whole passage a IS-I8 (do•. a IS < .•• oAoy"e06'Ta~).tv] Roemer (but see his appar. Tovar.o~. the paralld passages of Roemer indicate a much closer conjunction of pd. Schneider. p.) and A la. In the first place.~ 79b 18 and note. "d.eI'.1 1'>1 in the text than we have here. a 14-15 oG_~ lxov". A 9 66b 8 (typical of the usage between 54" and 66b). except Ross. II. It has good text evidence. (c) followed by a particular illustration (a 18-23: ala•. 70" 4. erit. would agree with him..8up. 7Ib 18. s. S.. n. is easily roused to anger. cpo A 12...op8oGv"'.. its presence by itsdf would be quite justifiable here.. 68a II. we find that &I'0t. At ItlO5t I would take the particle as pi-. 2 [p. (a) statement (a 10-15). II2sb 29 11260 21. to single out some one thing.1 .. 32. Dufour.] to a successful issue..... particularly so if one makes little of their present condition. II. Kassd. (b) general illustration introduced by 60. a..).) as Roemer suggests. we must understand IlnrIJul'la with this verb. see Bonitz.." a 17 : 1 cipy[)"o.. e. I find the articulation of the whole reasonable.6. Certainly.. pav. that is. namdy. p.060I'lo. those who are in any way in pain ate easily roused to anger.. 12. 69a 9. which it is not.. p. &.ted to his poverty.~ tiE "". There are some difficulties with such an interpretation. c£ "d/Jov" 79a 23 (misfortune. and similarly in other misfortunes.).. Der Text.tav TOW ned. for example. Cpo A 10."1) T01.. 5Sb 3S... c£ SSb 30. 132£. suspects that its appearance in the Vetus Translatio and in the Arabic version of the Rhetoric derives from a marginal comment. the military man because of matters related to war.A• . p. as "And if there be none of this.••o. disaster)...... a 21-22 [EI 6." Kassel.g.[ "and sirnilarly also in other misfortunes" (c£ "d/J. who reads neOOdOnOl6rTal for our perfect middle passive.e. Kassel.. the poor man because of matters rel. is duhious. the sick man is angered because of m. AtmO"." a 22 "'po. I believe. relates directly and reasonably to 79' 22. as a dative of cause in each instance.. More correctly.2 <61 dA • •• n.e same addition in the Arabic version is translated by Margoliouth. then the interpretation of 79'l 20-:U.e main idea is stated at 79a to-II (aolTol ... 7. and the edd. 22: "and so for all the rest") . 6Sa IS. • ruo. 56. the translators) to mean: (Oer/AO' 6. . (aolTOV OA'l''''eOVCTL) "ed... p. 11.. a IS : I 2 .0/"" ..... Cope.: "as. . 6..dO"O/'!TRI ." The whole passage then.t 68a IS : 2. 6sb 16-1S This is commonly interpreted (Cope.must mean: men are angry in all other instances in which they are slighted. 69a 15-16. "'PD~ a 20-21 bp. the phrase has been used in various ways but with the same basic meaning found . ofo. Roemer brought it into the text from the Vetus Translatio. Schneider.I1Ta ••• OA'l''''eoiivTa" a 17-1S) is the substantive idea in this section. and has to do with conditions in which men experience A1lm1 and thus anger. I believe that it should be secluded or dropped for the reason given in 79B IS.ppears to be a gloss made to explain such an interpretation. o(rylloc) Tot. 79a 9-2.-23 ("eo". the lover because of matters related to love. 7<P '7. TO" "eo' (for parallel usage see 6sb 1 : 1: Ta ned.• "d80v..~) read by four of the edd.. • variant .I1~ • 23).. The dause is translated in the Roberts translation as "any other sort of slight being enougb if special slights are wanting. then some other things sudI as anyone [literally.) is to be interpreted.. interprets the passage clliferently but is aware. 79a 21-2. ne~' "TA.. (a) It assumes that the particularizing phrase (. of the difficulties in the common interpretation. pp.): "for each individual has been predisposed to his personal anger by the misfortune present to him at the moment.ARISTOTLE. 3 So.. except Ross.oie. Spengel. Cope do not read it.aA.e.>. and which ." 11. If this is so. it would seem.).. "the despiser") despises.7. 'llBBTORlC' II 3S 79'l 22 otov x«p. i.. M~a.. read by Spenge~ Cope.. ..ou. 59' 25. 79' 15-21 (610 ...•LUol..1.~o"'ol'l . dl'!O.. 6sb 23. (b) The interpretation must find its support in a clause whicl.. nlv vOct....tters related to his sickness. "ap'JIllJv lIB'll (SOTt. the dispositions. 8b 27 . 79a 22. 68a 12... Seneca. See 81a 6Jf.e.'s analysis: " .-2S l-<. then. &' &!tv . the conditions of age which easily yield to anger. 9.. .COMMBNTARY 39 which. see S4& 8.o. But it does appear that all three apply to each of the nouns. povABTa..) in which A." Spengel. ~A'X[II'. :nob 3. and also in A. the same is also true of the hungry and the thirsty man and of everyone irritated by something or other. Hunger and thirst are to be avoided for the same reasons: they provoke and irritate the mind. i. an. a speeel>. 6sob 28. For just as bodily sores grow painful at the slightest touch. An old saying has it that a tired man picks a quarrel. is found in De part. so. p.. c£ 6sa 20 : J).•. The evidence for both readings is good.ov as referring to ala6ia••" "on to cLeal.-13. means one of the seasons of the year. 214. "the expectation of something else" would seem to be a mark that in the man's MEa there is also present an affective element of desiring something else. A a. a query provokes a dispute: sore spots are never disturbed without grumbling. taking ".e. De ira 3. read "al OTI IITS. Cope a 27 : J XIII k. if a man happened to expect the opposite". As for the general validity of a 2S-27.tantially contrary to a 2S-26 "'PII' . 6sIb 10." is the reading of foor edd. which in contrast to lEI" is changeable. "Further. It also came to mean the fittiog time or period (somewhat like "a'eo. This appears to be the point of the following clause (<Il''''.al. and when.e . Spengel. ". an. xeo.. a 22.•• a lloUl.oLal with ljA.) prepare the way for anger. 6sa 20-21. poverty. Kassel. which would be attractive here. too. <Ilea usually. and under what conditions. the times. De gen.</al alone. 64& 32) signifies disposition. a 23-24 d "oAu "lIpci &6~lIv what one expected.4-S rcJIectlI A.. explains what he means by "aea MEa>...16. (c£ Cill. as Kassel remarks. what is sub.E'tIl' I would agree with Spengel that this refers back to ']9a Io-II and is a further explanation (i. impermanent: "And so. we can say from what has preceded in the chapter that this large statement is realized in a general way for each of the instances mentioned. and then even at the suggestion of a touch.9. it is clear from the above of what sort are the right moments.-2S with ']9a II-IS) for the statement there (and see ']9a 6).9a 13.. but not in the specific detail to which we have been accustomed from the fdth chapter of the first book on when such a sentence of summation is used. a letter.. The metaphor vividly captures the way in which the feelings in each instance (sickness. interpretll the lines differendy. for the same reason to be sure those overcome with bad health or age are more irascible. Cpo A 7. the troubled mind is distressed by the slightest of things so that a greetiog.. etc. intention to offend" (Cope. in fact. .o.... They also end the next sentence with a period after <1'1!. TB 'xo.v "at th".).. From his comment on the charges of Meletus (Apol.ga I2se (<1"OO=e .. The three verbs are more or less synonymous in their general significance: to laugh scornfully at. does not discriminate among the meanings. 'RHETORIC' II 2 ~ov. A.." A.. 144" 6-8 that xAeva<1ta is a species of IJPe'" and the indication at . I<1Tt: "which are neither retaliatory nor useful to those who do them [ToE. 2 TO'CIlk.a).. lI-ii>.e. .UAov: "when they are more caught up in these conditions than is needful they are even more easily moved to anger.oucr.:" C£ 57b I : 2. we now take up the second division of 79a 10: Ti<1" dI!Y1C OVTa•....ARISTOTLB.e which . Demosthenes. 260) Socrates saw them as acts of hybris.. p. actions of this sort are held to be done [do"•• elva..d 79a 33 probably understand TO.. with dIe first !'. the signs of wiI1fu1 insult"... Euthyphro 3c ("aT... punctuates with a comma after it.. I '"111-£.B. deride.. j!AcI".dOe'1!.:~ . a colon). Apart from the statement at Top. J a sc.. yelp..). See. 28.J.'1 when sncb actions constitute {JPe'" i.• <1'1!. On the False Embassy 23 (xAevdCe .. 79a IOIE oG"nd~ ExOVT. Spengel. dio .tv.. mock. jeer at another. neil. when they have no purpose save the gratification of the doer. 25). The other edd. I believe that it would be more correct to interpret: "For. 78b 23-25." a 32 : a 33 i\6'1 ..bose actions are acts of ~Pe'. yelp The first persons mentioned are those .g.aVTa would appear to refer to a 31-32 ("al TO'••.] from hybris.Te'. . i.~ responds to 79a 9.e who commit the kind of injuries as are. each and everyone [U<1a].... e.... Cope omit the parentheses and punctuate with a period. and in the bad sense causes pain and is a "o.. The sense of superiority which they convey can be seen in Plato. the instances just mentioned at a 25-27 which in turn refer to the body of the analysis which precedes.e.o. notovaw].d n. .e. a 28 a 29-31 6pyll.. and to explain (''1lut it is necessary that sncb acts be th". 78b 23-26... has just told us that the actions he . more Correct and the reason is given in 79a 32 : 2.ov. Gj!p'v This is commonly taken to mean: "for only then will they be felt to be due to insolence" (Roberts translation) or "for when this is the case .. 2 .. can be used in a good and bad sense. Cope. cf...e'a (Ross. I consider the punctuation of the edd.. makes an effort to do so.ov ". . "E'1!"'''''' 390. then (and not till then) are they thought to be due to a wanton ." J lv '<OUTO'~ i. Ross alone includes this in parentheses and a 3I : 1 6j!p(~oucr. this is another class at whom anger is directed. p.e"ci')' The. To.EN I128a 4-30 that <1"OO=e. It is not unusual to interpret it as beauty... Air.v as osed at A II. '"'. p. 64b 16-17.. on the interchange of the personal and reflexive pronouns.... in regard to"... e. It indicates. Ail'T/. 6Ib 35-37 andB 4 which explain why men consider it neo<1- . el" "with reference to.e. Cope. eE also 7')a 36. figure..2.. 26. as does the following 'l'IloTl. see 541> 7.. the word commonly means form.ij> p. n 2 un.. On "aTa'l'eoPBiv.. 2 i\ 6Aw~ . on ild'l. Spenge!. 1lnciex'''' which has created difficulty.t.i... oeylCov-r:a... The understood object (TaVTa) of the verbs is the antecedent of the following relative clause.. see also Soa 2S-27... or in any effective way..."". .•• "a.g. three edd.. the serious concern of the individuals for the objects mentioned as things of major importance to them. in the English translations it becomes "their appearance.g. Idea•.COMMENTARY 41 has put forward must have the qualities which are identified with hybris in his defmition (eE 7')a 32 : a). a 3S : 1 crn""6ci~auc.ov. see.. e.. the reading of the codd..... SOX. Spenge!. ea. TI.iiAlov· sc. cpo A 9. Cope have the reading of all the codd.... e. . cf.." a37: 1 inl.. (79a 29)i another class of people with whom men grow angry.D'~ another group with whom men grow angry. a 3S : 1 "U"D~ Ross and Kasse! read atlToi.. b. ..1" N.pix." 79h I : 1 D<pop6. 3 ickv .'v is the reading of the edd. 6Sa IS-I9. . see 7sb IS-I6. A. or.iu6al int = to take glory in.71 il. 81.o""'l'I~ 'l'Ilon..o)J. ...· 3 . or do not appear (to others) to be present. with respect to. XClTtUppOVOUaL se.... OertCOVTal of a 29-30.. 2 of . to revile. shape. ""Ta9'e6"l1). Cope. LS.... a 34 nit. 3Ise. 60a I : 1. nse1 0011•.. "in the case of". <pt>. whenever men "are of the very firm conviction.g." 4.. Tovar translate Out passage..O""'l'I. with Roemer whose conjecture makes sense.. 2 t .ol (eager for honor). and in OUI sentence he draws the conclusion: for such are held to be hybristic acts. refen to the qualities just mentioned ana is the subject 1lnciex. Plato." is to speak ill of.. Protag. eE LS. 7ra 3. On 'l'tlo" see A s.. & 2 "DL~ <p().v The condition is present general..'. if they suspect that the qualities are not in their possession: "either in general. 78& I4-1S : I. a 36 160'1' In A...LV i.. see.l <pt>.. pride oneself for. Thus Dufout. 6Ib 2.""". T. and anger. neOm/"O. "ae olo.. see Denmston. says as much at 79b 5--6: unless there was a reason such. indicates b 4 ""oil.. ~.0.) d..Ta. Le..e verb. Laws 717d. in see A 5."'e8i.1328a 16 in a reference to Plato's TO Ov".e..OV""..ii. b 5 i«v .... II.to.. friends. b 7 : 1 cl... "0"'>.) so that it is fairly sure that if one does such • good deed he will in tum receive back • good deed..g. 1327b 40 . "'". dealing with them in the opposite way. e. among other feelings. There he suggests the possibility that Ov"..AllISTOTLB. is the faculty of the soul by which we love because it is aroused more readily against those who are loved. characteristic way...olSi. .'PeO..a. puts the idea in another way at Pol. the idea in .ual honorable regard is interpreted to mean a positive act of dishonor which is a form of slighting and specifically here "a.oB.e. 7Da 6--9. b 6. etc. his typical.&l. as at 79b 2. person would presumably act as always: l'aVTa &11 no. In fact. Change in such a manner of acting toward another is sufficient in itsdf to raise questions as to the reasons why. ..a) A.. thus.g..o.. have a care for... We saw the verb at 78b 25. aVToor.ua. give thought b 4-5 ""'fLiiv to.""" since it is valid to say of men in general: 6. (olo. 65b 2-5. 75a 14-15. explanatory "fie: for otherwise .. The word. "aTa'Peo.. see also Pl. 14. dpovlf}o... 62. Ii <ppov""I~. confer benefits in return. 6.Mr. Because one has been honored regularly..TO" 78a 33. 0fLw. e..o. On this topic.Ta. A.• atA 7. p... the part of the soul that is the seat of indignation.er" (oio"Tat).. i. the anger.Ta'Peo.. they do not deal with them in the same way".11.. the cessation is viewed as i<aTa. 78b 15-16. b 6 : 1 oiov""..'" On the ide. . resentment. see 79b 30. i. • ""~~.. is more aroused against acquaintances and friends than against strangers"." The reason for this is given indirectly at 78b 29-3 I: the absence of the u.o... TOOT. a. in the last passage. 287Ia 8-17..... as we saw it atA II.).6.. K""<CZ<ppovEiae. EI8". and is honored no longer. speaking of injustice (d6". and A. reversing themselves. ycip sc.cting on the part of an individual. of turning back on.fLEv0'~ that which is an habitual way of . ". is experienced partly in d. says that not to return a good to a benefactor is a form of injustice. than against those we do not know: "when one thinks himsdf slighted his 8v". tp(}onlCe£1l.. In the Gorgias 5200 7-10 Soctates says that certain good deeds inspire a desire on the part of the beneficiary to make a return (a'T' tV .. W "01S'" "&"X'" has been seen a number of times in the fust book. pay . going contrariwise. A friend is clearly of the class TOV ol'.. 'RHETORIC' II 01""7 to fare wdl at the hands of friends.ttention to..<n" "if. see also 79a 6-8 (In . 1'"1" The kind of equality would come from the sentence. would be understood.4sc. "those who do not repay \vith a comparable benefit. c£ 79b '-7. e.•• Therefore a colon after both w". : b 14 "f1ivllvd. tixe' ri'j. rather than p0ieav.).v w". e.7..."'Ppov£iv .• -Ij. and dVTtmod. or who do so inadequately...iiAAov • 6..~ an objective genitive: "anger caused by slight". 1. b 8-ro " .. .g. .g. though inferiors. e... &l'YWeB'v. 6A'Y"'pe'iv.) and 79b 7-8 (xul TO'.Te. . W"(!y""tav. not a colon as read by the edd. b I1. "for the anger caused by slight is.-li "pocnj"ov.. as well as to those who.do.-33. directed against those who do not properly have the right to slight. • n:poa'lj".. p"" - rpeopel" rpal1l0'PTa&.. while the former (oC di. p. Granted that A. 78a 31-33. sc.Y 43 T'l)v ('"I" Cope.". one is not entitled to demean someone better endowed than oneself in the very thing which is attacked. oppose one..79b 14 COMMBNTAB.. b 9) in making no return ofbencfits appear to despise as inferiors their benefactors (on the usc of oC oC 6i here see 62a 36-37)." 3 OA'Y"'pU.. LS. 1331.. e...... dVTanod. oC TO. lOyo" 1.~ sc.. Ail'''''''' ij no"ii" . c£ S..do. uses the neuter when he uses the word alone.. 1 p.OWO. (79b 9) refers then to those who do not return benefits. naturally speaking.. as everyone does.av. a period after &l.. b II : 1 p. our sentence gives a reason for the anger fdt in the two instances at 79b 6-JJ (xal TO" . makes more sense if we are to extend the reason -at 79b 8-IO to both sentences.. and as was first mentioned by the scholiast. The scholiast's interpretation makes sense since a reason for the anger experienced has been given in each instance from 79a 30 on.. A reIIection on the actions in each instance will reveal that the interpretation given to them by the angered person is reasonable and justified.. suggests that poieav is understood and gives evidence for his reason. On the Peace 17: ow.. 2 AOy".. c£ 78a 32.". b 7. in our assumption.. then the punctuation must be watched.." If the word is used adjectivally it would seem that x~" (79b 30). Demosthenes.g. b 8.. 2 If this passage is to be interpreted as it generally is.. at 84" I1...£. The form their xaTa<peWrJ"" takes is that the latter (DC p"".01. There should b..". "of no account".v.. I do not see why the foIUl here cannot stand alone to signify equality. Cope. b 9) in opposing others appear to look down on them as inferiors.yweta at 7sb 10-13 that. . see.v (see Spengel.Ta..g."wee. deytCO. Kassd). It should be clear from the explanation of dl. yweia in the action. see.... Meleager.p MeA.... 6A .ARISTOTLE..g..d . 'RHBTOR1C' II 44 b IS c... insensible. as the subject of o~ Aav9d••• at b 17 since this seems to be clearly the thought A.. 7. IO. see 8sa 9 : z. Meineke.iov If a friend is defined as "one who for the sake of the other brings about that good which he considers to be good for the other.Y"'p{~".oplrlla TOVTO.Ii" b 20 )'umj""'Ir'V The unconcern in this regard (which is an active disposition.oup. if the anger is to be justifiable. At 8sa 9-13 there is a mention of the death of an Antiphon.Ba.C.81a I. '"I. to what his uncle considered his rightful claims. Deipnosophist. p. 63b 2S. 10 other words. 43<>-367 B.) would be true only where the bringer of bad news manifests the same disposition. .dYe'!'). I ]I S.] T. remonstrated with the young mao for giving his trophy.. The illustration of this which follows (a..63).420-444. PW.M.. e.p .. It is most likely this poet who lived at the court of Dionysius the Elder (ca.ger. De Stoic.. IOSld. [cleylCsTa. PW. it is clear that such neglect (T~ p. cleyiCo. the skin of the Calydonian boar which he had killed.) and was put to death by the tyrant (Plutarch.!. 9. 79Z.TlCov ...ymeia. 10 fact. Antiphon.. p. B 99b 2S-28 as instances from the play.. dA. 61b 36-37 (and see 80b 3S ..B. see OeD.yp'l' The story to which A. Lives of the Sophists.. as the analysis of each class with whom men become angry indicates.Ta. al.g.ono. apparendy.1-6 and Ovid in Metam. b 16 6)'. is developing in b 14-17.) is in itself an indication of ciA. and an indication of their. is another matter." I interpret an understood Ta a." and of a character in his play called Plexippus. a subject in both epic and drama.. b 18 "IIEl ilAw~ E68up.673e-f speaks of Antiphon. This is identified by Nauck & Snell. Mu.34.. On Meleager. also considers both the Aristode and the Athenaeus citations to refer to the tragic poet Antiphon.e. Athenaeus.. to Atalanta with whom he was in love.." A s. The identity of the playwright. e. and they refer both to our passage and to a later reference in the Rhetoric. repugn..d. 62b 34. in his discussion of the comic poet Antiphanes (see OCD) to whom Pollux.. and 6Ib 37 : I). 499-S00. A..r6. cpo 79R 16 : 1) sums up this whole class as any and all who remain cheerfu at another's misfOrtunes.. probably refers is told by Diodorus Siculus 4.E"o~ 68a 26. (0£ A 6. Philostratus. 0 Teay. underlines this sign character of such neglect by saying that "the needs of those for whom we have regard [i.73 acribes a play Mele. in the very next clause.. 'Peo. 8. and given more briefly by the schoJiast: Plexippus. the maternal uncle of Meleager. ela.y.. there must be an element of dA. even those who are not necessarily our' friends] do not escape our notice.. as the play Meleager. "Antiphon" 12 and "Meleagros" 4SS..) on the part of those who cause the pain is an affront. aroused the anger of Plexippus (llAoioumo. . I S. 79a 23-24). see note) is that both are done maliciously and with pleasure. Plato.v The is resumptive. 79' 3S· . Thus anything.iv(u'it i.fLo\iv. 8Ib 7-<).:. c£ 79a la-IS (aVToi . 'PMOT''''''u8a... wrongs is one of pain. b 23-24 8." Taken in this sense. The point of this general reflection seems to be to confirm.. deyiCeTa. and so an attitude of o). Thus I believe that the illustration is memt to say that men spontaneously assume such disregard when anyone causes them plrin.g.e. The object of both verb. means to "be a rival of someone." It is b 24 : J "po~ "tv. C. nee.yoiio.. 32. triggers anger. and b 23-24. for example.. That which is 'Pavlov is generally in A. whose admiration they wish. b 22: o).. or among those who respect them... whom they admire. Antig. or whom they respect.JI h 22-23 ot yl&p . b 21 aXOUOUGL • . "ins (T'vci~) as the general antecedent.tura1ly and reveaIing themsdves as ill-disposed to that person. with "ed. mOi...u" II '%8eoi~... lito listen toU. yae otldel~ ayyeAov "a"Oi... 2S3. see.... C£ 84" 28.7) than "with reference to. failures. For the individual consciously or otherwise associates the pm with deliberate intent to fruslr. the four rdative clauses have their own rdative pronoun introduced by the second ne&~... Perr. they are angered at those who slight them in the presence of five groups of people: in the presence of those whose rivals they are. mi. and so those who are activdy concerned with the failings of another as objects of curiosity are acting unn.... of people. reputable. more reasonable to take ne&~ as "in the presence of" (LS. lito look at as at a spectacle.. is Ta tpavla.21. faults. • OECi) . ...' aVTow = "concerning them.". wrongs"." Cpo 'PLlon. I78e where the expression "ed~ . for example... Symp.). signUicant. "in the presence of five class." A.po~ 06~ <pu. makes his point at b 27 by the phrase b TOUTO.. CNvllAyoiio.. c£ Sophocles.. alLY"'eii. worthy of attention.ov." The implication in the context (e. c!<Jo.} naea MEa.. 88a 8 (bis)..I..0' &l . even the conveyance of bad news (which in the best of circumstances is usually TO "o). deylCona. Aeschylus.. a..y"'eo.. 2 ".". see. Demosthenes. anything opposed to what is good. 277 (tn'eye. 3.'YOJela on the other person's part.COMMENTARY 4S 79a 3Ion.lte.evo.. Here it seems best taken as "weaknesses.v is the explanation of why they are like A:c8eoi. the hostile nature of the action of b 21: the instinctive reaction of any person to his own personal faults.". 01. 8Ib 29. in respect O£" Aside from the fact that it is difficult to grasp how one "slights someone in respect of any person. and at b 2S [ne6~1 is rightly bracketed by the edd. On the idea in a•• . (Cope alone reads it): "further.). opSv".. 55a zz). but cf...". . from the idea 01 d~ . philoctetes I3S".il.) would be helpful. on the sense of alaXeo."EUO"". 20a ".~ 'rit 'ro. crit. as he does. save that a different and more natural and commonly a=pted explanation is given for the anger.pe. and also at SIa 31 (plj . p.IL3: "to feel shame in the presence of a person..we06a. 67b IS : 2. to reverence. cf. begins .... in the course of which (at II27b 22-32. "IS. more instances of such usage (dl'. awe.aiiTa. A 3..e: "he speaks ironicalIy to me. 2 ij Ev 'ro.Iii. 934.o516ou""y lu Spengel. notes. the person. Xenophon. sSb 2S... Sob I (and in the noun at sob 3" where it carries the meaning of al~w" reverence. Tfi slew'.. and it means "with reference to. It is.. cf. b "9 yov. or A I."we~w. . 30. 3" are. and Cope. At EN II27a 18 A.. ."'ee" el.. division of the trnthful..'''.. b "7 6pyl~ov'r'" I'iU. "l. An.:~ "tCJ)(UV0l'EYO'~ The constroction is suddenly changed.. av.. b "4. The reason for the greater anget is obvious The use of eI. b "4) tv ." a common meaning... cf...) he sets down the characteristics of the sie.j. Crolyl...ae . See Euripides.. "eo. Working.." Spengel finds similar repetitions at SIa 9 (presumably 01 aVTo" ex8eot) and a T6." We see this use at Soa 32. EE 12343 I. see 6xa 5. see 79b "4 : 2 for the translation. he gives a generally favorable and somewhat benign meaning to .' zew.e.a..- "'0" b 3I 'roi~ d". EN IIoSa 19-23.. and Beare.. e..'9..o.7." with the idea of dissembling. i.. and the ironical man.e.Aov from b "4-26.ll. 3S43.. cnJ. respect)..Iew.e'. here parallels that of "'eo' at b 2S : J . On the use of . "d... dl." ie.g.. osb "0. 7Sa 33) take it in close connection with dl..po~ cmou5cii. This is not a meaning we find in the word when we meet it in the first book or. U to stand in awe of. the boastful.. it is what Cope suggests: i...).. the mention of Socrates as being . . LS (dl'l''''e~w) and Kassd (appar.. "S. This is an instance of who the • ....0V'r"~ See Plato."ol . ia. 0. alax••"" B... II24b 29-3T. 660 "4. this is substantially a repetition of 79b 7. This is the way we find its cognates used at 8"b 21.a. the relative clause is put aside for a prepositional phrase.ARISTOTLE. 6..o.. p.... I9b S-IO. 7.. SIb 2. "'aea . Sophocles.. If anything is to be undetstood with this phrase. purposefully affecting ignorance. for further instances..eta. 2 "tCJ)(polv sc...... for the most part... see 66b "7 : 2....46: "I think that all men consider it an obligation to show good will to the one from whom they have received gifts.b. which points forward here.:~ b 30 XUp'Y I'ij 4". 0. " (.79b 31 . in B 6 whete he discusses alaxUv. Ion 1074I07S. 9..06 at 7S.O'~ ". for its more common usage to refer to what has preceded and to instances similar to them... "wela: it is contrary to all that is naturally fitting (cf. S43 27. sle. IRHB'I'ORIC ' II b 26 : J otl~ "lCJ)(Uvouv'r'" LS. 06a..a': "for.iI . pp.cai is intensive. this is a sign of contempt: namdy. where the third divison (inl "oio."oio. for example.e.) and third (inl .. 62ff.o. . as he righdy corrects hirnsdf. forgetting names.. which (though the ridicule may be partly of oneself. could just as readily have said: "and men are angered with those who are forgetful..o6T& (laTl) "aTa<peOP'1T'''&'. e.. e.oiov C£ "1:1I1'8'OP.) and the first (. 2 XlZl iI }.. Socratic irony has been much discwsed.O'...COMMENTARY 47 ironic is similar. See. Bru/IIS 292.P. for the force of the ending. at 62a 27.. has a long note to the eJfcct that .).TO: "al "de . evasiveness. 19b 8-10) reveal a certain disregard or disdain for the other person. cf.. an example (in the threefold division at 78.. it is repeated at b 35. not of the persons with whom one is angered (inl -ria.. ••. i. 62b 4..1>16'1 i. 7. 81a 20... 6.. b 35 oG.) dip (M.. 66b 16.cal ~oP (TOV. notes here at 79b 31-32: "aTa'l'eOPT/T. Compare Cicero.) are practically dismissed.''ol) "al ~o. Socrates. Guthrie... l'l·. see also 87b 3S . 126ff.roalZ "for example. Friedlander I. chap..10 fl.. however.JAa el"e'1Ta. 6-J7.) "d.g. IJ. 2. and Boder. But. b 33-34 .Ov The articular infinitive with its relative clause is in apposition with and explanatory of .88.g. the very next emotion in B 3. 2 Uv .. Though Socrates i. TO JA~ dE. divison by division. 24-25. II. A.XOv as we saw it used frequendy in . 32." b 36 "'Ifl. . Spengd." .).. the fact that they do not deem even him worthy of the esteem which they consider worthily given to all men. eN". and the first ("o. that the threefold division is not stricdy followed in the analysis of the emotions. lap JA~ (dia.67. pp. occasioned quite clearly by the close interaction of the concepts in each division.269-270.. 798 35 : 1. pp..4. 63b 35-36. See. pp.. n lxopn. not the ironic man as seen in Theophrastus' Characters: Irony. 80a 30-31.. e~"o''1T.ij8'1 The .. cN." 391.. This analytical procedure. C£ Boa 6 : 2. 36...lxop. 215£." The point of calling attention to this comment is to note something already indicated in the outline to this chapter: narndy. De orat. r 18.t 79b 3?£: 01. or here at 79b 36£). 7Tb 3. see also the concluding statement at 80b 30-33 which mentions ouly the first two divisions. b 32 : 1 £U_l1J"'""'Di~ C£ A 9. In irony. and there is dispute about the meaning of the word when used of Socrates.0..) appears intermingled with the second division (inl Tia.." b 34 : 1 . as A.).. see 5gb 32 : 1."". Gulley.). but of one of the reasons why (i"l "oio. pretense... In B 4 the major subject of consideration is the second division (inl Tia. in fact.dp "de. there are dements of ridicule in the affectation.. 14-36.'" sc. On cmovdclCoVTa" cf. though it has to do with such a trivial matter. aspectS of mockery or disdain are not always absent £Om his remarks.>~ . is stated by A. o6'ro. here. in its technical meaning is found atA 13.l... 2 €V""'.0Yf!J See S6a I : 2 and in particular the use of the word in s6a 4-19 (d.. bavTlov" the opponents who are to be presented as "the kind of pCISon with whom men are angry...'.).. but also to be angry ." ."oia. 74a 36.d . pointing to 83a 8-9.. 79h 36-37) is brought out clearly as it is set in contrast to l""pi." Fo~.. 1438.. 14 : 2. c£ S9b 142 .. before "QTQ""""dC.. with exOJ..l.cjI 1. l'i""eTa. from a good tradition..vdC.g. Spengd. with 77b 22-"4.'y is the reading of three edd.." a 4 "D'oU"OU~ i. is omitted) decided against it here and was followed by Roemer. indiff"erence (dl dpJ.!OU~ ..a •. for example. a. c£ 708.. 21S. Tovar. iiy x . ~.iy". Cope.. On "aTa""..lToo" or 1Jpii..e. ~iJi". 700 IS where the idea behind forgetfulnessb 37 4"0.• . Kassd read Q~T6. would represent the d. The adverb can mean inclined to anger.AlUSTOTLE... I :un reading without it (cp. 'RHBTORIC' II 80a 4 See A II.a. the adver~.~ lvDxou~ boxo. Boa " : 1 6£o. 8sa 3<>-31 (where a~. a 3 : 1 0[0' ••• lxoucrty "to make the auditors such that they are ~~tua}ly irate... Toll."'''''cil. Spengd. e.. 19b 17-18).6. the reasons why we become angered with people: "(to establish) their opponents as subject to those things.d pw .e.l..... TOOTO. Ag.. Demosthenes. see.p... our passage. but can see no reason against it... namdy. bove is contrary opposition. e. patience. q. 80b 1 the penons toward whom men experience mildness.. pity. art.. attitode. The opposition A. etc. however. shame and shanrelessness.s no contrary.• TIP neailv.. There would be no reason to question this save that SI. In general A. two positive terms denoting extremes of difference within the same genus.. and SO we have: mildness. young. good temper) II . Introduction: 80a S-8 tleness. From his explanation of mildness there can be litde question that it is the contrary to anger. Thomas Aquinas in his extended study of the emotions (in which he indicates his awareness of A. that anger alone of the emotions b.) remarks. The same is done with characters.g. art. There is. 80a 7). kindness and unkindness. a possible diffetence between anger and other emotions. is changed so that the new form constitotes the opposite of the original emotion. indignation. 3. the entity which results is the contrary of the original.'s terms) which constitutes anger.CHAPTER 3 definition of mildness (almness. the objective aspect of the emotion 2-29 the disposition. •. confidence.g. prime of life. Spenge!. calmness (80a 30-31 :ilso refers in passing to the division d. shame. Conclusion: 80b 30-33 80a S : J -njI 6pyl!. i.. 23.80b 29 I. Further. speaks about in all the . 80a 8 . gen- I .s no contrary. and under what conditions they are so (80a 7). Cope and Ross read Td derlCeaOa. 46.Ecr8clL ••• 1:/0 n:p. each excluding the other from the same subject.. Development: 80.GvEcrllclL is the reading of four edel. We have a parallel to our construction at 88b 3.80b 2.e.1I Tl"". e. its opposition is of the same character as the opposition found between pity and indignation. and Thomas is correct in saying that anger as an emotion b.aOa. fear and confid=. If the form (to use A. etc. 77b 31 -78a 6. I.. 8 . the subjective aspect III . q. In . Summa Theologiae Ia II. old.v.. of those who are aim.'s srudy of the emotions by contrasting them is an eJfort to see them more fully by viewing them from diffetent perspectives. at 67a 3 S. The only alternatives open to him are to . Hicks. 35. s. courage. views these "d~ of De an... etc. he is experiencing or has experienced rhe act of disdain. although in the same chapter.1126b 9 (on this last. But this is not true of anger. 403a r6-lS in the wider sense of "attributes" of the soul conjoined with the body. 2 npczGv£G8'lL is the process of growing or becoming milder. However. Cope. anger. as he does also in part in EE 1231b 5-2. 403a r6-18 (along with 0"". It is in the l. see also Top. 42. II09b r8-26. It is this understanding of neaoT1J' which is found in On the Virtues and the Vices 1250a 4-6.0' in EE. with the exception of 0"". 403a 16.. Por example. All was mentioned earlier..ia only in EN and EE).. s. emerges in part as he establishes a formed pattern of response to the feelings or emotions frequently experienced. 'P. however. this emotion a 6: 1 "pexO'n)T' together with xOe" is peculiar to the Rhetoric Uust as xaed i. 'RHBTORIC' II 80a 6 the other emotions the contrary is usually a possibility toward which a person can move. ru6b 4-9).}.. Por an individual subject to fear (pain caused by the image of impending and destructive evil). U'.. From what A. he speaks of neaoT1J' as a l~.all'~aia as they are named .MT1J' and d. This set way of responding is called. 1I03b 21-2S.O"". which it would be as the mean state between the extremes oel'. becoming tractable. i. and specifically as one of the virtues. (see. studying in EN the nature of c!esnj and using his doctrine of the mean (noSa 3-9). and ".t EE II20b 3S.'s mind between a habit and an emotion since in discussing the different kinds of ij90. at 78a 22. In anger the move toward the contrary is dfectively blocked since the evil which causes the anger is actually present in the individual. are also found in the Rhetoric and EN). the idea of an emotion is present. ••. pp. appeased. (69a IS : 3) is determined by its dominant habits (Us. 66b 2. included among the "dO~ in De an.). 0"". see also IIogb 14-26).g. a person's ijOo.6 and EN II03b 17-25. as E~. however.lia. e. .tter works. found only in EN. only in EN and MM.e. rather than as emotions. that he speaks of "eao.7. cowardice. 12sb 2(>-2.50 ARISTOTLE. AtA 9. in B la-17 he speaks freely of the emotions (for example." and l~. 403a 16. Hamlyn. leans toward "affi:ctions" (which is not excluded by Hicks) with the further possibility of "emotions". noOo. a true emotion. it is spoken of as a virtue (see 6Cib2). certainly emotions are used by way of illustration at 403' 17f[ There can be no question that A.ccept this evil and so experience the concomitant pain and distress. it should be clear that there is no conflict or contradiction in A. 39-44. even though an ijOo. confidence (hope accompanied by the image of safety and the absence or remoteness of the terrifYing) is a possible alternative. 112Sb 26 . It is. '".iao" which.0" 'Popo" IlBo" Odeao" xoea. does not accept it a. or to reject the evil and so become angry.). understands "eaoT1J' in the Rloetoric as an emotion. tells us. is not a "elOo. la T<~ "at "aT&Taa. I2Sb 23..~ accompanies the ll. .. good temper.. see also de Romilly. mais c'est la praotes biblique. on the triple division see 78a 23-2S... 97-196.. It is of interest to note that when A. . de Romilly.~ We have seen "aT&cnaue~ at 69b 34 and 703 2. But if this is so. It appears to be an Aristotelian construct to 'ignify the modification itself. une vertu essentiellement religiouse." a meaning which it seems to have in the alternate version of ttle disputed Book 7 of the Physics. among which nea6T7J~ appears." But cf.. -rijr.. . see EN II06b 16-17. a 8 : 1 ".. is a question. Kassel alone reads Te after "W~. pp. at 69b 34 it appears best taken as "a settling down. especially 247a 3-9..pcillval~ We have here in a 7-8 A.247a 19. which is the emotion under consideration. 26-27) that "eiio~ 6 clna61\~ Ul'BTa. 37""43." admitting that "Ia douceur" is "une praotes. II 301. Physics 245b 3 .&67]. admits the possibility that a MJfJa.. a person by responding to or encouraging feelings or emotions of mildness. . his language at 80a 6 is careless in correlating it as an emotion to oer>i which is an emotion. c£ Chantraine. for [thinking) L a kind of a rest and se!ding . it is also true that in the moral (>j6... considers the various virtues in EN. or other writers of the fourth century. . c)'Il'J'olaC' . see Gauthier &: JoliE.~ ("."'1) sphere the i!Ee. The word itself is rare. . and I find no evidence for its use in A.~ which is "ea6T7J~ such that if a . Boa 6 : 1) of which he has said (Top.~ are concerned with the . and while it is true that the "&6. Why he uses it instead of "eaoT7J~. who presents the concept as she understands its development in the fourth century. the movement within the self experienced by those who undergo a change away from anger.Y 51 (see 62h 13 : 2.person experiences the ernotion of anger he is in control of it. In the case before us. can fonn the 6t. (cf.. A recent discussion of the word can be found in Nikolaidis. translate "ea&T7J~ as "Ia placidite. II 221. and when thinking comes to a rest and a setding down . just as a certain kind of response to del'>1 can develop the iE. 1iee.. . that he is thinking of "eaOT7]~ as a 61. and a subjective (What is the attitude of the person with the virtue?). 2 _'<clG'<Cla. he proposes (JIIsa 4-5) to study them from a threefold viewpoint. A.. It may be. ~.~ xed iJp'I''''1a. .47b 26-30: HaA sl.. ~es~lap ual "aTaaTaaw Blf}ovO'1]r. See 80h 30 : 1. Plato.. a7 . 2. 2 ""'~ .~ also called "eaoT7J~. In the Topics passage cited above (I2sb 24-26). 69& 8 : 2).XOV'<O<. as Cope urges. 19sns. Gauthier &: JoliE. which effectively reduces itself to two (see comment at 7lIb 36 and the outline of this chapter): an objective aspect (What is the object of the virtue ?). placidity ("eaoT7J')' or by countering anger with such affective responses.'s understanding of this word.. See 60h 14: 2.. &. are not i!E.~ deyWiT7J~.. pp.80a 8 COMMBNTAlI. tout afait dilferente de Ia placidit" aristotCIicienne. .g. A.u.) with deliberately intended acts if A.oiS 6A'yc.. 23. then.o. see. . c£ EN 3.Ao.."I. There is also in c!"o. see also 79b 28 : 1.. p... "etliJ'''"' a 9 : 1 ..IoVa .)..o..~ "those who appear to be that sort of person". Z i. c£ 66b 27 : Z. nor indeed is everything that is willed purposefully chosen.."OV""O. There is clear voluntariness and intention in each of the kinds of dA'y"e'a analyzed. 11 cl"o. also conveys this meaning: "I!aoT7J' "aTtl"Ta"....IO'~ . Thus. on TO. 20. see 68b Io-II. a Io-II CP"'"Op. Further. Definitions 4ud.. gentleness."O. feelings of calmness. On i"ov". Tii' . feelings opposite to angry feelings.m' deYii" We also meet ~ei"'1J"" in . 238a 18.: i. On the meal1ing of voluntary. it does appear that we are concerned here in dAIy"'eia (and see ?Sa ]2..1-3. TOIOVTO...j. Cope and Kassel read ai lUT. if.8a ]2. at a I I (on this see 80a I I : z). 22. 73b 30.. see also 73b 28 : " z. where we find that is wider in its extension than neoalee"... e.o.e.1I We begin at a 8 the discussion hd TI"w.. is saying that is an emotion which consists in the experience of feelings within the self of a settling down and a coming to rest of anger. good temper. c£ 80a 36. 25) that not everything that is voluntary is something that is willed.. as there is as well in {lo.. Plato.e. z 6' Qc.. "'1J~l• ..... a 10 : 1 "'C'oU"fWV cbcouau. 230a 4-5 ("movement toward that in which a subject is stable is rather coming to rest").80a 10 ARISTOTLE. referring to what precedes. We have already seen the place of dA. 80a 13. .). 7sb I3ff..nOll is the reading of four edd.. 36.g. "O.. . "being at rest" best fits the sense of the text. the various kinds of dAIy"'e'a."oV..he Physics where the rneming "coming to rest" or."•. (c£ 78b IOff... here means not only voluntary but also intended action. There is a further hint at this in Soa 35 ...OV"w . Spengel. 73b 36 : 1. e.b I (o'Mel." (Soa 10) a clear indication by contrast that such acts are intended. see." ". see.OVTO.e. . Avnii').. for example. 'RHBTORIC' II 51· down from disturbance").which is to say that an act can be done voluntarily but not necessarily intentionally.. and its meaning for A. In our definition. e..)..oG. il<ool.. done under constraint or deception. 29.s etc. and the attitude of those who commit wrong is described at 6sb \r-I2 as one in which the wrongdoer deliberately wills his action. 27 ("aTIl'l'e••eiu8a..I.'s· explanation of dA'y"'e'a at 78b 10-31 (and see notes thereto) makes any sense...g.. on occasion.>poGcr. there is present in the mind of the angered person that a slight is an unjust action (see . 25Ia 26-27 ("coming to rest is the privation of motion').£).6a 7. On the other band.. 35. Le. It is worth our notice that the concept is used frequently in this chapter as a critical principle to assist in determining the nature of "I!aOT'I'.. an idea caught by Kenny when he notes (Theory.y"'ela in anger (c£ 78b 32. . '1v i. 6".5... ie... 74b 6.• however.VTO'~) 6ao. Ross.. /lA • ••• 8V/lOV/lBVO.E'1/1sro. then.they are "eli•• [they experience neadT11~l toward those who intended actions contnry to what they did." On tb.: they a 13-14 1'-E'\"1I1'-"'0l'-ivo. TO'O.• this group can be presumed not to slight others for the reasons given: no one is thought to slight himself.d TOi~ . see also 7fJa 8.. z j30uJ.. ie.."wqerv. and it clearly means "wish" or "will" in the sense of "intend"..ti"•••• 7sb 23) were acadentally the occasion of slight.. the meaning indicates the intention of the agent: .. has called clwX'l/laT. that the pain experienced by the agent removes any desire for retaliation (lIeeE'~ T'/lOJqta.0p.a. (el~ 4Uov~) "al . 2OS6. punctuate with • period after o. oeJrii')' C£ . 2. The only difference discernible between this class and the a.xI 31J0. a IS '"II'-£iov .vatw~ ".T." a 13 SaHeL as at 7fJa 33: "is thought to. A .80a IS COMM]!NT AllY 53 a II : 1 x. and Kassel do. Spengel. see 63a 25 : 1.. on which see 74b 6 : z.h"wq.... in explanatory apposition to Td AVneiafJar. The results of such action are what A. This class.oJa.t sc..~ yckp lxov." This forms one idea with '/lOAO"o. •..10"" both here and in the like instances of the datives which follow. As can be seen at EN IIIOb 18-2. . !"'eir This is another topic.~ confess and repent..6vo. too.TO': "and with all those who indeed with respect to others are such as they are with respect to themselves..~ The verb appears at 63a 25 in a passage on the neoalqeTa of men as generally draM..'O. EN II35b IIfE). a 14 c:...) is a confumation of the correctness of Soa 13-15 (. 3S3ff. see also IIlIa 19-21.£~ . we can translate: "and with all those who indeed act toward others as they do toward themselves.. and that action accompanied by pain and repentance is involuntary"..~ of Soa 10 is that those now uruler discussion intended what they did. is comparable to 80a 10 d"ovalw~ "olO. and I would a 12-13 x. The main idea is in OA. on the meaning in the text there. i.i.4. not with a colon." ie. So. as Cope.• at A 13.oa! TOr... Since T. what follows at Soa 16-1S (TOU. gives a diffi:rent reason for the presence of "qadT11~ toward them: namely. actiOIlS or words ("ecinew "al .. repentance is considered to be a sign of an involuntary act: "everything done through ignorance is not voluntary. and this class treats others as they treat themselves. at. • • "For considering that they have (their) recompense in the pain experienced at what has been done. "eliot . see S." Since the action of OA'''Wela is the issue. .e. "al (T.ywp£iv. they cease to be angry.). must have a point of reference. but did not intend them as slighting actions.a.. it should come from the sentence itself.. me!> do.... (ODe of the three kinds of (JU{Ja. here. . A. 2 l'iiA).'ywplCl x . Soph. the action taken by Theseus against Hippolytus whom he assumed to be contradicting and d. a 23 : 1 a 24-25 xCll 01 . TOVTOtl" antecedent to cL)' (a 20): CCwe feel no shame before those we deeply d. "a611.. As an example of the general idea in cl.. the reason for such fear: the possibility of being hurt by the one whom you slight.lhoU~ The middle force of the verb is pr..a.oia6a.axwda . oA'."'eta Hal HaTa'l'eri'P71a. 2869'). A clear idea of what A. Lysias. a 17: 1 0l'oAOyoilv<.• XCl8[l.llUXW"'l. cites Schrader's illustration 60m Terence.s is an indifIerence to any evil which brings dishonor (see 68b 23 and note)... wish..0I'EV Sec. c£ 78b '3-15...... It is another and separate special topic in the analysis of "eariT~'.. Knights 296-298. T. • 3"<1 "and the fact that. oA'.. specifically a 17-r8.~ The "at is intensive. The effrontery shown in such baldfaced lying reveals complete disregard of the other person and disdain for any honor or respect owing to him.0VTa~ means simply "sitting..... I do not sec this as possible and certainly not for the reason he gives: "the mitigation of the penalty consequent upon the admission of the offender. cWT06. 'RHETORIC' II 54 a 16 xoAci. Cope.. sec KUhner. oAc.. has in mind in the word is seen in 79b 26 (and see note) in the use of a!a..cil.. in Euripides.. with the meaning found at 78b 35 : 1..t6Yoa6a..l x .. . ~ Sec 6l1b IZ : 1... 992. says... a 19 ckv. .ent: e." "LV (a 24) and is a substantive object clause in indirect statement. 34.UVOPOE84 SC. 1. shamelessn.. BIas. 34. Thucyd. 6). p. It is. Ag..ted this at 78b 20-21 wbere he giv..... is the whole of which "aTatperi'P71"" is a part. <pO~OUI'EVO~ ••. as A..6ol. As we saw at 78a 32.a<ppOv"l. . 2-3. bas already sugg. (8oa II). p.g. a 18 8ul'oUI'EVO' As a synonym of Oel"7.. ." There is no question here of any offense admitted or penalty remitted.'YWPEi Cpo 80a 35-36: 0'.....126.."'eia a 21 : 1 tllax.. 2. cle. Oed.pise.~ (see also 83b 15-16). see 6911 4 : 2.ov.. II 355.). ... Cope.~ "at = namely (S. but sec 7Sa 33. of course. C£ 8sa 14-'5.80a 24 ARIStOTLE. nying the charge made in Phaedra's note.. predicate noun to an understood brrt whose su1!ject is the articular infinitive (TO ••• ae. The clause is governed by ~Ao. to those who are "I!lio."'eor. Hipp. Andria 621-624..." Whether there is in the word itself without some further specification (e.o'a6a~ sec Aristophan.ov xo).g. to take a 21-25 as a development of the preceding topic..-1089. a 20 6). refers.. for example.IO. "humble themselv.. & Gerth. Agora/us ." • 'tCl7tE'VOUI'OvO'~ 7tpO~ . e. ..Evo~ Kill . There is no reason. a 29 : 1 6f3P'GT.... II).. 18. The point here is that even angry dogs do not attack: those who appear T""••••. ycip... i. a 28 : 1 leop...g...80a 29 COMMENTARY ss 24. Arisrophanes. of another person) as opposed to 79b 14 is reinforced by its close conjunction with naeam!o..ide anger by entreaty.oulci~aYT~ is the reading of the codd.. to be understood with it. Laws 690b.p. Kex"p'Gp. 80a 30-3 I. 7')a 29 ."o •• since their posture signifies no threat. This is the kind of action to which Odysseus resorts (ad. 79b 31) with Bonitz. C/o. and not the colon of Roemer. Plato. S. On the Crown LI7) the idea of humble supplication is questionable.TOUP. presumably. a TCI...• "and men are good-tempered with those who treat seriously with them when they are serious.ICw. than those who experience the neaOT'7' have shown.• Spenge!......pa.. What is a more likely understanding of this p. Ross..i~ 2 XA£UClGT."ls 1427-1429. Kassel bracket ti... '7'. C£ 79a 30...pO~ ToU~ c"." a 27 p. 78b 14-15 : .. a 26 : 1 . It is in fact the sense of debt and obligation of which Cope speaks (p. helped for just a moment. 278Ib): "it seeUlS to them that they are receiving serious attention and not rather utter disregard. Oem. .. .EvO'~ The perfect middle is used actively here: "with those who have shown greater favors" . referring to the individuals who are nelio. Cope read. but not as absolute as Cope would make it. LI30). See also 80a 30 : a..." LS.a.II68.e.31. a 25 .EvO.. Dufour. Cope. the most obvious exception being found among those who are the recipients of extensive largesse and generosity. ("tum . Spengel. whiclt is more usual Greek (S. This is generaUy true.d~".." Z IOKe' This appears to be impersonal. and so 80a 21-22..a. A period should be read after yde. 14-29-38) when threatened by Eumaeus' dogs. discusses at EN II67b 17 .i~ See 78b 23-26. . see.. e. (cp... <i.. 35) whiclt often embitters. beg something. an action which..i1 . and a~Tol.e T06..ou&ci~ouc" See 7')a 35 : 1. Both actions indicate a form of Ta". why the particular article is not possible here (S..Tanod..60."greater" (i..a.. as three edd. three of the edd.YO-'. cognate accusative. however. Animals were not infrequently used as examples of natural behavior.sage is that this is the positive side of what was seen negatively at 79b 6-7: "al Toi. We begin another topic in the next sentence. I 572).. comes into play. dll' ot! = "and not rather" (S..~ The proper meaning of Mohere (beg a favor.. a point A. and who have been the subject of discussion from 80a 8. as Homer's text makes clear. II20b). 'RHETORIC' 11 Soa 30 3 a). those which produce anger. is part of this particular topic.4. in the Poetics of h.*. Cope read a period... 21S. With the colon the following sentence (oAw. ."rheo..) and things (inl "oio.e. . pp.UTO. II. as Cope bdieves (p..Gv.Lycl>pOL~ See 7Sb 10-13.. 2IS). The statement here is simply another topic which by way of general summation says that from the very nature of "eaoT'1. Spengd. and x:e.. as Ross punctuateS. .aUa... as are 1""••.) which evoke good temper..ARISTOTLB. 2 (VPe'UTai" aA. S3). Spengel. aVTol) by way of a generally valid principle... Cope).. the word appears again at S3a 2 together with vPe"nal. p. There should be a colon. It should also be noted that the topics presented are not.. On "ea!1vovTa covering the division in! "oio. As such it is quite similar to that at Sob 4 and those found at A 9. C£ 79b 36. 6S. Spengd. It is probably righdy interpreted: "with those who act disparagingly.avTlo. after aVToi. and he has told us at Soa 5 that Tcp aeriC. 26. "eal1. good.. but a summary conclusion to the topic at 80. n:p .. "eal1. . e. This clause has caused commentators since Buhle a number of problems (e.Ta) read by all. is a paronym for deSToj. however) by Kassd with Buhle. although less frequendy used.. Consequently. a 30-3 I /I).g. mildness.ona is the reading of four edd.. 266-6S) discusses the similarity. .g.o.ia. This criticism can be questioned for we have been receiving a series of specific topics by means of which one can devdop in the auditor the emotion of good temper. 70b 9.w~. and citeS a number of instances as proof. Buhle looked upon it as an interpolation because it interrupts the Sow of the topical analysis.. i. clause is not a digression better placed dsewhere (see. 36). The other edd.. in a form of shorthand he draws the general conclusion that the topics which produce the feeling of good temper must be sought from among the oppositeS. those who are morally good. sc... TO "ea11vsu8a•. Kassd read neaVvn"d. such a close connection is quite correct as Vater also saw (p. The neuter plural in our reading is used to refer to the general idea of persons (Tiu . namdy." This should be clear by now from the present chapter itsel£ The 8Aw. to denote the morally tity. particularly because Aristotle in this topic specifically refers to prominendy critical causes of anger mentioned in chap.' anything (person or thing) which is the opposite of anger is likdy to stir within one a feeling of good temper. if not the idenxeijaTo" a"ovdaio. In this moral a 30 : 1 XP'lcncN~ sense Vablen (Beitriige. 2S-30 ("al Tol. And see my comment at 6ra 25 : z.". and cpo 82b 22-27. Spengd. "going over very nearly the same growld as the topics of the last chapter...). also ?Sa X3 : z.. Cope.. but bracketed (as Aristotelian.. p. concluding that in the larger sense anovaaio. z mol' not a period.." i. 78a 3Z. Spengel.. oi~ &. particularly since a reason is given in the next sentence. the reading of cod. it cannot coexist (/J. In the first place. such action a 36 opy. As a commentary on 80a 34 .E\lo~ o}. Cpo 80a 23. Kassel read 2w.. • "'pi!. a 32 : 1 "lcrxUvCN'I"" ." "d. The angry person experiences pain caused by the one with whom he is angry and who i.and Il35b 19-27· a 35 06 yo!. 2 a 33 ciw"IX"'. the act is ordinarily an act of anger. Cope. yae dy with a good MS tradition. (a 33).d. an act of anger is not. Briefly: if fear is the distress experienced at impending painful. an act seeking retaliatioll.. The statement is clear if aA....aTOY rQq. daV. av . 2423 b.. Anger by its definition desires an act of retaliation. 68b 37 .a. If the angry person acts. one should read A 10.l 1I:ol1ja"a. An act of aA. the reason for the statement comes in the following clause: an act of oA'rweta is free of pain for the agent. On .~ C£ 79b 26: 1. where the dift'erence between the deliberately intended voluntary act and rhe act which is voluntary but not deliberately intended (as an act done in anger can be) is discussed. His desire is in no way frustrated and so no pain is experienced in the act.. see 73b 35 : J. destructive h2rm from someone. frustrating his realization of what he desires (79a II). 80a 9 and Boa 9 : z) and if the influence of anger and other emotions (73b 36 : 1) diminishes or removes in our actions the element of neoate"'" (deliberate intent in the action).. see S.p. The whole dlAolwa" in the angry person has its cause in the act of another person. Unless we are to demand the presence or co-presence of opposed modifications in one and the sasne person at the sasne moment. The very feeling of fear indicates that the fearful person is in the presence of someone in whose regard there is simply no posSibility for anger as it was defined. see EN IlIlb 18--19 .69a 19 and 13. a 34 .. 73b 25 -74b 22 and the notes thereto in COMMENTARY I.'Y"'pei would be a contradiction. 5.b I.80a 36 COMMENTARY 57 a 3 I XIX' oiI~ The antecedent of the relative is in an understood TOVTO'.".g..yweta i. e. The reasons for this statement must be derived from the analysis of anger in chap.ywela is action deliberately intended (see. revenge which one sees as possible ot the moment of QIIger (78b 2-9).' opy/r. r can see no reason to change. Spengel.a. Ox". On the mood of 'xwaw.. Furthermore. oZ.p • . not any other act. A's statement stands.. 73b 36 : 1. with otl" aeytCoyra.a) with a desire to take revenge upon that person. "aTa neoatesc". 2 and the understanding of fear in chap. the cause of which resides in the person acting..~op. do"•• . A and four of the edd."i"'aTa rae Ta aid 8vp. a voluntary act deliberately intended and realized. . they are without anger...c.<.~. -r1... honor and glory. C£ 7Ib 340 35. 3Ie." We begin here the exposition not only of the way persons whd are experiencing good temper feel ("Iii~ Te Hxo'Te~). they presumably are in a good temper ("elio. health and wealth. "cz. their expectations are good. for the meaning. The idea in ".o.. LS.e. b 4 xcz"'"pe.. and see .namely. sOOl as we find it at EN I099b 7.. Dem.15 : . The first word is seen at 63a 33. 29. and with it the anger. gratification. of the person (usually of the senses. For example..xo.namdy..I (Cieon objecting to delay on Mytilene).. c£ 7Ila 32.). b 5 xoxpav. Sob I CZ'crxUVOp. see Antiphon..O"~ .. b Unld. 'RHETORIC' II Soh 5 the other hand.TI.• time has passed. This last could mean that their condition is such that they can look to good from others in the sense that i." i. b 3 :.3) .• prosperiry.. the pleasure occasioned by causing hurt to others (7Sb 24. Philebus..p{'!' This is used metaphorically (however.oOU.£-.e.~ . 2 and 3.is found at 69h 14. i. their response to others is one of "eadTrJ~. ~'1p.o'ov8. ad All.3). 37).e. cr. III. if they are free from distress (dAvnla) as that has been understood in chaps.~ . 3-3S. 2 tro'l".g. 70b 35 : 2. p. Boa 30 : . 80a 30--31).. On the idea. see Cope. Thucyd.n..g. b.4. In contrast to those whose anger abates in time is the vindictive man (see 68b 21 : 2). 6.. Tfj de.lnl~ a"a81j w..8.. ':'n:oyn.. justifiable. in the person. Sob 6-7).0) •• e. On vndyvlO'. a satisfaction.• Plato.sb 14 . 36 in the meaning found here (see 68a 14).~ = "are exactly opposed. On 1".. 35a-<o) . Proerni.. 841 lxo'Te~ b . Demosthelles 5. .l. or Plutarch. c£ 7Sa 31 : . If the pleasure they experience is not the result of {JPe'~ (see SSb 31) ." •• see 7Sa 13 : 2." ••• i. but also under what conditions they fed this way (d.. e. b 4-$ n.we1a. the denial of which is the very thing which causes anger.Tfj (On the Virtues and Viles I2SIb 33-34)..l~e. C£ 79b 26 : . and cpo 54b 3 : l.. b 2 ""I Ixov'<oc.. Cicero Bpp.. see note.2. reasonable..i Agajn a brief clause of summation (see Boa 30 : 2. his retaliatory act may assume any form including o. such respect is a recognition of worth. value. when the angry person places the act of retaliation (and his anger ceases. yD.58 ARISTOTLE.2..2. Both should be taken together since they are set in contrast: "When they have expended time on their anger and are not in the first stage of it. the point of which seems to be that if people are in a generally good mood.but pleasure in general.• b 3/[.. On the Murder of Hero des 71-72. 5·21. '"•••x.. .. (8oa 7)..p.' 'But when?' 'When I see someone dse slandered' [b 8-10]. With our text we interpret as in the preceding note... "one . 3 opyiJv .uwuw) in terms of the topic itsdf (b 6-8). Stallbaum..aTa..!We.. And so we have: "Also vengeance taken fint on one person diminishes greater anger against another [b 6-8].80b 8 CO. XCI! See 6sa 16 : I.. and in particular in T£pwela~ <pa. see"]8a 3 I : 3. the anger is fully or par- tially diminished.opWq~ (manifest retaliation). The sequence of ideas is: b 6-8. . CAR. four edd... b 8-ro.•. For men become good-tempered whenever they have expended their wrath on another as happened in the case of Ergophilus (b Io-II).C. . Eustathius on 24.. 8a. "vengeance taken first on one person diminishes a stronger anger against another. passim. 0 Xp6vo~ e.139: "and consider .u.ICw. he is the author of the so-called Peace of philocrates between Athens and Philip in 346 B. for although the people were more angry with him than with Callisthenes they acquitted him because they had passed sentence of death on Callisthenes the day before" (b 12-13).aM{. p.. 1. rae .. VI.. TJ.d~. the topic proper. d".w. -11 js the reading of the codd.. "eOTBea..) and b IO-I3 (nelia. 2 ..e. .) is a discussion of d.0.oxpci'"l~ C£ OeD.d Tl. an exemplification of b 6-8. the e. A well-known orator and statesman of the fourth century frequently mentioned by Demosthenes and Aeshines. . the means which produce neaoT7/~ in a person. I am not sure that it is meant to explain b 6-8 at all. 1342).'<planation of why Philocrates did what he did ... ." i. then by way of an actual instance (possibly known by Philocrates). Once the desire for retaliation is exercised. 2 E'1'EpOU . Kassd alone secludes (but as Aristotdian) b 8-ro [d. Cope.).." The reason which explains such a reaction on the part of an angry person is actually given by Aristotle in his definition of anger at 78a 31-33. b 10-13.. 1-r:6(!O~. b 6 "ClU"' .MMBNTAlty S9 n.g.2. b 7 : 1 6. S.an explanation (b la-II) (nelia.e. aAl. the other. 179] spoke the truth" (ed.] as interrupting the close cohesion between b 6-8 (. . PW XIX. b8: 1 6. and so Philocrates on the occasion of someones asking at a time when the people were angry 'Why do you not defend yoursdf?' answered wisdy: 'Not yet...pl1/pbo. Sophocles. What begins here and continues to 80b 13 (8C11'aTo. Spenge!. Blear. While b 10-13 may seem a more pointed illustration of b 6-8 than is b 8-ro. Kassd reads with Madvig: OIlY!} p. a..ou C£ LS. how the intervention of time softens the harshness in those who are angry so that the one who said 'time is a god who makes gentle' [i. says here.. the second. ylyvovTa.o!v"" c£ 54& I6 : 2.g. On the Monies of Aristophanes 6: "those brought to trial last are acquitted because you. opy. Roemer. and all too soon regretted action which it called forth from the Athenians. on which see 80b 6-10)..c"v sc. the Propontis. The important point here is th2t 2 yIYV"""II' having satisfied their anger against one person they beco.'1P. 2. and of good codd. See also Lysias.t.g. Cope.6v. as it were. b 9 ". as read by four of the edd. Ross.. odd. the time ("when the people . This reading is that of the edd. philocrates' hope was to benefit when the anger of the people had been expended on someone else brought to trial first. e.~).." The explanation of such inconsistency in action on the part of those who are angry was suggested at 80b 4-8. thus making the statement not an individual topic but parr of the next one. they have had their T'/Awe1a and there can be no question of their "thinking th2t they have.. good-tempered tow.. The direct effect in the .... Against Amloeralts 104).. Antido. they are good-tempered. b 13-14 xIIl o!civ nc.al.o!vDU two genitive absolutes in which the first expresses the occasion ("on the occasion of someone's asking')." This is also the reason why I find lAma..g. Indeed. says that his condemnation in the Harpalus afWr was due to the fact that he was tried first. b 10 : 1 &'I1~.'). the reason given at 80b IS for the whole topic makes no sense. he was tried at Athens and apparently.OP. taken their T'/AOle1a. if they convict the person. your anger at an end. "and if they convict the person.. For.is I8-I9.. the only punctuation which makes sense is a period after IAOla .I aUx cb. (80b IO.d another Of others with whom they were angry. Dufour omit them here. he took part in Athens' campaigns in the area (e.. then. Spengel uses none in the whole passage.a"o/A"'1I. 'RHBTORIC' [1 80b I3 3 . This is difficult to understand..1. To convict someone is certainly to exercise what can be called T'/AOJeia . Removed from command (Dem. Demosthenes. See Sob 8 : 1. e.60 ARISTOTLE. An Athenian general active in the Helb II 'EpyocplAou lespont in the years 363/362.. If it is read. "'eliol <Ia.. give tliem a hearing and willingly admit their refutations. Isocrates. not nelio. with a comma.. On Ihe False Embassy 180.ayEl" The quotation marks are correctly read by Tovar. Hellespont. fined. Kassel.I4-IS. harsh. Ep. C£ 98b 26 : 1. from what A. see Dem. . is a good example of what is meant by the kind of calumniation which philocrates has in mind as well as the rash. Chersonese) prior to the revolt of Millocythcs against Cotys in 36I. (80b 2) which is the primary idea of the whole section. See PW.." Kassel punctuate.a~. •.. b 17 eN y'yve:"L"'IL ••• Six."". rae. Ross reads 11 8.. aspect. . b 16 XIII icky • • . A. '''.. We are then (b 17-18) given the reason why men in this instance are "'elio&: the presence of justice makes it impossible for them to consider themsdves treated improperly (see . "anger does not arise with regard to justice.D ••. For they think that they bave. 1. as it were.d "'e0afj"o. it makes. a correction of ilsova. as do Spengd and Cope.. where Spengd would drop "at or U. 1I:ci"l(E'V se. received their vengeance.. I note.).long the way.. We are told this in the sentence before us: anger and justice cannot coexist since (as we are assumed to know) justice is the only virtue that is considered to be "another's good" insofar as it "does what is advantageous for the other" (EN 1130a 3-S). Spengd. 7-8 this far? There is another reading which I consider preferable.6P. See 63a 9 : b 18 ~ . and of that on pity at 8Sb 13-14 (laTa> .!law. Cope. Can we press the definition . The conclusion to b 16 is an undexstood "'eliot ela .sa 32-33).. and so harm greater than any T'!'"'eta desired. for me.. Freese. b 14 il 01 opy.. Us..pOJe1ao)..). in the light of the comment on the angry man at 82a 14 ("a! .. "'l'Xd.."al'. especially if they (the offendexs) have suffered a greater misfortune than they."aw. SoiI). Kassd reads without 01 from a good tradition. the angty persons.t 80. We must first know why they are so disposed." 1I2).80b 18 61 COMMENTARY person should be that he no longer is angry. 1lJ. As a consequence one will well fed "I11io. It is read by Spengd.. Pity means that the other person has suffered serious and unmerited harm. This is an observation which is really directed by the intent of the analysis of the ". A. A.. Ross reads it (secluding '"Ii..!. would bave infficted. Taken in conjunction with what follows ("ai Am. ldeaaa. in cod. .· &lanse .). Cope. "ai ia• .. I cannot be as certain as Vahlen that b 17-18 are twO coequal reasons and that our phrase is that of an interpolator. Schriften." This phrase is secluded by four of the edd. inA and B is to make these constitutive elements of the TiM understandable so that they can be used correctly.dB'I in this book.6V0' is the reading of three edd.o." This makes sense in itsdf. Cope and Tovar read o~ Those who seclude the phrase follow Vahlen ("Kritik arist. The point of the de6nition is to emphasize the b 18-20 S. and. neaol .. then sa}s: "And men are good-tempered if they pity the offendexs..'s objective in the extensive analysis of the particular topics of Myo" "dBo" ijBo.e. • .. toward such a person. not that he experiences good feelings toward the convicted penon."'a. an intent which can be lost . i. eminent sense of 80b 13-16 (keeping the second "alla. 62 ARlSTOTLE, 'RHETORIC' II 80b 23 on this particular emotion, c£ 80b 30--3]. Their correct use is quite simply to enable the person to whom the spoken or wrirten word is addressed to make a judgment (see COMMENTARY I 349-50). In the present passage A. calls our artention to such a practical application of a special topic - namdy, that at 80b 16-18 - for eJfecting "I!aOT11'. The idea bdrind "chastising befordrand in word" is to make the other aware of the claims of justice against him with the expectation that when the claims are recognized any anger will be removed or lessened (I\"TTO. dy""""Tova..). On ".laa., c£ 80a 16-18. The ordinary interpretation of this stateb 2Q--21 x.d ic10v • • • 11<..8011 ment and quite possibly the correct one if we are to avoid unnecessary complications is: "And people are good-tempered if they think that those who offend will not perceive that they suffer at their bands in return for what they themse1ves suffered nom them." There are three difficulties: the subject of h<a6ov; the subject of ala67ja.a6a.; and the referent in cWToV,. The first subject of h<a60. is "the offenders": "that they [the offenders) suHCr at their [the offended's) hands." The second subject is "the offended": "in return for what they [the offended) suHCred £rom them." The subject of oreo.Ta. is "the offended," who are also the referents in cWTov,. The subject of ala6fjaBa6a. is "the offenders." As the reason for the statement of this topic A. oHCrs the fact that anger must have an object (80b 21-22; cf. 78a 33-35), i.e., that it must be directed against an individual (see also 82a 3~, 78a 34 : .). But if this reason carries any weight here, it is precisdy because it is only a person who can perceive (ala6fja.a6a.) both the ...peo~ta and the reason for it. This is borne out by the example and its explanation at 80b 22-29. Kassd secludes the sentence. Without more b 21-2.2 iI yc!tp ••• ia-.lv evidence I do not see the seclusion although I could see a reason (c£ preceding note) for someone to consider it. b 2.2 op.crp.<N C£ 78a 33-35. b 22-29 6.0... I'£VE"!VCoIV In this passage we have a further explanation and some consequences of this topic (80b 2Q--21). At the end of it he draws the conclusion to the chapter. n.""[1)·.... "Wherefore the poet has rightly written 'Say that b2.2 Odysseus, sacker of cities,' on the assumption that [Odysseus) has not been avenged if [the Cyclops) did not perceive both by whom and for what reason (he was blinded)." OJ 9.504; the rdevance of the paob 23 'P«a8...... ",,<>A.nope.OII sage becomes clear by starting at line 500. 80b 30 COMMBNTARY b 25 : 1 &.au. e.cr... The semicolon, used, I notice, by Ross, seems the ooly reasonable punctuation since the following lines are closely linked to the preceding idea. All the other edd., Spengd, Cope punctuate with • period. dl<JT6 with the indicative to stress the actual filet (S. 2257). z ..oi~ .nAO'~ i.e., "all the rest," who are then specified in the remainder of the sentence. 3 ,dcr8mvov.... ' This is used in prerudy the same way as it was used in the topic (80b 20), which it reaffirms in this further explanation (c£ 80b 22-29), i.e., "all thole who do not perceive the vengence." To the angry man alaB"a., on the part of the other person is critical; see 82. 8-9. Cope, p. 40, seems to have missed the point of the passage. b 26 oG..c ... for, sc. deyiC.""a. (b 25): "nor are they angered besides"; this is the second alternative. nB••waw is explained by "" ... alaB"l1.p""" in which the ideas are c10sdy connected by the coordination: they have ,utfered the ultimate misfortune and are not about to fed pain or to perceive anything. b 27 GiS ••• bplov...., Anger, at 78a 31, is defined as Se'." npwela, ",a,•• piP'!,. The participles cUy>!aova.., ala~a.pb.., contain what is in fact the antecedent idea to which oJ refers, and express this !JeBE', of the angry man insofar as cUY>la.~a.. i, the T,p"ela, the pain aspect, and alaB"a.p •••• , is the ",a",p.'1/ dement. b 28 "O''1...q~ sc. .:tty... b 29 : I ..c8vcW"o~ an objective genitive modifying oeYii" 2 """PiJv, .. p.EVE.. I""", II. 24-504; they are the final words of Apollo in hi, appeal to the gods to permit burial of Hector', body. The key word in the citation as an example of the topic is " ..~, "dumb," i.e., without senses. After the above quotation Roemer, Dufour assume a lacuna in the text; Tovar, Ross, Kassd, Spengd, Cope do not, and I agree. Roemer's reason for the lacuna is that there is no consideration of d,d Ti• .,. "I!ailP.PTa, (8oa 7). In the first place this is not, strictly speaking, correct; see Boa 30-31, 80b 6-7. Further, see the comments at 7!lb 36 and at 80a 6: 2. b 30 : I x ......"p"OV.'v i.e., to soften, appease; Isocrates, Panegyricus 13, expresles the idea intended here: "aTanea6....a, T'~' d"e.aTll,. A moment'l reflection on the use of this verb form and its cognates in this chapter ("eail••a8a~ 80a S, 7, 3I; "ea6Pa", 80a 8) should make it clear that A. is talking about "eaoT'7" not as a virtue here, but as an emotion; see, for example, Boa 6 : I with Cope's reservations (pp. 35, 42). The actionreaction projected by the verb is tranlitory and passing - see, e.g., Euripides' oeY!j. "eailPovaa (Nauck & Snell, frag. 822) - and as A. use. it, further ARISTOTLE, 'RHETORIC' II 80b 31 supposes an action between agent and patient. Both these ideas ate in direct contradiction to everything A. says about a virtue in the EN and BE. Certainly it is quite incorrect once again (see 66a 36 : 2, 60b 14 : z) to say, as Cope does, that the view of nea/5T"1~ as an emotion "is adopted in the Rhetoric merdy for convenience, philosophical accuracy not being required" (p. 42); see, however, his subsequent comment (p. 42) on the de6nition of ""l/a. It would seem that the most telling observation against Cope's criticism on the matter is A.'s statement in the EN, a work to which Cope (e.g., I 159-00) usually refers on occasions such as this: namely, 1094b II-I3, 19-25. z b:... """,dov These are the .r6"1, special topics, and the methodology is exacdy the same as that in A; see COMMBNTAIlY 1354-55, 58a 17 : 1, 7tia 32 : 1, and cpo A 2, 58. 31-32, B I, 77b 16-20,78. 16-19, 27-30. b 31 ll.nw~!Ltv namdy, the auditors; cf. 77b 24 (Tdv Hem)V HaTa-"HBvaC...). Set in contrast to b 31, cnJTO~~ ,•.tv, are those with whom they are angry, or~ d'.... We s.w naea"H.vaC, .. at 60b II, on which see the note. Ross reads aVToV,. o~ Ii' 6pyl~ov...... sc. (lH.tvov~) oC, 6' oerICo....a' (naea<THsvaCov",). Each of the following accusatives refers back to the special topics discussed in the body of the chapter: e.g., ",oP.eo6~: 80a 31-33 (Hal oD~ ... oertC.cr8a.); al":rlV"l~ Mtov~: 80. 31-33; "'xae'''pivov" 80a 27 ("al ... ".xae,,,pi.o,~); ~o'Ta" 80a 8-12 (,I 01l'•.•• povAopivo,~); !In'e<&Aroii....a~ TO'~ ",""o'''1pivo,,, 80a 13-15 ("al TO'~ ••• oe·riM. b 31-33 CHAPTER 4 I . Introduction: Sob 34 - SIa S definition of friendship II . Development: Sra S - S2a Ij I. Bra B - BIb 34 2. 8Ib 35-37 the persons toward whom men experience friendship: objective aspect the things which cawe the emotion of friendship: objective aspect 3. 80a I-IS the opposite of friendship: enmity and hatred III . Conclusion: S2a 16-I9 Sob 34 .r[,,1O<; 8E • . • 8.....r[ followed by a comma and no lacuna is the reading of Tovar, Ross, Ka.!sd, Spengd, Cope, and is correct; Roemer, Dufour indicate a lacuna because of the absence of the third division: "W~ TB lxov..,. This problem has already been discussed; see Sob 29 : 2, and references there. b 35 : I ""," '1"l.{.." " ..l ..II <pIAC;" See 6xb 37 : I for the reference to the discussion of this idea in the EN. Spengd alone reads the indicative: Uyo,...,. 2 I","" On the quality of the definitions in the Rhetoric, see 6Gb 14 : 2. The definition given here (Sob 35 - SIa 2) is essentially that given at 6Ib 35-37, and can be found in substance at EN II56b <)-17, or, again. at IIssb 31-34 and in the discussion on friendship throughout Books Sand 9. Friendly feeIing rather than friendship is perhaps a more accurate interpretatinn of '1'01.1" since as an emotinn it is a transitory, psycho-physical experience rather than what is implied 'in English by friendship, i.e., a more permanent disposition or state. As such an experience it is both a liking for and a wishing well to another for his own sake, a feeling engendered in parI by the bdief that the other person is so disposed toward you; see 8ra 1-2. We must remember that emotion is an integral dement in virtue as we have already seen and as A. indicates with respect to friendship itself at EN II26b 22-28 (d''''I'ie.' .. . ).""•••), IIssb <)-10 (6"" ... "d8'l). In fact, Grant, II, VIILS.S, discussing IIS7b 2S-31 ('1'01.1" as U,~), refers to 1I26b 22--28 and remarks: "the present passage does not in the least contradict this, as U'~, or a settled disposition of mind, is merely the result of regulated emotions 66 ARISTOTlE, 'RHETORIC' II 80b 36 and the tendency to produce them." Consequently, it would seem. that in the effort to determine the meaning of 'P,Ua as emotion a careful use of what is said about 'P,Ua as the virtue of friendship in the ethical works is legitimate. In a recent study on the use of the emotions in Greek tragedy, stanford cites most of the emotions found in the Rhetoric, including 'PIlla. h 36 :, ,<,0 pOllA£..8." This is a critical dement in this emotion, and it points to the intdlectual aspect of the emotions as A. understood them. We have seen this often-overlooked aspect in the emotions already studied. In fact, it is disappointing to fu,d that the commentaries on B (apparendy conditioned by the view that the "dO'I are not a proper part of A.'s theory of rhetoric; cf. 54& IS : , and .) treat the ,,~ in a casual and cursory manner. We have seen povl'luI~ in A where we futd it as rational desire for the good (64b 32 : 4, 6l)a 2-3), an act which intplies that what is willed is under the control of reason. Or, as A. says in the Top. u6a 12-t3: sllj 'P'lla h TOP hrdlv,..."n"op, o~" a. ehJ povA'Iul~ n, . "ijua rae POVA'IU" l. Top AOYlun"op. The idea in our definition here is seen at EN IIS6a 9-10; that it is rational desire would seem clear from the clause in our own definition (80b· 36), Ii o,eTal ayaO&, as well as from the starernent at EN on the three kinds of friendship (ns6a 7'-19) whicll reveal purposefulness in 'PIAla. Cope's stress (p. 43) on the purely appetitive aspect of 'PlAia is misplaced, and his description of ,'Ala as an "emotion" is strange: "the desire . . . which is naturally, or has become by habit, instinctive, and therefore a "dOo~." Once again the transitory cb.racter of emotion is lost, as is the difference between "dOfJ and U.,'; see, e.g., EN nosb 2S-26: 6(;.It; ~. "aO' a, "eot; Ta ,,010'1 Ixo,.... eJ ~ "a><w~. Lost as wdl is a distinction A. makes, at EN IIssb 10, on 'P ..1.a as it pertains to Ta i/O'l Ita! Ta ,,&0'1. It seems that the reason why it is lost (see, for example, Cope's difficulties with "eaOT'I~ as a virtue and not an emotion) is that A.'s objective in the analysis of these emotions has been forgotten. Since the fIrst book, he has clearly been concerned with the part played by reason, emotion, and ciIaracter (the three "lanl') in the spoken (and written) word when it is used to communicate with another with a view toward enabling the other to make a judgment. Recognizing from the outset that judgments are made by individuals, persons who constitute a totality of intellect, fedings, and ciIaracter, A. has tried to analyze eaciI of these three "lumt; by way of the special topics so that they may be used intelligently and effectivdy in discourse. He is quite aware of what happens when .ny one of the three "IUTe't; is wrongly used - for example, the " ..8'!, S4& 24-26, with whiciI cpo Isocrates Antid. 31. We have seen A. analyze ;;Oyo~ (rational explanation) by means of the special topics in the fIrst book. He is now doing it for the ,,&0'1, here specifIcally for 'P ..la. His concern with 'PlAia, and this is what is forgotten, is to set forth by the method- 81a 4 COMMENTAlIY ology of the particular topics the kinds of people (this is his primary concern in the chapter) who evoke the emotion oflove (friendship). Further, he has told us in A why this is necessary and has done so once again at the beginning of this book, B I, 77b 21 - 78a 5. At the very end of the preceding chapter, he states once more the purpose of this study of the "dB" (Sob 30-34), and at the end of the present chapter, S2a 16-19, docs so again. The purpose is to enable the speaker (writer) to make an intelligent use of the emotions in his effort to communicate the truth to another as far as it can be known in the generally contingent siruation in which rhetoric works (ssa 23). WhUe the purpose is practical, the theoretical analysis of the "dB" is soundly grounded in what he says in other works about the "aB". But to lose sight of the • .ua. of the analysis is to misunderstand it. Sla I : 1 Io'ij ."h·w e.g., EN u67" 17'-lS, and Cicero, De nat. dear. 1.44.122, and particularly: "Prata et arva et pecudum greges diligunrur isto modo, quod fructus ex iis capiunrur, hominum caritas et amicitia grntuita est. ..." 2 ..0 x",.. 1l ... dy"" On "ea ...".6v C£ 6Ih 37 : 2, 6zb 4 (and MM II97a 3ff.); Had dwllp<V = within one's power. The whole clause is similar to the common Aristotelian expression: "eaH"".' .iiiv J<p' fJpiv 8v.wv as seen in MM II97a 14-15. We might translate: "and to be inclined to bring about d,ese goods as far as one can." The infinitive is articular with subject accusative. Kassel alone secludes this (but as arisa 1-2 <piAo~ •.. lly"'<plAoUp.€YO~ totelian). In me light of EN II5Sb 31 - IIs6a 5, the sentence would appear necessary to indicate the reciprocity of the feeling required if the word <ptla. is to be employed as it is in me following sentence. The question as to whether the term <plla. can be righdy used if mis mutuality of feeling is not present is discussed at length in Plato's dialogue on friendship, the Lysis 212a - 21!)a. a 2 oloy..." 5.1 The de here where Spengd (p. 2aI) would want rde acrua11y submits to the latter meaning (cp. 64" ~; Denniston, p. 169). Preferably, it should carry me force of aJv (Denniston, p. 169): "and so mey consider themselves to be friends .... " The subject of the verb is the participial construction at a 3: "those who think mernselves to be so disposed toward each other." a 3 l)'KOX£'Io'iv<dv taken for granted." used as it is at 69b 33, 79b II: "with mese principles Briefly, me argument in a 3-S is: if me princirles are a 4 CI!Y"yx1) valid, it follows of necessity mat the friend rejoices in me omer's good and grieves at his evU because me friend is one who fJovl ..al ..., a aZ..a, draBa (Sob 36), and pleasure is a mark that good has happened to one, as pain is 68 AllISTOTLE, 'RBBTODJC J II 8Ia 10 that evil has happened. I would take this section to be an integral part of what precedes as a further explanation of the definition. And so. contrary to Cope. pp. 43-44. I consider the topical analysis to begin at 8Ia 8 where we find the first mention of those toward whom (TI.a,. a 34) men experience friendship. a 5~ !'-II &0& ••• mc.'vov In other words. a friend is another self; see. e.g.• EN n66a 31-]:'. II70b 6-7. There exists berween the rwo the "I'0.ola attributed to ",IUa in Plato. Dejiflitions. 413a-b. or as Zeno in reply to the question Ti, 'UTI ",iAo,; answered: ci.l.Io, lya. (Diog. Laertius. Lives of the Philosophers: Zeno 23). This ide> will be exemplified in the very first topic 8ra 8-II. a 7: 1 Z (3ouAi) .....,S See Bob 36 : 1. '"I!,€lov See 57b I : Z; and ..1:'11'....... 391. a 8-9. ....lois &-11 ..• ex8pol sc. "al (",D.OI ./,,1. TOVTOI,) or,: "And (they are friends to those) to whom in fact the same things are good and bad and (who) are the friends and enemies of the same people (as they)." The logic of what is being explained. e.g.• Tl.a, \l'IAOV", (a 34). calls for but does not absolutely demand the rdative pronoun (who). The lines describe a single class toward whom men experience the emotion of friendliness. i.e.• those who have the same id... as they of what is good and bad and so like and dislike the same people as they. This seOInS to follow from the reason given at a 9-"0: TaVTa ..• dvdy"'!. Spengd (p. :0:01) is not happy with the norninztive case since he believes that all the accusatives (presumably betWeen 81a 14 and 8Ib 34) depend upon the construction at 8ra 4 (dvdy",! ",i).o. Bl.a.) but he =pts our text on a parallel with A 9. 66b 25-:06 eventually followal by 67a 16Jf. (his reference to A 5 is uncleor). But there are some problems with Spengel's position: first of all. the accusatives from 8la "4 on ("al Toll,) make more sense in e>ch instance as the objects of a ",lAov"" understood from a IZ (and cf. ",lAoVa.. at 8lb :02.. :06. 28) than they do as part of the 8la 4 construction; secondly. the cases at 8ra 34-35 ("al o! b"M.. ~101). 8Ib 23 ("al 01,). b 24 ("al TO.,) must also be explained by Spengd. Cope's problem (p. 44) with dlj (he would read IId'l) seems to be answered by 61 b 37 (q; d>j) and see Bucken. De Aristotelis diandi ,alio... p. 43. a 9 x,d 01 ... q>IAo, ... ex8pol read by four edd.• Cope; Kassel alone secludes it. but as Aristotelian. Spengd reads the rdative o! for the articles. "for of necessity they [TOVTO.,] wish the same things." a 10 : 1 """·.ens TOOT..,. indirect object with d.d)''''!. refers to those just described, i.e.. those who fed friendly toward and those who are the objeclll of their friendliness_ For. as they are presented, they must enjoy the unity of mind and wish proper to friends (d"'Ddo~ta "Bel "I!DQ'I!A"B"". Plato. Definitions 4I3a). O. For w...BTa..o''1''OTa~ sJ.l . c£ 80a Io-II. While the result dause of the codd. .a is a cognate accusative: "if they have done thern substantial benefit•. . cpo. 81a 2-3) is present in each of the topics mentioned. TWv 'PI). = "their friends" (S.....).) TO~T<P II-12 ".va.a.d. . 1 de...imi'>v "'.'Ol1') ofJ. Kassel conjectures 8 n.£vo~ (po~).. a 12. The phrase is to be taken with each of the procases.~ those who like the people whom they themsdves like.. 45.o. 73" 3..e who are friends of their friends.."o~ "al cY."oU~ •... Kassel.o.wv For the accusative see 8Ia 8-9. considering the use of TO'OV"<O..ova ... A moment's reJlection will indicate that this is so.. 2 . a 12 : 1 ij cn.. (as we have seen it in B.e.• cplAoUer. The a... 13-17... wan po.. takes it) explaining what is meant by TOll~ ••• 'Pl)'o. (fPM.. "in critical moments such as these. is somewhat redundant...."dJ. which appears more reason..jTo~~ and the understood antecedent of dip are the object of ""....~ inunediatdy preceding. 79b 28 : 1) to refer to what precedes. Spengd.. a IS: "they are friendly to tho.. II:I. I "oU~ .. Cope (p... procases is sJ .u.g..lD. "and a IS " ..... it is direcdy rdevant to the conteXt.....poi~ On "a'eo" see 6sa 20: 1.. .. refers to the subject of 'P" ).. SIa 19: 'Pal'..1j&ov. 1I:OLCLV ~ $C. "their" referring to those who are the subject of 'P.. 3 " .ble. crises that called for substantial aid or wholehearted assistance. There is no reason to think from 8Ia 14-20 that mutuality ('P').g. Four cdd.... oM Cpo 79" ~. p..e. .).. Cpo A 12.."..ct. a Coer.. to be present .. A colon is the punctuation of four edd.· ij ." i. sI..' .. The verb understood with this and the fullowing 3 eI P. wan with the indicative states the actual fact. Cope..n.I). ..~ " ..ljxaa.I cplAOUV.. 72a 9. 2 a. It is assumed.d "oU~ •..• "al here introduces another group: namely. .· 'P. '£'OU1..e..1j&ov." The "al in xal W<p is intensive. " a 13 : 1 .. punctuate with a comma after Iv .. 2 " . but I cannot see what the point of the change is...&yci>. Cope with a colon.a..u<p Ilnse "d. (lcn>A6p..o~." It is not explanatory "al (as Cope...nq.: "so that the one who wishes also for another whatever he wishes for himsdf is manifesdy the friend of that other.8Ia IS COMMBNTAIIY i.. .. e..Ta.....and thus it is ground for the emotional response ('P&Ao6vT'~) they experience (see EN IIS90 "7 .b I).v Cpo 79b 2-4. Ross reads " comma." a 14 : 3 0""".' •.o.. .. 45) is correct in re6:rring it to the two preceding hypotheses. . . a.o~.'. all things being equal. tvou~ ."I'1l'ae oj ""Ala (lIS9b 31-3:0) . in pointing in that direction.. It certainly makes the kind of ""Ala whieh appears to be the subject of discussion (see 81a 15) more reasonable.O"<e (3oUl." which. i.. already prominendy brought forward in 1. wan TOUTOV. on this "utilitatian view" of virtue. speaks here of "the utilitatian view of virtue. a 16 '<D'(~ aN'<Di~ sc. in a 18. . all the preceding accusatives in 81a 14-18. see 66b 4. but ""Ala as a "dBo.'. Lysis. seems to be the assumption of our passage). namely.) is generic (S..a .1" .nOOa 30) by showing that xO""OJvla CCcommon association. • zo : 1 ~v See 63' 9: 1. is correct.."0..ou".. 46. xe>ll'aTa: "with regard to money".IISSb 16 (and C£ 71b 12-:OS).. He then went on to devdop this idea in a specific way (n59b Z4 . 54.•. A.ecr81l' sc.concluding at IIOOa 29-30 that the various kinds of ". 45. i. means community of purpose. . I bdieve." a 17-18 xlll '<oU~ ••• ". Index. on this use of see Bonitz.uroup. el. The understanding on the part of those experiencing the emotion (the ""Aoii" ." First of all ""Ala as a virtue is not the issue.e. :012-213." • 19 :·1 Kill aN'<O'(~ i.tvwv What appears to be at work in these topics in 81a 14-20 is the principle of likeness in general as the basis of ".9.'/a experienced: "for the same things appear to be good to all these people as (appear to be good) to them. p. II22).. PatltJth.'la. first broached the idea of likeness as the ground of ""Ala and then put it aside at EN IIssa ]I . 1304). and EN II56a I#. Secondly. Ho... the subject of ""Ao. where the utilitatian view of IIS6a lo-U is put aside.ola. and Cope.. as it is devdoped. while not stated..'. The article (TO.." namely.IAo61'.g. The genitive is possessive (S.. or of ideals) is the base of friendship . the subject of the infinitive is the same gtoup as that mentioned in TOUTO'. He returned to it at IIS9b Z-4 in saying that equality and likeness are ""UT'II" and.. IRHBTORIC' 11 For a fuller discussion of the a 15-16 '<oU~ <Pu. <xBeol slao: "to the same people to whom they are enemies. of. see !socrates. c£ LS.III. C£ 8J:b IS : 1.o. • c.o.e. or ".'.5Sf[ Cope. among men of virtue (whieh. correspond to the vatious kinds of "o. "as to them. • 18 '<oU'<o~ i. or of physical rdationship. A.. p. aN'<D(~ problem of detemrining whether a friend is one who is ""Aw. particularly so. :O:02.'la. see Plato.e. the persons who are the objects of the ". 12) is that these persons wish them good just as they desire good for these persons.e. 3 eU1tO''1''''XDU~ in the sense of S9b 3:0 : " "able to and disposed to do good". oC. "at. cpo 79a 36 (Tfi Me'1).81a 20 ARISTOTLB. 7!lb 28 : 1. speaks of the "agrarian trend in Aristotle's thought" seen in Pol. the phrase refers to those who live by their own labor.g. 2. : "those who live by their own labor. From 66b I6-r7 it becomes clear that they feel friendly toward "the generous" because they are evmwrrr:ueo£ el. justice is the virtue whereby men possess what is their own and as the law commands.alov. husbandry in general) are also given high praise in the Oeamomica 1343a 25 . I. Kassel collocates di1ferendy and not unattractively by using a period after T"PW"" and thus beginning a new topic with "al TO~' ~I"alov. Dufour..II. as do Ross. '. Cope... lou~· Apart from the colon (Roemer. . Ii"" 1 01 Toil ....• yECdpylCl~ TOVTWV is a partitive genitive. (for its meaning.. we saw it at A 9.ov. Tovar use a period).." undmtand el. 3 T. to the class of 8Ia 18-20 ("iia . is considered to be (in its first two books) by very early Peripatetics with a base in A. would be the object of 'PIlov" .. a 21 : a 22 : 1 TO'oU-rOU~ From what A...tonomit"s. a work.g.. from which the same inference a.in which case al"alov. this is the way the text is read by four edd. With v"olappa. uW"CTJ(liap..1343b 6. 66b 16-17. Barker.VTCl~ As we saw at A 9. 66b 9-II.. a 23 : Tcdv oiAAb>v 01 "~TOUPYO( clAAOJ..'''0£ el. . 66b 9-10 (66b 10).. p. good of the other since it looks to d.!'aTa: "and beyond all the rest (of those a 24 ."0 . Cp. of COUIse. undmtood (a 12).e other" (see also II34b 5-6). I accept it but punctuate with a colon after ~. see EN Il20a 21-23. 67a 31 where it refers to manual labor. see A 9. this would refer to Toll. Freese. however..8ra 24 COMMENTARY 71 1 ToU~ D. 194a." eeraCeaOal refers particularly to agricultural work (e.. 2 ToU~ olv6p€lou~ See A 9.".9-II. The just man. 01 COl . if not by A.pyci~Ecr9.. xcd ToU~ 6.72. . Spengel.ao: "they assume such to he those who .66b II-I3 and 661> 12: 1... ~I"alov. see S. see Thucyd.e objects of 'P"Ua. 'Pao.£.. on the contrary. cf. pcUI"Ta ... p. Farming and agriculture (e. 2 ~cni'fWV •. that of the preceding note must be drawn with respect to the avb(!£io. Xe7}IICTQ (a 20)... On amalov. (? Theophrastus). 263112. and 66b 7 : 1.. 2 ToU~ ••• ~'. who are £v". says in what follows and from his statement in A 9. However.0£77. then. In these termS the just man is correcdy assumed to be one who does not use others (d'P' 'TieOJ' CW'Ta. is one who respects the rights of another.EU9€ptou~ See A 9. or as we read in EN II30a 3-5: 'Justice alone of the virtUes is thought to be the .'s Politics and Xenophon's O..3) which seems to be its primary meaning here.. Spengel.""".. It is preferable to the period since we have in 8ra 20-24 one topic naming three lrinds of people who are d. Xenophon.). holds farming in high esteem in the State. 66b 9.) but to belong. sc. 1273) is • partitive genitive with pcJ.x . XD.. 565a...>1.6••• (read by Roemer. £660"'1'0' and cf.. and I would accept it.~ ..e. says that there is nothing more clraracteristic of mends than being together. 'RHETORIC' II 8ra 32 who live by their own labor).. cf..v the verb is seen at 74b 7.. or in those things which they admire. preswnably on the ground that these. the idea in a 32 'PLAOv.. they are. the reason here is the same as in the preceding note. . ~eraCop.e. a 'P"Lv"".0..pEiiG. A 12.la toward this class is dependent upon what is said about the just in a 22... 72b 21. 8Ia 22 : 2.. and 63b I.. Spengd. Tovar. clranges from the generic plural which he has been using (at.. as defined by Hesychius: oE d.'~' In EN Il57b 19-24 A." We saw aUTOVerol at 73a 8 : 2..e.. Cope. for the ol~ of the codd. 78a 31 : 3. If ol~ is read..no6a 12. 6ra 25-27. 15. the reading of Dufour..' cip. and so they are not the workers of 67a 31. together with 6zb 20 : a.d a 30 CJUVll". Ross. too. i. However.p"'ClVOp.ou..&vc.' eavTcii.. a . see LS. a 26 : I "Cll ot~ .UI'''~o""ivo. 9"u . and cf.'IJ . is set out for us at n05b IS .. note that in the relative clause A.. ci6".iv CJUVll. e.o••~ who constitute the demos in Socrates' discussion of the democratic State in Rep. as he says in EN 10960 23-29. exercise self-restraint regarding others.~ i. etc. rp'A6v".. a 25 : I "'DU~ G':'CPPDV~ . "are manifestly (clearly) willing". 6sb 21.g. Kassel rather than rprJ. "or among those who 2 8C1. . 47-48. the good has many meanings. or among those who admire us".•..oiialV. pp..~ i. those who mind their own business. 2 ciftpciyl'ov.o! The reason for feelings of rprJ. see 66b 13. that even those supremely happy desire to spend the day with each other.e.rLV are admired by us.dCovalV is a conjecture of Victorius' read by the edd. There is an interesting conjunction of the aUTOVerol and the d3tedrp. has a long note on the verb forms. Cope). i.e. or the admiration of another with respect to the subject.8 : 1 See A 5.••o.". on the form. clem) >10.o~: 2.cil.. or in the best things. The TO'~ in TO'~ 8avp." ".. The infinitives define the meaning of >id.. or in which othm admire them. 8Ia 8--9) ol~. a 31 c!t . morally good.... the verb has the meaning found' at 79b 25 where it is also used to denote the subject's admiration for another. cf. a'7 ciYCl8ol". 8Ia 14. "al (T06rOV~ rprJ.yuy. ?Db 3].. a different meaning emerges and it was indicated by the ancient commentator Anonymus: "and those who are hdd in honor in all things. moral goodness.ARISTOTLE.) to the first person plural. On ao>rpeoaVVT/. "of them when they are at fault".. 2 xcii." it is no more applicable to this group than to any other mentioned. " ... a pleasant .. has in mind temperaments able to handle something stronger than mere good-natured joking. . . i. b 34. the tenor of the passage. . pp. those who are skilled. I do not understand Cope's explanation. Spengel. 223. (it is more common ill Plato).).... 3 U'KOf'ELV(lL sc.a••• ". 7" 4. Roemer. rq.. 4S. Freese. Sob 3.~. considers this.8d". Cope has a note (pp. ... Those who read with. (10111..o. and of at a 3S-3 6. see 8xa S-9. Ueer. Furthermore.. scolf at) might seem too strong and. On l'amTl><o/ (inclined to be contentious) see 72b 31.~<o~ and other adjectives compounded with. EN II27b 33 lusb 4.. b 3S.6. EN II27b 33 . 133-34). .......a.nw cmwden' ml = press on toward. dextrous.. as explained at 81a 35-36. cod.h.. eierl". ent. pp..OVTO •...l XIXl UX0I'-ELVClL This is a confl1sed passage in the codd.iC. ..ai~.. p.Sra 34 COMMENTARY 73 a ]>-33 1tclV'<. Tovar. since there is no change here "from the objects to the subjects of liking.. 'Ra)8ciaa.ai~. Rhetoric 70a IS.~ . On the construction which is changed here. On the other hand. Whereas A.." &< to his distinction between "liking" and "loving.g... suggests that A. is quite frequent in passages similar to ours.6Ia.0 ..o.lusb 4 should be read.e.. Spenge! and possibly (but not certainly) the Anonymus Commentator read Na.s does the use of o~ as a synonym for . are in exactly the same class as all the others in SIa 8-33 (as well as the class of those who follow)..". aXW'M'OV"l:'E~ strive eagerly for: "for both have the same objective in mind [i. Dufour.o~... 48-49) on "".0 . Kassel (cf.e.. )Gal 't"qi vnope'i'JIQt. in the give and take ofbanter.8 .o~ man represents the mean between the (1OJ/Jo16"o~ (buffoon) and the lJ:ye'o~ (boor).i.. " ... which must be kept in mind. more likely to cause feelings of anger not friendliness. <p . rarely uscs TOJOdCs . nalCeaBal. mock.VT~dnelo~ at EN IuBa 33. p." as would be revealed by their quarreling and contentiousness. see. taunt. Ross alone encloses this in parentheses. ~ouA.. a 34-36 E1'tl 'l:'w"to . In view of the fact thatthe". For an understanding of what is meant by Sra 34-36. Ross reads )Gal -rep 'f(lJOdaat xal 'rrp vnoperval. e. naiaa. A find no difficulty in the dative of the articular infinitive with l". The reading given is that of two codd. seems at first view to imply the kind of witty repartee and pleasantries more identified with "aIC . Cod. Because of the nominative.. Der Text.. suggest the possibility of TOJ9&". not a new topic. a 34 : 1 ot l:1'n&E~tol . For this reason • .. OrcOPOELVClL se.. . Cope (c£. Among other things we find there is the comment that in humor the "".. but an addition to the topic at SIa 30-33 (.O. = "manifestly desire.. (1061. at 7Ia I : 1 I would find an applied meaning for the word. A. Other codd. 49-50)..l1o. in the light of 79a 29-30. the use of {mOl"""'. . C£ dfJ'Poneo" 8Ib J... of the second... IRHBTORIC' II 8rb 2 time] as the other ~iterally: their neighbor] since they are able to take a jest.6ie. 81a nf.". Spenge! read "a! TOVT"'P a. Kassel read d"''PoTie'''~.!'-'Po.aU". Ross.a... dress. 51. however.. cf..g. Ross.... Kassel with cod. For the meaning of the first see 74b 7..p..•. These people are in = y ways like those described at 8ra 31.. Insofar as these persons do not resort to such 8. 63a 10. a conjecture of Roemer's.. of three edd. the action of the ." 8Ib I _e ... p. but see 8ra 3S : 1. calls attention to the unusual (and it is) infinitive construction in place of the ordinary relative clause.d . or Thurot's df'fPtiTef!ov ("0bservations critiques [I]. Spengel." Our reading is that of Tovar.'aTa. the action of the 'PLAOii"B~. we seem to have a constructio ad sensum since tpo{1oiJ-II'ra" "which they fear" carries the idea: "which they clearly think [oloPTa. b 2-3 ck!'-. ~EpyE. see 62a 9.01 .8ra 1. to take "a! 01 h." 304-305) . Cope. our d"''PoTseo.eiou~.d. p. !. is the reading of the codd. are probably their virtues. Since both nouns signify action toward another.-a.• 80b 3S . d..dJ. z '<ij> w.e. either because of faults committed against them or because of their own (unacknowledged) kindnesses..namely. The odler edd.• Spenge!.'1!'-ci.. and their whole manner of living.. O'"cimTov. 67a 29 : " 67b 27-33. It is nnderstandable that such people migbt easily inspire feelings of 'PLAia in others. in the light of the praise given to them. AA we know from 74a 22 (and see 74" 22 : I).po. Cope read "a6a.. they reveal a good will which possesses all the marks of one who is a friend...a. dyaM. the first. These aya6d. Cope a 37 : 1 K. "no""'.polO\)~ i. z !'-iI ~"cipX"v Ricllards.'1!'-ci. as a single class: those able to make and take a joke. indicates that there are two classes: (a) those able to make a joke. where we learn that wit is of two kinds ..dl'O'Ta referring back to Tel .. In this sense a!-"PoTBeO' makes a totally acceptable reading in accord with EE 1234" 4-23.~. and particularly of one who treats them well. 107.60~. e. a 35 : is the reading of Ross.. 67a 6 : 1.OII dependent upon TavTo. Kassel. Once again.>\a.] they do not possess..".. "those who are respectable in appearance.e other edd. This distinction must be kept in mind at du.0 • ."". (b) those able to take one. see Cope..(a) a delight in the truly comic even if it is directed against oneself.. Ii from a good tradition. and (b) a gift for producing the comic .and that tbe two are different (a 14-18). In our reading TOUT"" is clearly a partitive genitive with .74 ARISTOTLB. b 2 !'-iI OVE'&"'''ci~ See 8Ib 3. and to return it gracefully". On the various uses of the word. There may be a point in Roemer's conjecture. the second. On the other hand. F and other codd.. ""do~ is the opposite of praise. 1 a...e. and (b) those who do not reproach others with the kindnesses they have done them. says of the philosopher: no more does he know evil of anyone than he knows the number of pints in the ocean.."TE~l failings in their regard or because of their own [the 'P." Understood with oiovTa...!l Ctesiphon 20S (see also On the Embassy 176)...e. Thea.. This topic should be compared with 79b 20-24.lov""...7Jpa was seen at A 12.I. However. S4b S.." The technical meaning of i""J.. those who remember past injuries. or at n66a 15-16: the good man is the one who struggles to do the good.<m). b 5 eU_. grievancrs. On "ai.. Phil. ot..C..lov". 5p~ As he says at EN 1099a 17-18: the good man finds his delight in noble actions. 72a 22.. there would have been no restoration. they were men "who gave voice to the finest words of a coltiv. and we are given the reason why they so react to this particular class: "for of such disposition as they accept these persons to be to the rest of men.fUponpoL It is clear that A.)'ciX't"ou~ 67b 17.'Il'-ci.. is confusing.retus 173 d. 2 rpU).3].ted mind.SIb 9 75 COMMBNTARY 'P. so they think they will be to themselves.. The subject of the main verb (oiona. 2 1'-'1&. 1'-"'IaL""""..6...) had been like Demosthenes.oyou~ See 79a 34." as Socrates.. is ~o'ov TDU" elval.. ..I. et&O.<. Again.~ .IIX'<L"OU~ . 51.cquaint themselves with either the evil in their neighbor or the evil in them..p ..." b 3 a.. b 7 : 1 " .. The idea in the word was seen at A 9... says that if the Athenians who helped restore the democracy (4<>4/403 B. 'forget and forgive. "nor even .] kindnesses toward them [the 'P'.. see Sra 19 : 1. 67a 19-20.. has in mind two different classes in fJ~ o. b 9 a"ou&ci~ouaL" Cf. c£ 8Ia35 : 1.~d~.co: B.. On 'Pvl"'m"ov~ c£ 60b 17. either one of which is a likely object of 'P'lla: (a) those who do not censure others for faults committed against themselves. b 8-9 (I ya..'06'TE~].''' This sentiment is repeated by b4: 1 Cicero. 'Pvlti .. i.. otou~ b 5-6 .o. p... in the light of the context..o.."o" this elliptical expression has to be filled out: "they experience feelings of friendliness toward those who do not reproach them because of their [the 'P'Ao. 79& 35 : 1. I. and 7Jb 33...." Oyx). nurse. .) is those who experience the emotion of 'P'lla... Cope..."o). the adjective here would mean: "those inclined to cherish [LS......"'<"~ Aeschines. c£ S.. The other edd.. (iio. see also Pol. etc. 7Ib 12-23 on the pleasure b 15 : J bfLO(OU~ found in likeness to another.pEVOXAcdcr' Cpo 79' 14. 2 oil.iv as used.. livdihood.cil. Hal "Bf!apB1l. EE 1235" 18.••t 7Ib 14 (.". on the word see 78a It>-I7.t 80a "3. A: oiIT. b II : J .6dTa. 2 TeN"'cIt .. and Cope. HB~"I'B'... e.... There." 3 .dp"""...~ cN". 1573). 2 811N". ...t some annoyance is toler.....C... .cit . .. "al (""lo. those who experience ""Ata..1. cpo 7Ib 19. vopov do"oma... 3 ""ou5. IUssd. . 700 B. Boa 30 : J. l%ov~a... expresses feelings of dislike not ""lla."'1J6. ..po~ cN"'oU~ 8Ib 19 as e.?) c£ OeD. ~ "and engage in the same pursuits.VIL3. and nBn. I3I2b 5. b I!r20 "." Il"'....uov . sc." C£ Sla 17-18.u~ x'p . On the meaning of MEa as "what one expects" and so "'e. & A.. of course. elva.' . (3""""""'''' "and in particular have had these feelings about qualities for which they particularly wish . i...ou6 ."Plained at 80a 32-33..)..g. . as do vnol"l'{idvovTa. that which Hesiod said (potter grumbles at potter..oi~ "find pleasure in them.(3"!"" "the same thing simply takes place": namdy. ". however. b 12-13 "'.• era"..dou~ sc. %ai~oVT~. TeNW •. For the citation (Works and Days 25-26).i is the reading of a good tradition and is accepted by Dufour. on Hesiod (fJ.po~ .1111 This is ordinarily and attractivdy interpreted to mean "the unconventional": "so that they are not ashamed of their unconventional actions.. and Spengd read with cod. 'RHBTORIC' II b 10 : J "'''XYJ''''XO( 2 ".e.~ On the meaning c£ 81a 28 : 2.. (S. the verb in composition would indicate here th.~oo. cpo A II.. b 12 X.ARISTOTLE... (3(o~' ie. the corresponding phrase is not Ta n~o. 1709b... thus giving the phrase as • direct citation from Hesiod as it is found in the codd. ". 00. it modifies and speci£es <lnoudai.. at 88.. 16..... see also EN II59b 2-3. so he qualifies it in the earlier passage.po~ 561. qualifies the general principle here (lav pi! . b 16 : Ellii "''' for the us..o x.lu'). b "4 60x.O'w ToVToo. dd~av but Ta ...ge see LS... each of which has its own object. e!: B.. 79' 33: "to be thought to be." . there should be • colon after it." This is possibly done under the influence of 84b 22-26. but not an excess... see 71b 14..) ~.p .. a. u.""".b.) which..~ ""'~ IxOYT"~ "those who are somewhat seriously disposed toward them". Ross." TriTa is an internal accusative with nm0v8dTa. b 18 : J 2 b 18-19 x .. ...ble. J ... S... b 2. their meaning in part should be specified by the action denoted in the verb. Since both phrases are the object of a form of al.~ cf.2 : J 1..a. This is another topic designating another class toward whom men experience 'PMta.jge.. Le.. 'v We saw the word at 7l)a 14. Ta "'ecl~ cU-." In other words. wrong (cf.-. see 79a 23-2S (In . on J..p. .j cf.) and 7l)a 23-2S.. cU-... cpo Top. with respect to whom they are ashamed of their really bad actions (Tli neo~ d). it seems that we have the distinction operativeherewhichappearedatA 7." chap. states it more simply at EN II28b 22.iJ X .Ta. Z XCII . SIb 31-32).".) for the other person... Ta "ecl~ MEa. and fall into this category. because of the contrast between Ta "eo~ doEa. And so I would interpret b 18-20: "And (they like those) toward whom their attitude is such that. Here.ll<PpovoGvoro<...7JAO. would be actions or things which are thought to be.. the actions in no way imply disregard (d).j9.. . However.jge..ua..81b 24 COMMENTARY 77 "what is established and likdy" in the interpretation above.." Therefore...8b 23-24): namely. see chap. The nature of the emotions explains the choice made here. 23351£) is the onderstood 'PMoii . 18b 14-IS : On the force of p-. on 'P90.. (Jo1l)..<. we find there an interesting collocation of d)'~9..) of... and do"••• : Tli "eo. "shame is consequent upon bad actions. 6sb 1-8 (see6sb I : z.." Such cooperation is more substantial than e1'h>ola (EN u67a 1-2) which is like li:iendlincss.po<. On Cjj).o.. z .. a.. "aTllIPed"" . losb 30-]4.. b 23 ClUP. as we see at EN u66b 301£ b 24 : J p. as A. "al (aIlTotl. see S.. see aha EN II2... the actions are not truly bad (though open to such an interpretation) and are seen as not bad and thus are tolerated by the other person. and Ta "eo~ d). that between that which is thought to be and the truly real. Many of the liberties taken among those who are ttiends presume their understanding.Elln The apodesis to this protasis (cf. We know ttom 83b 13-IS thauhame is occasioned by evil or bad things which appear to bring the person dishonor.. on the mood.See 79b 24 : z. provided there is no contempt. 06<.opa. further. 'PM06 .. 84b 22-2."OCl' rpOov£'''O. they are not ashamed of their own apparently wrong actions.xV. such persons. 10..). or. 2S4SC. governing the dative and the accusative.a. s. but is not 'PM1a.j9 ••a.. either their rivals or those they desire to have emulate them.. 213 I. dO"oV.. b 20 : J p. those truly wrong.. i..6 should be compared with the present passage.-. 1Sa 32.'YOJeta.. (see 8u 11-9).". it means: "those whom they assist in procuring good.e..011. II.. can be found at 843 2S1£ We have seen the word at 79b 24. are apparently. " Terence mentions an EpidiCllZomenon in his prologue. and 81a 34. Blass.19. c£ 8Ia 8-9.to'TaTQI 'PlAeio 'PI... the ability to love. " "to this class La>! "AaTTo/J.) and on a parallel with 81a 8-9.u<v.'s usual style. "al ('P1A0. III a.. The Epidikazomenon.A'o'Ta: "of good men most of all they like •.! those .." Here the force of the middle is on hand: "those who do not falsify themselves to them. sc.C. b 25-26 "cd Tau~ . see 6]b I : 2 on the use of the compound 'PIlo-. continues with accusatives which have appeared since 81a '4 (all of which I have taken as the object of an understood 'PIAO.•• TaLC. which speaks to the idea: /Jooo~ <rae> b. " 2 rpU-ELY an infinitive specifying T~ dya6oo" "those who are good at being friends. on which see notes. c£ Kiihner. & Gerth.). There is a fragment from Apollodorus of Carystus. He finds the dative even more unusual in that A.S: "wherefore all men are friendly particularly to those who are so devoted [ToIWrov~l to dead friends.. <ly..:tov" see Edmonds.oov~l also belong . b 28 : 1 ... but then we may ask his explanation for the change in construction at 8Ia 34. the article designates the more definite class of those mentioned in 81a 25.uTou~ The "al is intensive." b 29 : I TOloUTOl 50 01 x . 194."'M'a". fabricate. the edd.:~ is the reading of all the codd." J ..lior of the codd. 17C. 8889) objects strongly to this as contrary to A...I.IIs9b 1 where we find that such people have the quality of friends: namely.y partitive genitive with /Jo. in which 'PIAO'.Further. Kassel). Bonitz (Studi"'. and more specifically at IIS9a 33 . pp. concoct..46S. Apol. Spenge! (but with doubt).you~ We see the same metaphorical meaning in Plato.. We find it translated by Terence in Phormio 562: "solus est homo amica amicus.. and with which Bonitz would agree)." b 27 rpu-arplAou~ "fond of friends"." which is another way of saying: "those who are honest with them. It is explained by introducing the words 'PIAO' slul suggested by 81b 23 ('PIAoI eloa. a new comedy poet (? 300-285 B. and so I have retained the reading of the codd. (b 25) is the present participle (not the more expected present indicative) seems preferable.. and Donatus on Phormio 48 tells us that Terence is following Apollodorus.o.u. He suggests that we read (as Ross and Kassel do) with the Basel edition of ISSO "al oi.. "forge..0" TOV~) oi. (save Ross. II. 'amrrORIC' II 2 "cd Ta. The reason for aJfection toward such persons is set forth at EN IIssa 2!r-3 r: such men are thought to be good men. Bonitz may be correct. Cope.u. if a choice is to be made the leetio diffi.AlIISTOTLB. IIS6a 10).e. feelings of <p<Ala) here in the Rhetoric. A. they are not at all formally the three kinds of friendship he speaks about in the EN.. among such persons are those who speak of the other's trivial faults. b 31 6 b 32 <pO(iEPoU~ b 33 : 1 2 i. b 33-34 d&l) U . h "owowla... and at II59h 29-30.. Ho. d. A. and so these people who experience no shame in such selfrevelation are treating the recipient of their talk as a friend and that is why they receive <p<Ala in return. see.• czl"ltw6l'c8cz e.. <p<Ao. e.1 wrongs before those they hold as friends..g.81b 33 COMMBNTARY 79 In the light of the argument which follows at 81b 30--32 and the statement at 81b 19-20 this must be interpreted as "their own faults. as haS been said.h1 oJ." as should be clear from the de6nition of <po(lo. pouM..p .... A. Taken as a substantial and real wrong it renders the statement at 81b 30--32 2 TO. 8Ib 19-20..JJa) changes from the third person plural to the first person. <pu.. thoughdess wrongs. the friendship of . some kind of shared relationship. The point here is that a sense of shame for apparent wrongs indicates that such a person does not view the other as friend. dIe friendship of pleasure (dI ~do.. among friends such talk is not a cause of shame. once again (see 8Ia 26. But the three kinds he has in mind in the EN are not forma1ly those we meet in the Rhetoric although the essential reqlrirement for friendship is present in both the ...rent wrongs. This foundation is enunciated at EN II6Ib II..id'! of dIe Rhetori& and those of dIe EN: namely. In the EN he remarks at IIS6a 7. IIs6a 12). TOl". and again at u62a 34." . b 30--31 dpl)TCZ' yo.g. (b) the fact that although A.1'TB'..Ta in our text.""" Tovar alone reads a1lT1lW with cod. BIb 31. in the active sense: those who cause fear. for we know from 8Ib 20 that men are ashamed of their . I say this for two reasons: (a) the presence of !faa To.. The argument in b 28-]2 is: those who are honest with others are the recipients of <p<Ala.8' DaDV dB KO"'QJ'Po6al.e.e emotion.. that there are three kinds (Tela e'lMI) of friendship. czl"lt"V0I'EVO~ l'iI <pU. of <p<AIa... things relatively petty.. mistakes. at 82a 21-22. The three kinds of friendship we meet in dIe EN are dIe friendship of utility (dtd TO xll'la'. lent'll." i.>iv. and so (as far as the Rhetoric is concerned) to the ground for the feelings. "of whom we have no fear."CZ If anything. 8"' f~la. naaa 'I"lla.CL This is true only of one who in the presence of "friends" is ashamed of his app.'s objective in this statement SeemJl to be to poirit to the ground of all <ptAla.e. speaks of three kinds of <p<Ala (namely. 3 icz".. trivial. But. <pczGAcz meaningless.a.. ofI~ 8CZppoGI'EV oU&E~. a.. Ib. and that A. b 3S : 1 "oLlJ'rLXci "things which tend to produce" (6200 27 : ..7. the chzrt on p.... b 34 : 1 l . In general the word ka'eo. njv 8. Finally. in this whole ...'s intention here as it is in the rest of this chapter (as also in all of B :>-II) is to analyze the disposition of those who experience feelings of 'Pula.6~~. In the division of 'P. but here it is used of a mendship more properly called . e. 2 OlXEL6'r'l~ This would be some general kind of kinship of association which is what A. 3 lNYT€YEL..p.3-2S. p. ""1'"lo.sca. Cope. sodalitas. IIS6b 7).g.S-2. For example." emotions not virtues.lia (see comment toward end of 8Ib 33-34).pEI.g.. This is some kind of blood rdationship. this type is the ouly one which appears: e. OlJ)?'s.la as one would naturally understand it.) the emotion.6~7J~. and at lIS9b 3S . 688 indicates the kind of problem which can be met in seeking correspondences between the three kinds of mendship in the Rhetoric and the doctrine of the EN... 'RHBTORIC' II 81b 3S men good and alike in virtue (-ruBta 'Pula. leom". ~7}•••• ""rr"'~.IIooa 8 it appears as the highest of the mendships in the obligations imposed.v""ev-lv Hal njo iTa<e'H1jo. -ni.340 is quite appealing. matter we must not forget that in the Rhetoric we are con=ed with "dlhJ not U . comes to analyze these three types in some deWl together with other aspects of 'P.n62a 29.d. p.Ata in the rest of Books 8 and 9 he mentions the Bfcl7j of the Rhetoric in different contexts... and superficially such may be intended. necmitudo. e.la. seenu to have in mind at EN n61b 1:>-16 when he sets it off from what he calls njo 'P.80 AllISTOTLE. it is set apart (together with comradeship) from other rdations of friendship... At first glance there seems to be an ascending order of more intimate rdationship in ka'eela.. 6SS-S9 for a good introduction on mendship. Eev'H1jo.g..a. There is a further description of it at n6ra 2. points out that the plural fonn is meant to include xde" and ..31. It would appear to be the 'Puta set down at IIS9b 27-3S. As was said in the preceding note. When A. 2. IIS8b II-23. ka<e."""io. n60a 9-30: that occasioned by any form of societal bond. at least as it is described at EN n61b 16 . At EN IIS9b 3S II60a 8 the order of importance would appear to be oZ. of 'P. 56. But statements in the EN make one hesitate to assert this.~a'e.. Lives of the Philosophers: Aristotle S. by Diogenes Laertius. EN !Is8a 18-20 would seem to describe . .liao . contexts which imply that they may submit to one or the other of the three types he presents in the EN. 78a 2.Ata attributed to A. ol". and the reason for such feelings. the feelings. as used by Homer of Achilles and Patroclus would describe this rdationship. Schrader's distinction. See Gauthier & JaM. cognatio. the kind of persons who cause such feelings in them... A 2. " . which is the primary concept A. From the argllll1ent in 8aa 1-19 enmity and hatred are taken as one. Anaximenes treW the idea at much length. is the opposite of 'I'." 4 fL-li 5'7Jatv". it is concessive here. .8ea as an emotion....'8o~ is defined. and that while anger is frequently a more eJfective stimulus than hate.. at 80b 34. Z opy/I See chap. 3 tv.llf.1 "oto. Apart from what is said in this section there is little to be found on ". begins with a brief introduction stating that envy and hatred are the same in intent in that they are opposed to 'I'. :ul72. see 66b Z4 : J." i. The Loeb edition of Delacy and Einarson is competently annotated. at I436b 38 . as the object of the action. The treatise.8ea is the opposite of'l"). the conclusion of which is that the intent of each is different: hatred is to injure.Ala just presented in the chapter.. e...8:!. In this short passage we are given the l.. I3I2b 25-34 we are told that from the sirnilarity of eJfeca hate must include anger.~ The meaning in this word as well as in the two qualifications of it is to be found in B 7 where the ".I. . .iao~ in A.. to be kept in mind here and in what follows: here. J m7JP"'''fL6~ See 78b 14-15 : z.i) See S~ 16: z. There is a point of some importance..q cause Oel'7/. s4b 8-9.e.1 ".I "'. ~ " . and in what follows.. and so I would interpret "at as alternative: "Enmity or hatred can be studied.pl 5' IXap .o.. In Pol. l06b 2-3. The kind ..o~ and ~. 8sa 17. . .~ol.'s remarks here.. s6a IS-16.6-.oii i. ''both doing a favor though not asked and doing it without advertising it. Plutarch has a small treatise On Envy and Hate.g. 4 8 .. T8 du".q. it cannot stop to reason but hate can. that any attention given them would be that of their rdation to oel'. b 36 . a 2 : 1 ". the person who..o'7J""Xci it appears.. and then engages in a contrast of the two (536fS38e).. 82a I : 1 . experiences as a consequence the feelings and emotion of .. 82a 3-19..afJoA..!><Ala. Love as the opposite of hatred has been stated a number of times in the Rhetoric. as ia expression "''''w.1437b 33 and again at IWa aI ..o~ For this form of the genitive absolute.Ala. . that both l"'1e.aa".. and 78a 31-33 through 78a 33.I442b a8.d "'.ai". 77b 31-32. We see this again at 82a a.e. uses to define and delimit ".[a. There has been no formal discussion of nw. 2."". and see Top.~ of the triple division (78a 23-2S). z Xcip. See 8Ib 35 : 1. I. J ".a 2 COMMENTARY 81 the two specifications.. see S. which complemena A.OG fL'"O''' For the prepositional phrase instead of the direct object. the various particular topics for 'I'. see the commena at 8sa IS. 78a 1-3. ." Certainly 'If..ao.Aw. envy does not go to this extreme. " " 3 : 1 Ilx . here and in ti. @TOV i.e "al is intensive: "even". a 8 : 1 dvlllTOII But.e phrase inlmedi.e. p. personal offenses against one. 2 S. a 7 CNxCKpciv'n)V Together with the thief he exemplifies the statement at a 6 ("".. except Kassel. .Uo. 'rumrOnIC' II 82a 8 of hatred occasioned by this sort of action is frighteningly exemplified in its consequences for Socrates. as the seboliasc says. as I understand them.5£ acter.64.d. Amidosis 30.g. 116o-62. whether he a 5 TOt " . Beginning here we are given the differences between anger and hatred. e. says that men give up enmity or hate when convinced that they have not been unjustly treated." i. All this brings out rather dearly the rational and calculating character of hatred mentioned at Pol. 2.82 ARISTOTLE. s6b 3I and CalIias is most Iikdy the Athenian nobleIlWl (ca. a 6 KCIllillv. each is from a good tradition.. There is no need for any personal offense for one to experience hate (e.e. is not healed with time (a 7-8).." n. Plutarch's observation at 82a 8 : 1 is valid. Cope. lsocrates. or when they are benefited by those they hate.'1/).. on which see his note. c£ 85" 34. ainu at (desires) positive harm (a 8).j l:c.d "but enmity even without the personal aspect. speaks of the same kind of slander directed against himsel£ "arises from conduct directed against oneself. is not accompanied by personal pain (a 12r-13).ssd read eaVTO. and Plutarch. In this and the following sentences the verb understood is AUTI.. 1139-'74.) whom we meet in Plato's Protagoras and Xenophon's Symposium. "of a certain sort. rnerdy a certain type of charhas or has not offended one. ". see 78a 33-35. hatred is not necessarily personal (a 3-S). Xenophon).>xpci'n)V is the reading of the edd. as he goes on to say. 13I2b 32-34 (. on syncophants. death or something dse may well cure it.8' bo""TIl "with particulars.. Apology. Cope reads the dative. is without compassion (a 14).. because personal offense is not in question.. On Envy and Hate 538c. Spengd.S) also argued that hatred does noC last long.LlAd "ii. Further.. Pericles (Thueyd. on taking the position that those hated as evil are good. robbery victims are not the only people who can hate thieves. e.• 82a 7). Harrison..). We have the same conjunction of these two men at A 2. 78.0. s6. 219-20. and "dv (for "-".g. K.C.." and specifically. is directed against a dass as well as an individual (a S-?). 4S0-370 B. in a 4). a4 To.. see Plato. from the codd. see Bonner & Smith.tdy following. 32. with individuals.g. there may be a point in omitting the 11. Kassd reads without 11 and gives the ordinary accusative form E"'''I!UT'1/ (our form is a common variant in Plato.. g..vos "for dIe angry man wishes the object ofhis anger to be.derO. 104. (e. desire for. which is in fact an injustice and so an evil. see.. T'p"'Q!a.g. p.). is an oeBE" "a. piao. but simply that evil be done to the person..'s argamont is not undermined if we say that the angry persoll can actually place an act of T'pOJe/a. A. Furthermore.namely.. define ".). by its very notion.bppo"...""'11 (). has a brief comment on dIe word in which he also mentions its legal meaning (appeal). and Ta "a"Il. a 10 AU"'IP« . lithe aiming at. Cope.). because the primary intent of the angry person as angry is to retaliate by giving pain."" "the greatest evils ./a can be a Ha.tm1lea.e. The specifying diffete1ltia of anger is Tlp"'e!a which carries with it ).for example... aware ofhis revenge".). .. a 9 '«j\ 5· i..[a was defined at 80b 36 we could.. 413 b 23: ihr:ov ptv rae aia811a".... Ha"ci.sa(Jal rwl..". .S I would be inclined to agree with Vater (pp.ati. as Plutarch (On Envy and Hal< S38e) expresses it: the deliberate intent of the one who hates is to do harm ("aHa. but this evil does not have to be recognized by the one hated and so be a source of pain to him in order for the emotion of hate to ""Press itsel£ The one hating is llot concerned whether or not the evil desired is experienced as evil by the one hated. in contrast to 82a 12-13 (Hal T~ ••• p.sa 3 I : 3) inflicted on the person who causes the anger. for this meaning see Bonner & Smith. Pain.1 . as: TO {JovA..erO . folly . II I90ff. "00 the other" .""1I' I'P""') would be the TlpOJe1a (mentioned at 78a 3I. Harrison.. as is said at 82. 1160. it is not his intent to do evil qua tale. is something which is sensed (De an. see .82a COMMENTARY II :2 BpEaLt. never does so. although A." as we see it at EN I I 14b 6." These are best taken./a for another without causing pain. " . a II ci6L><l.""'1 TB Hal 7j60v>1).. oil. Anger and hatred here.. 10). 6py. injustice. "al ). I . like pleasure. The ). The desire of the angry person is to inflict retaliation experienced as pain upon the one who has slighted.. positive harm.. 166."""1/. a 8-9 .~. a oina.. no'iiaa.'lao. the effects proper to anger. the hater. . a 9-I2 I . the effects proper 00 hatred. IS..•• nciv... as a "sensation" it convey> meaning to the mind only as something that can be experienced (ala8'f/TIf. e. The specifying differentia of hatred is "ax!. 87-88) that this passage is parenthetical and intended to make a distinction between Ta ). xCllxl . or. 56112. 3 x"xoU i. 'Pawoph"" at 78a 3I. . to strike back and cause pain for the pain caused. . A "a. & 'P. are being analyzed in terms of their specifying differences./a. with which cpo 80b 20-29 and the notes thereto. Hatred desires evil for the one hated.are least of all objects of perception.. "'0' "'" a 12-13 xIII '1:'10 ••• In contrast to a 8.. 'RHBTOIUC' II 8"" 17 believe. and since it does not. And so I would refer to my com:ments at 7sa 22 : 2 (see also 7Sb 11 : 2) and call to mind that the purpose of this topical analysis of the emotions is to enable one to make an intelligent use of them in forwarding the objective of the TiX""I: namely.." . . Dufour mark a lacuna).)..)"'1' (as a specifYing differentia). antecedent to the rdative clause..l<V1lva. a IS : 1 civ-rL1tCl8ci'V SC..L •.v What A. Tovar.•• XIlX[Il~ Here we have the reason for the preceding statement: namely." It would appear that the "ai is meant to be jo4led to the a 17-18 .ARISTOTLE. the other is <iv. Spenge!. Ross. to get at truth as far as it is possible (see 55a 22 : I...w" ••• yevo".e. the preceding special topics.al1~o. is doing in this analysis.e. the situation has changed) is exemplified in part at Bob 14-16 ("al lav . prove by argument.l0m).187jI1..e. as A. anger and hatred are being analyzed with respect to their genus: both are 0lli. point out.. a II-I2 oU&£v ." but one is ~e<a 1.. this genitive absolute in a rather strange expression really obtains its meaning through its contrast with nolA. the truth which is so easily obscured by the wrong emotional reactions....l.. the occurrence of nothing would make the hater show pity .. 54b 8-II. see also Sob 34We begin a concluding section here which can readily be misinterpreted if we lose sight of what A. z tx 'l:'oU. simply as examples of evils that are not all1lh}Td and so are different from .."under no circumstances would the other show pity...v i.. has in mind here in saying that the angry man would turn £rom anger to pity "when any number of things has occurred" (i.. i.. it is not an alaSl1To11.. d.." Plutarch. is a synonym for d.)"'1" a 14 : 1 1tQ).Ivll.. the occurrence of any number of things would make the angry man show pity.. 78a 31-332 "iJ . see 58b 32: 2. To argue for a lacuna because a discussion of l"'1e... on which see 54' 27 : 3: "explain. Cope read correctly a 16 : 1 'PIlVEP6v by not indicating any lacuna before this word (Roemer. On the ending 1. 55a 29-38). xcii h'C'cxC. Kassel. see COMMBNTAlty I 354-55.1tO&ELKWVCl. • &LCIAUIL'V anods"cMa.. that the presence of evil does not at all (of necessity) cause pain. T01STOJI. ci. on the idea see the complete destruction of the hated person. 2 oU&evcl~ sc.a/1o.g.l>i (82a 2) is absent would be to miss the point made at 82a 2 : 1. On Envy and Hare n8b: men hate even their humbled enemies. n~OJeiav).. says at A I.evo~ivo. ""o~"OJV: e. I believe that the verb means quite simply "to make... 77a 2 (on which see na 2 : 1). 80nz).. 5••• )." a 19 ~'6n6. with Roberts (Oxford translation.. On our reading see Jebb's remark Oebb & Sandys. as it is at A IS. i. by Richards. etc. Ina.". Cope.oGV"II~ The verb is to be interpreted as it is at 76a Z4 (see also 77" r): "to bring those who because of anger or hatred are our opponents to.. Cope. p... friends..82a 20 COMMENTARY 85 following "Ill p~ o." i. or enemies... a 18 : 1 """"." • "Ill. render" (eE LS. Richards.g.TIl. to anger or its opposite. and to coordinate the verbs: "it is possible both to point out those who are friends or enemies and to make friends or enemies of those who are not." a 17 'R'OIELV This is often taken to mean "to represent them as" . note ad locum). 108. is used as it is at A 9. if anger.III). to mean: "to whichever attitude one chooses. to make those who are not friends. and to refute those who assert that they are frieuds or enenries.e...e..p' av is the reading of four edd. 67b II. 108. notes (correctly I believe for its ordinary use) that "dlllA1S.. Spenge\. enemies. I understand the reading of the codd. Ross reads . 'PClVEPOv See next chapter. if hatred.. p. a"..~ &1e&AUEIV "to refute those who assert that they are friends. is used with the force of lAirx. or those who are not enemies. A.. 58."oTie"" 11...e. This reliects the kind of interpretation about which the caution was given in 82a 16: 1. p. p.. to hatred or its opposite.. refute cannot take an accusative of the person but only of the statement or argument refuted. ." here (see Bonitz.." The verb dial'. ciI"l'Lcr~'1. a 20-21 'Koiu .. . he continues.b 4 (b) 82b 4-22 (e) 8. definition of fear 2.r.s . Once .8l' 12 people who cawe fear: objective aspeer brief summary on the really fcadUl. Conclusion: 83b IO-II 82a 20 : J 1<oi. I. lack of friends.. be they penona or things the disposition.22.Slb 10 confidence: objective aspect the ." a 21 : 1 ifcr'no) 2 <pupa.83 b IO development of confidence thlng. A. 8.re correctly feared (the man of courage. this appears to be the likely beginning of this chapter.8 . Despite the difference found in the texts. death. . He remarks th. evils.nd then mentions some of these evils: disgrace. C£ 78a 31 : I.&' See LS. It is clearly accepted as such by Dufour. with division and definition of. Discussion of confidence: 83a 13 .83a 12 development of fear things which cawe fear: objective aspeet (a) 830>1. confidence 2.8. Kassel. attitudco~ ocmlidcnt people: subjective aspect III . At EN IlIsa sif. Baa 20-27 transition with division. sickness. Roemer.tav """oG. i<1TOJ alj. 3: "from wkt follows.ve the triple division (78. aod persons whichin general occuion (a) 8l' I9-'S (b) 8la.t some define it as "!!ouao. poverty. 23-25) but see 79b 36. Discussion of fear: 82a 20 - 83a 12.. it appears. Tovar. Spengel begin the chapter. at • 21. of fearful people: subjective aspect II .CHAPTERS I . Roo. 83a I3-I9 transIlton to. in speaking of courage as the mean between fear and confidence (see also II07" 33).gain we h.. but not all. 3S8d. . 27 . Cope.83 b 10 I. as Plato in fact did in ProliJgora.. for ex- . 2 . attitude.mpesition. 83a 19 . considers fear in passing as he does also in EE 1228b 4If. Some.b 22-'7 (d) bb. . TO 'P0P-ed•.). The pain and the agitation experienced should be obvious since the reaction in the person is to something (a 22: "a'<OU <pOneT"'OO 11 A""'1eov) which seriously threatens the person.. voluntary action (I IIoa 41f. TOtauTa . not two separate possibilities. in such an instance.. 70a 2 (passim) and it is that which is capable of.a A~. A. discusses the meaning of th2t which is feared. Elsewhere in the EN in passing observations.a' Ta "o''Im. Gaisford..{a. II79b uff.. 1229a 33-3S) and quite similar to but more correctly psycho-physical in its expression than that found in Plato's Definitions 4Ise: <po{lo. something which is dva'l1BTt"~ TOU Cfiv.. C£ 823 28 s.. This is made rather clear at EE 1229b 10-12: "for as a matter of fact danger is spoken of only in such instances of fear when th2t which is capable of causing such destruction is near.. 'RHETORIC' II ample.sh 8-9.p..n. On asssessment. The meaning of this term obviously will be determined by the definition of fear itself and so we will look at those passages when we meet 'P0Psed at 82a 28. or in the Stoics as cited by Stobaeus (Elhica. but two closely connected specifications of fear as "a painful disturbance.14: "metus opinio impendentis mali.g.. necessarily seen as destructive.g. i\ . says at EE 12293 33-34: 'fJOPSea Aiy . 4 <p"".) which causes the fear. EE 12290. •• d...• "0''1T".. ..g." Though the evil is in the future.). A.. II3Sb ~.40..JUTW). "aTa...[." The word <p0aeTl"oii was met at A II. an. of the relation of fear to human action. takes note of fear as an emotion and part of the definition of shame (II28b nff.i".S ••• AU1nJpoii "impending (coming) destructive or painful evil.0. The adjectives qualifying evil are also important.!. In passages closely connected to EN IIIsa sf£. 3 >. the definition of fear in the Rhetoric is rather satisfying. or Cicero's Tusc. 82a 24-2S..g.a <pdpov. e. quod intolerabile esse videatur.f. destroy (5gb 32 : I). IIIsa 7-9. It is not simply the proximity of the evil but its substantial threat to the person (e. For most people their own ignorance is not ""Rerienced as . 823 23-24: /Jaa . 4. . 903b 12: <po{lo.aTa. 6sob 27. 692a 23 (see also Rite/oric 89b 33: <po{lo. It is more specific than what we find in the EN or EE (e. '""A'I'" 'PVxii' i"l """00 "eoudo.). tends to. <pOaeT"'ii'. fears correctly. Cpo 82a 10-12: if evil can be present a 22-23 eN yckp •. and if it is understood at all as evil by the individual. it is not.. e. "'s a 22 I'ro""." It is more complete than what is found in De port.7. EE l229a 4-6)... " dro.X>\ Kassel alone reads "at for II with some justification. see..• ~p.. or in Prob!.. II 172). or again to action objectively good but placed under the constraint of fear (uI6a 3IJf. The same two classifying nouns are found again at 86b 23-24. They express..S See . and EE 1228b ~.." as A.&Us without pain it does not cause painful disturbance. still its character is such that it appears imminent.88 ARISTOTLE.".. II21b 28ff..ae Tt. ed... g.) or greatly painful (.. A.Tl{ov.~] as to be likely [WUTe .. seems to bear in mind. In the attempt to make the nature of the emotion clear and distinct..."eov closer in its connotation to "a"o." a 26 cpoj3oGv..\. cpo EE 12290 39-40. o~d •• q>eo. a 23-24 . The absolutely fearful is that which is so to the majority of men or to man as man.ey". and must be potentially destructive ('POslee . p... as A. l""''1eo.' . AUT! OavaTo>.~ here is used of the mind and is opposed to dl'xl. The force of the middle is present in the word. and Cope. on which see 62b 24 : 4 (misprinted as 24 : 2) and Plato... Intelligent fear is a valuable emotion and its teleology is clear: the protection of the individual. the elause is causal. is used in a different construction at A 3..COMMENTARY something painful. it would seem. even the a 24 x ... a 27 : 1 3.o. see 68a 5 : 2.". the coward is the one who fears what he ought not and when he ought not and as he ought not to fear" (see also I229b 23-25).. 947). It is the evil described here which constitutes the 'PopB(!a of which he will shordy speak.a~ (see also 82a 30) which draws "axov 1v. To be noted here is the addition of . his comment at EE IUla 17-19 (see also EN lIISb 34 . says. 59. nor does even the unusual person of necessity experience his injustice to another as painful or destructive to hUnsel£ Pead'.. a 28 <poj3Epci These are determined by the definition itself.<11. although it is not his immediate concern.... PhaeJr. 2390. is an object of fear.... nor when he ought.ueydl'1'). ... Roemer's text misprints u'P0dea. nor as he ought to fear.. iI... S8b 37..III6a 9): "the confident man is the one who does not fear what he ought. Again we come back to the kind of evil which is the object of fear. This specification of TO 'i'OPeeo. In the EE (1228b 10-35) we are told that we must distinguish between that which is absolutely and that which is relatively fearful.. and those which... Such relatively "fearful" things are clearly not the concern of the .a..l . while not beyond human strength. see outline to chapter.. In other words. e.].i~ 1v. 'POaeT'''o..&l'dla~ to l'. SUv.. fall both those fearful things which EN IIIsb 7-IS calls fearful to all men as things beyond human strength..".n.. "and that too" (S.... evils just described become objects of fear only when "so near [aV. his first division. for further examples. Among these. should be kept in mind for it illuminates A:s discussion of the fearful in the EE and EN.. are fearful to many. lyyO~ sc. "fear for themselves". Not every "axo. z d &>\ We begin here a brief analysis of the things which cause fear.... On the interpretation of dwaTa. The relatively fearful is that which is fearful to some individual but in itself is not fearful or ouly slighdy so. 82a 28/f.... . dd". Ross reads povA.dll .oIBi•• . bad..ov"'"0. Whenever that appears to be on hand. In the light of dvva"bw.. 'PO~EPOv This should be expected from the way A. A. de . . power"..".ovoUall~ a 30 12 : 2 and cpo A s.eii~ ".•• 1<A'Iaollap. It is clear from the definition of anger (78a 3I-B).6~ This is expressed in a more understandable way at EE I229b Io-I2: "For. 39S-97.v) is near.. Spenge!. and it denotes something harmful. ·RHETORIC· II 82a 34 analysis here in the Rhetoric. The nature of their fearfulness and of all truly fearful things is made clearer at EE (1229a 32 .8ea . in fact.la . The TI here is euphemistic. on the word in general see 60b 16 : 2.oil".... see 57b I : 2... Kassel's reading of "ai). says here) will to do harm (PovAo.. 39D-93. danger is spoken of only in such instances of feared objects when that capable of causing such harm [TO Tii~ T.. TB [sic) "al dVva. "'.eii~ "...vaa (a 34). the sign denotes the closeness of TO 'P. and so danger. which is the signate." The signs (82a 30) indicate the proximity of TO Tii~ ¢. TI (a 33). danger appears to be present. The enraged dog set to leap is a sign of an attack coming momentarily. a'lp..vaa (a 3S). punctuating with a comma and not a period at the end of the parenthesis.''1T'''. As he says in the following clause. a 34 ~oUl. ". has analyzed sign..•. then the actual doing of it is lyyV~ TOU ". see ?lib 60b 9. In the EN (IlIsa Io-n) some fearful things are mentioned.a. from a good tradition.1:1/". .'jjaa. 2 .<a.. c£ LS..8Ia I).. "substantial capacity. see S. 'Popo~ .. and then only when they are near at hand and of such a magnitude (whether real or apparent) that the majority of men respond to them with fear.OVO>V For the omission of the article..VTa. a 29 EI~ .IBiv. Cope.. (b 2-3). Given such conditions: the power and the will to do serious harm.''1T'''''''.... the sign is fearful as the signate (the attack itself) is.ARISTOTLE. .. c.. •. of which we are given a Ii.'aVT'f/~ 'P8. 384. OElV '<0' is the punctuation of four edd. (a 33) I see no point in the addition and would read with the edd. Cope. . a 30-32 a 32 : I ". 2 "'O'IIU'<II sc. diiAov . in parentheses. 82a 8 with 80b 3S . II]2: "the hostility and wrath of those able to. Spenge!.). Ross omits the colon and includes a 33-34..<.Ta. l". 1NV.. .. C£ 82a 23-2<\. on t1VVT.. opy>\ &uv1lP.II·3· is the reading of four edd. lx. that such people (as A.. and of hatred whose definition is the opposite (82a 1-2) of friendliness (cp...era.t: l.1230a 33) where we learn (as we do in the Rhetoric) that they can be called fearful only if they cause disturbance and pain (and so c£ 82a 21 : 3.'JV C£ 82a 28.iv. 56val'-ov ••• fl-£YcV.) .o .P8(}ov. a B : 1 lJt8pII. . Spengel. Ross. vii'. Kassel. ••. e. 240. and the reason is explained in part atA 13. p. 2 Ev "oxpoxcncEUn Since they fear.s.). 13I2b 29-32. cf. Since the power (a.8:>."JrE. 67a 19-22 is the basic principle of natural ethics on which this statement rests..etaliate is present (cf.ijI . 77b 30 . they are always ready to strike first (ds! TTJeovlI. Ibb 1 : 1 4PE-ri! {.elves.aTa. 74a II-IS.). 74" II-I:>': brae Tfi neoa'eellet 1/ I'0X9TJe1a "al TO ad". Cope is. "a.. states this in the next clause (dijAo • ••.~p. vii. Iba 34. see outline. The rpo{Jee&' b 2-3 <p6~o~"""" &""III'ivwv is this personal fear on the part of those with power to harm: "and the fear of those able to do harm. Dufour. Speaking of injustice at AID. emphasizes the idea that it is action which is deliberately willed. The genitive. {JAav>n. Somewhat to the point is Cicero. ne. a&lXO~ The articular infinitive (Uby his own choosing") states the idea of willing. 68b 6--14.. For. the actualization. De off..IS : 3.. cum is.!!. Pol. the comma is not. . and A. 82a 34). dd"." rae We now take up the persons who cause fear. 1..g.. omitting any punctuation before the parenthesis and placing a comma after it (see 82a 33 : 2). and so experience danger and are in readiness to protect thern. J{Je" is a powerful stimulant of anger. as he does in the next clause. that the will to do so is on hand. A 9. What makes the tmjust man unjust is the deliberate will to act unjustly.." subjective.82b 4 is not as helpful as that of the edd.. Spongel. in the context. qui nocere alteri cogitat.78a 6). b 1-2). 2 . cpo EN TI36a I: a. A 13. the two conditions (the power and the will) are present. He returns to the idea in more detail at p.h 4 91 COMMENTARY a 3S : 1 qouaox' 111e colon of Tovar. states here that the power to do harm is present but he must show. remarks that the transition to this next division is marked by this phrase. ipse aliquo afficiatur incommodo. Wv Ross alone includes this in parenthes. quae nocendi causa de industria... the will to . A 13. 226. 2 &ijAov. Cope.. inferuntur.g. they expect serious harm to be threatening. The parenthesis is acceptable." See 82a 33 : 2. (see also 7"" II : 2).I. saepe a metu proficiscuntur. Since the emotions can aH'ect one's judgment (e..al'w lxovlla) is also on hand.Ol'Ev"IJ As we saw at 78b 14 . a. see.. A. His punctuation of 82a 33 . b 3 : 1 T' "o.eell8(. where we have the obsetvation that deliberate intent (to punish) is always present when one is subjected to lJ{Je'" Added to this deliberate intent we now have the capability to act: atl. Obviously if anger is present. timet. &' Spengel. d' ~" neoar.. clearly more reasonable than the period used by Roemer. A.. b 4 : 1 . 73 b :>'1-36. like those who think they are being wronged (82b 10). is near at hand. such persons are themselves a danger to those they fear.. see 8?a 16 : 1. nisi id fecerit.ijaox.7. and so their consequence.24: "Atque illae quidem iniuriae. . Plutus 362-363.. for a further explanation of the word. Ross. b 7 lyx.1... 'RHETORIC' II a Xdpou~ xed i\'M'OU~ "are quite bad and slaves to ["'aa. Symp.... "oAv C£ b S-6 <poj3~po" . b 9 cililXoucr. he tells us that the common view of both ordinary men and cultivated men (with which he agrees) is that happiness is the goal of man and that it consists in ro . three edd. It is Plautus' "lupu.). <p0Psed. &. aV. on 34 : 3. &Uvt. On "to be in the power of.. b6: 6. Kassd.) given as an example: "so that the accomplices [LS. B. or in the EN... (iuTI).€iv This is a result to b 4-6 (.e.oc6a. Cope refers to his comments on pp. 1098b 20-22).g. dve.•• &Uvt.. quam qualis sit non novit" (AJinaria 49S). II] of one who has done wrong are regarded (by him) with fear as likely [LS... "ace0rqet.. a more pejorative repetition of 82b 4-5.. the articular infinitive is subject of the understood 6""t.. Cope read: """0'71"0'" rc also from a good cod... 72b 27 . non homo. b 10 T"/IpoUcr. particularly A 9-14. the phrase is used an unusual number of times in A S'7ll II.'s thinking in the first book.. "al ro eJ "ean .." b eo'. appears to be a less vivid expression. the fear of tetaliation from their victims makes such wrongdoers.ca 33. 1 .z) either to denounce him or leave him in the lurch." see s." For the general idea Victorius suggests Aristophanes.J ....... and possibly more correct usage.• <pOj3EPDv i. On "ace" see 6Sa 20 : 1. "for one to be in the power of another".e.73a 4- By itsdf and unqualified this is a strange statement.. Spengd. see also Lysias. J. & we . Cpo A I2.. X"'pDv i..>vT.. objects of fear... On the Murder of Eratosthenes 44-4S. II] their own advantage.. est homo hornini... It is somewhat similar to the realistic acceptance of man found at EN I095b 19-22. This infinitive along with "anme" is dependent upon cpoPseoL b 8-9 x . and its pessimism is not typical of A..cru •. I79a. What we seem to have here is a rather blunt and also somewhat overstated acceptance of the fact of moral weakness in men. LS. elva.. In the early pages of the EN (I09sa 111--20..l ot ....CIIA"••iy See 8Ib 27. & a general statement its intent is unciear.a. b 12 &E5. 1337b 41 we find "a'eOcpoM"••• which. if they have power...y .. . cb.92 ARISTOTLB. b 6 "'0 ....CIIA.6"'E~ •. well ..>vT. BE.. at Pol. and Plato..• "oAu sc.I... "they watch CllTefully for the opportunity". <pop..• ly"".. . aT~ sc.'VDv is the reading of a good cod.. LS. a "E"0'"IIx6. 47-48.. from its usage (cp.. 6-JT .£1 6' ••• sl. where such a view of human nature could more readily sUIface..... b II <poj3Epol as at I12b 6-JT. ..v~lISMC~ so... they have the power to do serious harm. Tacitus.ou~ "aL .Tal 01 "esITTov.. this topic does not differ significandy from the preceding b r 5-r6. men always treat such a rival as an enemy.i7 TI) such wrongdoers are also regarded with fear (ipo(Jseof). the "at is adverbial and intensive.. aprpoi7. i. i. see. This dass realizes what is potenThe middle voice gives the verb its particular meaning here (tS. illustrates A.xo( tives are partitive.e.) or their own part is not stated. 63b 35-]7.. 3a. xpd.r. !po(J'eot.g. 1306.Ial..." el Ha! ••• .. (oil. and c£ 63b 36-37b 18 : 1 .th. rtmj .. . In one respect there is no difference since in both instances those who are an object of fear to those' more powerful than we are are fearful to us. rpo(Jeeo. .. presented at 8.. one for whom they intend painful harm (82a 22). Euripides..COMMENTARY 93 see at 8. . C£ 68b 20 : 2.o..0. Agricol. . for example. belong among the ipo(Jeed is the reason for his statement of explanation.. Demosthe- nos in 01. b 19-20 x .a. and so in the light of 82a 32-33 (Tola6Ta .. .cillo>! "all the more could they harm them.. cpo 79" 17: sVnaeOep1lTOI.. !po(Jov.. i.t: "for a rae .. the critical element is contained in lipa.... . 1<T. 2 lft.e.• lxovaa) and 82b 2-3 ("al ipo(Jo... b r4 m>A£!'wa. so.... b r2: .."".IILz): "to attack.l """" .In'''.. takes care to point out..6 As commonly noted. 1312. 61l.." b 19 ~ .:.• "0 .. sc. rae b 16-17 x . they are actually feared and so they are !po(J'eo~ but whether the fear is right or wrong either on the part of the "eBiTTOV.. 3-"5-28...:CIPPlIa. tpa(Joeol . .~ tial in 82b I5-r6. A distinction which possibly could be made between the two is that the first class is objectively fearful as A....nplIx6.. it is a truism that men hate those whom they have injured (see.'s point here.l ot . and therefore these men are tpa(Jseoi• b 15-16 x . la07Ta.ITO [on meaning: 69b 33 : 1] . ". the second dass is subjectively fearful.. "rivals [c£ 83a 22] for all those things which ." Furthennore.Si!. e. such people are among the ipo(Jeed which A.za 27 .ro (J). 76a 6. • •• nodi"al).a ..'1l6v!. B.za 34-35 ("a! d61"ia . For " similar repetition cpo A 7.e.: "for such was assumed to be what constitutes the fearful. rpo(Jseot: "who are asouree of fear in the context is practito men more powerful than they...4: "proprium humani ingenii est odis..EVO' C£ A IS.b 4The fact that sud.. 42." piUA07 cally the equivalent of ITl !. Med•• 319-320.l cril~ . b r3 'riiiv IIV.e quem laeseris")... see S. The geni- b 20 6~u9u!. dl"a. .. while the participle (c!I'aeTdvova .' .rieOo"".. 448d 8ff.ony: one who dissembles.) is an indirect object to the main verb in the clause: "all fCared things which men have bungled and cannot correct are more fearfuL" b 24 t. F .. just as a man of the same sort. (on verb..aders: I.. we never feel that the danger from them is remote" (Cooper.. Spengd. makes a useful distinction between i"a. l~ This appears to be a return to 82a 27ff. Their general disposition is one of mildness. Certainly the statements can and must apply to persons or things. or not in their power but in that of their enctnies..).!"a1 statement on' what.2.12.. the meaning here. Here we are speaking.. ienl .. the questions to be answered are: What is Wl1jAO.. the edd. is easier to guard against than a quiet.. In form the construction is called the personal constrUction (S. 2584). Cope. the things which cause fear. see 63a 21r-24- . but c£ also Boa 3<>-31 sf. Sophocles. on what A." b 21 : I "'pCiOL See 80a 6 : 1. is speaking formally of the person before whom shame is fdt. b 21-22 ii&~OL ••• "oPP'" Ordinarily interpreted somewhat freely as "since we never know whether they <Ire upon us.1.". p.iv tipaeTo>a. 'RRBl'ORIC' II 82b 25 quick-tempered woman. but if they are ~ured or become an enemy or rival. with the result that it is never unmistakable that they are a remote threat (that they are far from acting)...gi . 63.a (help for an impending evil). cpo 83a 20.. Plato. Schrader. means by ecjd". 2.....94 AlUSTOTLB. is an objective genitive... it is more correctly taken as a gen.a~O\IcrLv This is the reading of cod. However...d.. they may pose a threat of serious harm..... b 23 11_ oi:. See Xenophon. For an understanding of the statement.g. (correction of an evil done) and po7/8. 253.. clever person. CyropaiJd.€~ C£ 79b 31.. is more specifically that found in Theophrastus' Ch. twi C£ 8zb 6. Cope reads with cod.." b 21r-27 "u~. Thus I would interpret: "for with this type it is unclear whether they are an immediate threat (if they are on the verge of acting).? What is 'I'd'Be""? To both the response comes from the context and is: the threat from this class of "impending destrUctive or painful evil" (82a 22). A.p.. be it a thing or a person. The corrdative pronoun is object of rnapoe8waaa8a. it would seem.... The repeated dU is peculiar: "at least either totally impossible to correct.. of those with the lE'" "eadT1j'.• .. makes anything more fCarful. see 7Ib 3)." b 25 Wv ••• /It&LaI . the Roberts translation is similar). meekness. Z dp"". p. for dl"a. however... Co. iI. Antigone 400 (e... There is a clearer e"ample of this intermingling of persons and things at 84b 17-22 where A.. pace Sponge!. in taking up the things which cause confidence A. 'v.! 11 "'aea%'!. since it would seem clear that "aVTa dA . b 30 . Therefore..0000: for someone like ourselves. things and persons feared. p.e. 2 "XES"" "more or less... d"dv See ssa 95 7: . II cpolioilv. iI.. SC." On "eol1do"ta cf. I do not see why both neuters rpofJ.. Although A. See.. i.a. mlOO~ An articular infinitive. b 30-3 I . are mentioned in the section on confidence. the Td .I. has covered in the precediug section both "oi"a and T. This is quite possible. i..g. it is in itself a all". that the things we pity in others are fearful. see also Slia 13. 7')a 37 : I..""perience confidence. will di. we see his misfortune. see 82b 4-22.. "'1. he brings fear and pity together in Poetics I453a 2-7.. see LS.namely.Tao. xoa~." Tlm use by way of summation is fairly common. b 26-27 cpOliEplt .voo. would argue that it is the fact.83b 10) there is no formal presentation of the persons in whom men e.2. Cope's comment. as it stands.~ COMMENTAlIY .'v Cpo 860 28-29...ea. p.v to the individual. 60b 17.. on the statement . with regard to). However... If the evil is (as it is described in the definition of fear) rp8ae"""..11 rpO(JBed (82b 22) refers to both persons and things.w. e. see 79b 36...'11' hie. as possible for ourselves.va~ rpo(JoVvTao (820 20). is true: namely.82b 27.82b 30 b 26 c:. 82a 21 : 2....1 ••• Blatv) and its omission of Tlva~ rpo(Jov. 64..... ytyvea8ah b 28 : I .is not correct. There is little point in going beyond that since he tells us in the chapter itself what kind of thing such a rpOfJBeOv is in his mind.. A 2. 227.oil •.. "'0' . it is untrue . and on the fact that in the section on confidence (83a IS . and so fear for A.~ Read by all the edd. 8Sb 13 : 1. and so fearful. (b 28) cannot refer to the general thought in the antecedent passage '82a 27 . Tl. What happens in the passage Oll confidence is the vety same thing which Spengel admitted as possible in B 2.It flEv oW . ' A transitional sentence to the next division: "cii~ do"". Cope: "accompanied by a certain expectation.. Furthermore. see 83a 21. There it becomes somewhat clear why this statement in the ruetori. particularly in view of the fact that persons. cf.russ pity in B 8. governed by ><e0ad.e.v (in the case of others.. He bases his argument on the next statement of summation at 83a 13-16 (i".. On .. For we learn that we experience fear "eel Td7 6. see also 86a 28-29.. does in fact consider in passing the persons in whom men are confident: Tiva~ 8aeeovl1o. . it is not found in Spongel. and Spenge!. he seemingly refers here in Til rpo(Jeed and cI only to noi"a. However. . 560 35 and 5... that. A. 8aeeovao.a.. as he does here." "approximately. A. . See 78b 10-IS. 1824 with c). which is not the case here.. rash.$" noAvrplAla. tngether with the qualities at 83a 3 (nAoiiTo" laz. tIris verb is understnod with TOTS (b 33). • or~"II' _8Ei~ is the reading of three edd.. oio'Ta. along with TOUTOV. Richards (p.: "who think.)d81" it governs the following in£nitive with Ii.." Although Spengd.." 83a I : 1 E6'NXIIl'~ See 6Ib 39 . b 33 . This.1 2 &Alywpo... 31 -33.. Vrp' W. read II.. citing 9837 (where Roemer and the edd. as well as the explanation that the characteristic of the insolent and the contemptuous is a senSe of superiority tn the common run of men (78b 27-3 I).v with cod. However. must pose a proximate.. Cope.. 'RHllTORIC' II b 31-)2.. i. 6Ib 39 : 1.. tngether with 78b IS .ciAa". I08) would delete naB....6. and Cope enclose a 2..... dv. n 3 6ui The explanation of what constitutes the confident person (83a I6H:). For such men are among the dO"OV.1. 227. Bonitz notes (Index.370 7Sa 32.-3 (no ••.al"')' are all parts of .0 . justify the inference that the people just mentioned are insolent. l'.~ 6 . (b 31). &Uvlll"~ Ross alone encloses tIris in parentheses.0.ARISTOTLE. and at the time when they think it Iikdy..... a 2: 1 613p . .c. that whiclt they would suJfer.r. and Ross conjectures 11.79b . ferri potest ex superioribu••ubaudita particula ii•.i..•. 78b 14 . and possibly dv. the other edd. with it. b 34-35 livciyx'IJ . (b 33) the object of rpop. 820 24-2S.. before it.xla."da'l'ovla (60b 19-23) whose explanation substantiates the present observation.. . 3 &OXoUV"'E~ sc. occasionally missing with the potential optative.. Dufour secludes it as does Bywater ("Aristntdia II. 'tiiW olo!J. stating a future possibility (S.. velll "alOn... they are. 41 b 4f£) that Ii. as we find the clause at 82b 33. Spengd reads naB.. a 1-3 6. serious threat.Ev"'~ Partitive genitive with 0. ...IS : 3. . This is simply a positive statement of 82b b 35 .•.i. A brachylogy for TOO. does not comment on tIris phrase...al"')." Certainly it is tn be understnod in our text. p.. contemptuous.." 42).u. The rpoPse&. as we have seen at 82a 31-32.TS. b 32 : 1 . F). 83a II: "fear both those at whose hands they think that they would suJfer as weIIa. or read 11.iTa. awoi. See 78b 23-3 I.. but questions its presence.. and tIris is to the point of our text: "fort. he speaks tn the difIicuIty at 83a 12: "Aegre desiderarnus quod post Hal TaiiTa hie deest: 4 00" tjlO'TO. naB. at 983 7 Roemer says. etln.n.620 12. Spengd does not use parentheses. .. of the omitted Ii. as well as 8sa I : 1. uses the same root word to Mute fear in its physical aspect. 3."'OL liS.a." Cope suggests that the TVl"'avO. liv from 82b 35.EvOL "have grown cold and indifferent to... c!yw"uTooIv. however. From this simile and the metaphor (c!nBVNl'l'bo. 6S-66.. 90ll 3I.. was a block on which the person was stretched and then beaten. a 3-4 olin .ntified with the Romm military punishment fostuarium which does mean fuste 1Iecare.i~ $C. on 116" see S4b 7... 97 "aBB'. a 3 : 1 nAoU"'O~ See A S. or it may refer to the power of position in society as we find the word used at." and id. In LS the word is said to mean "crucify on a plank. 90b 32 .. or the cudgels with which those being punished were struck. p.. In the light of the evidence at their disposal· they describe it as a method in which the victim was &Stened to a plank and gradually strangled by the tightening of a collar fixed around his neck. 6920 23. 60b 27.." Cope. . not the active response of which Schrader.owp.. "aB.. overbold) cf.. De part. a frenzied activity doomed to failure which despair can also cause. but the word can also mean a form of punishment. 6Ia 12. see.a in Aristophanes' Plutus 476 is of litde help: "the wood on which ""pto. e..). pp. enter into the formation of character is discussed at B IS-I7. o~" olo . COMMENTAIIY I 3S0). As for c!nonJptavLC.--24 and notes. sometimes to death.. p. 66.. On the Embassy 137 where it has been interpreted as "to cudgel to death. with cudgels..(Cl See 61 b 3S-3 B.61. on the force of c!nd in composition with certain verbs. e. on Beat1B.. (rash.).COMMBNTAIIY J 8pClCJ.. the objective of the speaker (or writer) would be to ...Lvli "nor those who consider that they have already experienced every kind of disaster.. audacious.. A.. Cope. since rhetoric is directed to rational action and the intdligent use of emotional response (see 83a B-9: &laTe ... J . II 279-B3." a 4 m.! "like those actually being done to death". and 62b IB : z.a.g. How such accidental things as ".. In either case. S.. an. cf. we meet it again at Bsa 10. one of the goods of the body which is called more specifically at 60b 22 dv." This is the inertia of despair as the simile (&lanse .:aJ!UYP. a S) would indicate. Bonner & Smith.9ra 19."vL~6p..L~ This may simply be physical strength and power. A.. B 13.. phil. on which see 60b 20-29." The explanation from the scholiast on a. is apparendy speaking of the passive response of inactivity in those who despair.. We find it in Demosthenes.. says that it means "beating. speaks: namdy.O>'"". a S c!. 2S4. call it a form of capital punishment.g.••Co• . TVl"'a. z taxu~ See 6Ib Is-rB. B9b 3]. 4 IiUvClP.OiiTO" etc. " (5.:£1/p. preferable")... interprets differendy." See 57& 2 : 1. A: TOU. d e•• 'Polio.).e. I would construe a II.II "al ." Bottin.'o... understood from 83a 8. 2577). F and opparendy the reading which the scholiast and the author of the Vetus Translatio had before them. Epp.iv IIT< = "namely that . an ordinary and representative d. a 5-<S cii. Spenge! reads it but suggests: xa& Tavt'a Ii Hai 8T8. a 9 : 1 .0. understands 8po.. while in a different context. Else. III a 9-10 "lit yckp ••• &1I8ov Ross alone includes this within parentheses without any punctuation before and a comma afte!...» 6.7.v On the meaning of the verb here ("anxiously contend"). and have suffered the sort of things they did not expect and at a time they did not expect it.. TO'OVTOV.. POUAEII"'ucoU~ POUA.." a 6 a'lfJ.£iov 5t a7:1 3 See . read with cod.ueru.. See S!lb 32 : I. This is the reading of four edd..lIpO . on oEo... pp. as: a fellow-man.• "men inclined to ddiberate. With our reading and with the interpretation suggested at 82b 35 in mind.eel TO..ARISTOTLE.e. . Spenge! and the other edd.... Moral.. Ross reads: HaL TavTa <a> Hai TOTt... 'RHETORIC' II 98 introduce when possible. si sperate de- sieris... see 82b 26-27. 393..• lI1koU~ articular infinitive subject of 11 liiAno.. 83a 32. The comment of Seneca.0..IIU. the grounds for hope and so for intelligent fear and deliberation. olo.. 461." z "IIPllcncEllci~E'V See 60b II and 80b 31. cpo 6"]0..ii">a. a 10 "'oU~ o""lou~ 5. with the infinitive ('Just the sort able to suffer") c£ LS. d. 373.. ("is better... In the light of the Poetics '453a s. human being. 6op' . r. a II "lit 6.. 28-30.: "no one ddiberates about that which cannot be other than it is..12: " ••• and have suffered at the hands of those from whom they did not expect it..0<. It is also the reading of Cope and Kasse!. Our reading ("men like them") is that of cod. in such instances.11 .... z 3.. a 8 : 1 beA"{"""'" See EN II390 I3ff.. ". a 12 "lit . one like us. 5. In the Poetics.ck ••• <i:y"".] ..• Cope. pp.HvVva...rov "(and that they are sulfering or have sulfered) at the hands of men such as they did not expect to suffer from.. the reading ofF appears preferable. i.11 .uc""«' The infinitive is governed by de. IS.. is to the point: "Desines timere. a. with the following difference: Spenge! encloses the supplement which comes from 1536 Venetian edition ofTrincavelus within parentheses. 227-28: "apte quidem sed non necessario sunt addita.. 6edlaa...c..eii"w by "... without the lacuna which is marked after . but see 83a 21. Ibb 28 : 1.. Kassel. if .. .. .a.<17:at (83a 22) with d.. o-I~ See 78b 8-9. ('CrT. ~> a 18 'P0ll'pc.u. cb. auctori enim nostro si Me. (83a 21) with .v. po7j8 . the three subjects just mentioned: the nature of the emotion. "'. pp. d".>..... may.... so confidence is a certain kind of hoping. conjectnres 'PoPseii>. These are paraIle!ed in what follows. Spenge!. Ross alone of the edd.oe8wa••~ (83a 20) with lnav08waaaBa. 'Popov by TO 8aee. (82b 20).. e..61. puts it even more snecincdy: "the things which inspire fear and those which inspire confidence are admitted to be future goods and future evils. a 16 : 1 a"pp .· . on the grounds that Tl. Ibb 28 : 1...oov -nj» is the reading of the edd. it does not appear necessary.g..06""" i.g.) . (8zb 25). on meaning cf.lalv by the other edd.. As A.. See Ibb 28 : 1 where the parallelism in both passages refleers the subject matter. ea.eed." 2 'P""'POv sc.6..a. Kasse! encloses the first and excludes the last T.. Ross.et.I e<17:•• is repeated at a 14-15..o.. 8.I> a.."'1piv.".. e.83a 18 COMMliNTARY 99 a 13 : 1 'PII"'POv sc.. by ncO.... ... I bdieve.6.a~ 8aee06a..1 . 28£ 3 .oppm IN""" This definition of confidence closely parallels that of fear (820 21-22): "(confidence is) hope accompanied by the image of that which brings freedom from danger as being near." a 17 'P. < ...... While I accept the supplement I am inclined to agree with Spengel... 70a 29-35.0-1 "and the disposition of each and everyone who experiences fear.. a 14 : 1 " ..e. the things which cawe it.. tells us at A II. includes both the things which cause confidence (83a 19-21) and the persons who inspire confidence (83a 21-25).6""1pivo.." Just as fear is a certain kind of 1."." 'P0Il'pCiw sc.p. opponitur TO 'PoP-eo.. Cpo EE 1228. The construction 'Pa. etc." a 17-19 !£E-ni: . in the Lathes I99b. is not discussed. Cope read correctly.pp.."001 do-I......1 .. (83a 20) with po7j8••a." l\ with Richards.. We begin here the section on confidence. 2 -nj> <'Poll'!' . how it is experienced. e<17:••.alv. ei.v (82b 19).. a 'Panaata n~ always accompanies hope and hope looks to the future. Spenge!. Plato.. and of that which cawes fear as being non-existent or remote. 'POP. (82b 23).. sofficit.)"'1 11 TaeaX'!.. 2 . a 15 7<oi.. . a On TO O"1J/MPieop see 62a I7-aI and A 6.iCl i.iJ lxwcr. as well as tho. The apodosis to the protases of the general condition (av ibu. Suvap. See 68a 14..... those whose interesl5 agree with theirs are more numerous or more powerful or both than those who can block or interfere with their good. j3o>'l8€LCI' See 82b a2-a5. Ibb 22-a7." a 1~2O 7tOpp. eNTol Dufuur alone assumes a lacuna here after i1p'POJ for the same reason as that given at 838 16 : 1. of two edd." i. Ross retains the "at but reads Ta uw.. a 22.83 b 10. Cpo 82b 10-12.e who have treated them well.. a 23) is an understood 8aeeeAlo.. These are the people who have not done them harm.100 ARISTOTLE. a 20.P€. "dee'" = the remoteness of..~ lxOVT€~ "those are confident who are so disposed. if their arritude is (Or_Ta.. a a3 : 1 2 p.uspect. "that which inspires confidence.. a 25 : 1 au . or are rivals without power. 83a 15. .. lx"'uw. Spengel was slightly disturbed t1lat the matter to be explained was in the explanation.... 24-25 M€(OU~ ••• xp£(TTOU~ i..l U eClppcz). as it i... II. I see no reason = the proximnot to read with the codd..e.0.ivo.) "that they Iiave not experienced many reverses.. p. a 20 l7t""op8':'cr. Cpo 82b I3-14.~ . and those to whom they llave shown kindness (a 24).0' They fed confident with such fur the reasons given at 80b lSi£.g. Cope.. ity: "that which inspires confidence is the remoteness of what i.je. 83a I6 : 1).e.. a 27 7t£7tov8iva.. slul. fur "al Ta 8aeeaAla he reads ij Ta uarnie. They together with those who are not their rivals (a 22).... ro8." . (see Ibb 28 : 1. also in the following sentence. as he will set forth in 83a 26 ..a lyyV~.'" Cpo 8ab 15-19. ibuw.. IlvTCl x . Thus Dufour adopl5 a reading from the margin of cod. ". Kassd reads 8aeeaUa a.. dreadful and the proximity of what gives courage. a 2I -IJS. 'RHJ!l'ORIC' II a 19 8Clppcz)..." s""v. and 8ab 8-ro... or who have power but are friends (a 23).e. Spengd..x'lp.ialyyd~ is the reading of most of the codd..~ 8aeeoiiu. 2 a 26 XClTOp8wxiv .-.a. and those whose interesl5 are the same as their own (a 24-5) .. C: e. ibu. a 24-25: ij <Iv • • • i1fJ<pa>..all represent the presumably missing TlP. see also Richards... 3 cril.. 101 COMMENTARY a 28 : 1 x ..1 &'''''ECp£uy6...~ Aeneas. Am. 1.198-207. attempts to rekindle the confidence in his men (rf1lOcate .flimos) with a quick survey of the serious dangers from which they had escaped. 2 .m..eEi~ "free from fear"; literally: "free from emotion." However. A. is speaking about the disposition of men who are a;>nfident, and to be confident is to be without fear. since confidence is the opposite of fear (83a 16). While on this point. it is worth noting that A. is talking about being without fear. which is a quality he attributes to those who are 8aeeaUo, (83' 26). But 8deuo~. while it may be an aspect of dJo~e.la (c£ 8sb 30). is not dJobeBla (EN 1I07" 33 - II07b 4. EE 1220b 39). and consequently the texts concerned with dJode.ta introduced by the commentators in support or criticism of A.·s statement at 83a 28-32 (d'%<ii~ •• . lpnsl/lirnl) are not directly relevant; nor do they prove or disprove the validity of the Rhetoric statement. such texts are MM II90b 22-34. EN IIIS_ 3S - IIISb 4. They are concerned more directly with the problem Plato takes up in the L4ches• •t, e.g.• 191>-194, 196-199. As Nicias says (197b): ol"a, ..d lbpo(Jo. "al ..d d.de.... 0'; ..avTo.lun•. a 29" T<£'J<"piicre..., lxc." The arti~r "infinitives are causal. (JOr,8B<a' are the resources. the means, to cope WIth. a 31>-31 ot ...... XIII 01 "both - and." and so see 8]a 10. a 33 XIII.r.... sc. "al ...otSTO" m.. The difference between this group and the one immediately preceding is that the preceding group are actually our inferiors while this group are considered to be such. The grounds for sueh bdief are given in the following sentence. a 33-34: ol'o.Tal di ["e.l..... ...ou~ sl.a, To,)......1dip ..• ·.,,01.... a 34 ij 116........ . . • 61'0"",,, am<ii. = the people conquered; T<ii. xe........d..... the superiors of those overcome; ..<ii•• their equals. ".1_. a 3S : 1 td..Lc.J XIII ",lr,;", the "resources" in both quantity and qual- ity specified at b 1-3. 2 oi~ UT<EP<XOV"E~ "in which those who excel are objects of fear"; the dative is means; for the meaning of superiority found in ~"Bel%ov TB~ see A 7. 63 b 7-20 and 63b 8 : 1, 3, ,sb 28 : 1 and the observation in n. gen. an. 787" I, "the better resides in superiority." Our statement is general and does not refer to "their rivals," "their enemies," as found in some interpretations. 8]b 1 td.ije.~ XP'IJl'ci........ 83b 1-2 is somewhat reminiscent of the parts of wealth at A S. 61. 12-14. However, I am inclined to think that A. 102. ARISTOTLE, 'aHBTORIC ' II is simply oJfering some general instances (as at 83a 2.-3) which make men con£dent. They are broad categories and could be undetstood as either personal possessions or properties of the society in which the individual lives. as TW. ned, ",;;'B"O. "'aeaaH_ would suggest. b 2 Kcll t"Xu~ .....""....... This is the reading of the codd.. the edd. (except Kassel). Cope. Spengel. I would take ,.;.,,9o, "al lavl' as an hendiadys (cp. Thucyd. 3.74). governing all the genitives: "a powerful abundance of wealth. and supporters. and friends. and property. and the annaments, either all of them or the most important for war." Thorot ("Observations critiques [I]." 30S) suggested lax,), Hal ",MiBo,. taking laxv, alone, and together with ,dfi90, governing the genitives. His reason was that lavl' by itself means bodily strength (and from the use of the .word in the Rhetoric he would be correct). Kassel. Det Text. p. 134. secludes lavl,. calling it an interpolation introduced by a misundetstanding of a",,,aT"" in a militaty sense. b 4-5 -/j&'K'IKO".~ ..• <po(3oiiv.. c.. Cpo 82.b II-12. read by all the edd. is a conjecture suggested by b 5 .....p• .rw <p0(30Uv..CI. Spenge!. p. 22.8. and the scholiast who interprets: ",ae' w. CPO(Jov,uBSa dd""t' Sfi.a,. Cope reads with cod. F: TO'OVTO~' "'Bel w. cpo(Jomao, refening to his commentary, I 164~5, for the use of d,e preposition ""el (see also 66b 24 : 3). It seems to me that cod. F could be read here as far as the idea is concerned. There are as many b s~ KClI 31r.>~ liv '1:" "pO~ 8.o!l~ . . . Aoylwv readings. practically, for this phrase as there are edd. What I have accepted is the reading of cod. F (using Kassel's apparatus), of Spenge!, Cope. Kassel (but see below). Roemer, Dufour read with cod. A: d. "eo' TO'\, eBOV,. Tovar reads Ii. "eo' geov,. Ross reads with corrected cod. A: 4. Td "eck Tov,9..,v,. Kassel secludes b 5~ ("al ... ).oyl.,.) as an Aristotelian addition and conjectures < "al 8Ta. dd"'WVTa.> immediately before it. With our reading the interpretation would be: "And on the whole men are confident [sc. 9aeealio, slal., b 26] if their relations with the gods are good, their relations in general but particularly those dependent on signs and oracles"; on cflla see S. I2.73. This arguntent for inspiring confidence is rather prominent in Demosthenes' Olynthiacs and First Philippic - see 01. :0.2.2and Phil. 1.42, and Jaeger, Demosthe..es. pp. 130/£ and passim; Xenophon, CyropaeJeia 3.3.34; and Thucyd. 7.77-1-4: Nicias' attempt to give conJidence to his men at Syracuse. b 6 '"l"dwv KIll AOY[wV See Xenophon, CyropaeJeia I.6.2.; on "'1",l",. see "E'IJ""'o,," 383-84. 395-98; on ;'oyl.,., Euripides. Chiltlren of Hetacles 405· COMMENTARY 103 b 7 8uppcU.o\ov ycip Some of the difficulties experienced here might be removed if rde is taken. not as causal (as it frequently is here), which of course makes no sense, but a, adverbial and explanatory (S. 2.808; see 66a 2.S : 1), e.g., "anger, for example. inspires confidence." So I would interpret: "Anger, in filct, inspires confidence, and to be wronged without doing wrong causes anger; moreover the gods are assumed to hdp those who are wronged." The devdopment would seem to be that b 7-8 is a part of the topic introduced at b j-<l: e.g., b j-<l: men are confident if their relations with the gods are good; b 7"-8: tho,e unjustly wronged are angered with an anger which inspires confidence because they assume that the gods are with them. b !rIO 11-'18'" iiv ....eeLv 1I-'18~ ..dcreo-8... is the reading of all the codd., of three edd., Cope. Spengd read. it but is not happy with 1''16, ",elaeaBal, and Ross, Kassd seclude the words. which do not appear in the ,choliast. In the light of the evidence I would accept them, understanding the difference to be that d. 7<aO.,. 'ignifies that they are nol likely here and now to meet with disaster (S. 182.4, with c) and 1''16. ",s/asaBa., that they will certainly not meet it in the future. b 10 xCl'top8cbcrElV See 8]a 26. CHAPTER 6 I . Introduction. 83b 12-17 division and definition of shame and shamdessness II . Devdopment: 83b 17 - 8sa 13 I. 83b 17 - 84a 23 things which cause emotion of sIwne, i.e., nor. (83b I2.): shame viewed objectively, as also in II.. people who cause the feeling of sIwne, i.e., >q!opl...< (83 b I2.) the disposition, attitude, of those who ".;;< l;con« (83b 13): shame viewed subjectively in genenl in particular feel shame, i.e., (0) B4b 27 - Bs", (6) BS' I - BS' IJ III . Conclusion: 8sa 14-15 with passing mention ofshamdessness 83b 12-13 "DU. ... S~"" the general division (cp. 78a :>3-:>5); each division is formally developed in this chapter; cpo 79b 36. b 13 If""",, Sir ,d"ltUv-rJ On the definition see 78a 3I : 1; see also 843 :>4. An understanding of alaxVV7I and c!..aU7xv.....1a in A. must come primarily from the chapter before us. Before taking up alaxVV71 we should form some idea of its rdation, if any, to al6rb, in A.'. ethical writings, particularly since there is generally no discernible diJference between his use of aldrb, - al..xVV71 in the ethical works and in the detailed .bternent on al..xVv'l and its meaning which we meet here in the Rhe1oric. Although there appears to be no sharp and clear distinction between aldrb, and al"xtl.'I in the ethical works, Gauthier & JoIif say that EN n:>8b 10-35 "nous livre sur I' aid8s I.e dernier mot de Ia pensCc technique d' Aristore: I'aid8s y est avant tout pOut lui la honte et Ie repentir d'une £aute d' ortS et deja commise" (II.I 3:>1). If this is so, it is not precisdy the view of al..xVV71 met in the Rheto,ic where in a larger and more adequate manner al..xV." is described as: the distress experienced in regard to present, past, future evils which appear to bring dishonor. Let us glance at .devant passages iD the EN, EE, MM, but before doing so let us see what A. says about alhrb, as an "emotion" 106 AllISTOTLE, 'RHETORIC 7 II since al<Tx<!v'I is such in the ~toric. At EN noSa 31-32. A. remarks that aid." is not a virtue; at EE 12.2.0b 12.-13 he calls it one of the "d97J, formally denoting it to be such at 12210 13 (Tel ,..hI nd9'1 Ta.n:a). At EE 12.33b t6I2.34b 14 speaking of the ,..'<TOT'/TO' to which aid." belongs, he denominates such mean states na9'1T",at (I233b tS), and says of them (I234a 24-25): ov" £tal'" QesTat, ova' at evapTia, "axla&_ At I33¥ 32 (with which compare 0" the Virtues .nd Vices 1250b II-a) he notes that alb." contributes to <TOJ'Peo","V7J (which is one of the virtues). On this question, see the comment of Alexander at IIJb IS. When we turn to the passages in the ethical works which consider aId." - al<TX""'1 we find A. speaking formally of aid." in EN 112Sb 10-35 but interchanging al<Tx<Jv7J with it and without qualification, e.g., at II2sb 20-21; in the Rhetori, at 84a 36 he introduces aldo; with the same ease. In noSa 30ff., where he discusses the intermediate states in the emotions, he speaks of aid." in a manner not at all different (e.g., lIoSa 34-35) from the meaning given to al<TX""'I in the Rhetoric insofar as the modest man (aldol,.."'v) falls between the man without shame, the dvai<TX'V'JITO(;, (cp. Rhetoric 8lb 12: noia d' aiuxVJ'O"JITaL "0& cn.a,aXVVTova,,,), and the bashful man ("d.Ta aMov,.. ..o,). This distinction is also found in EE 122Ia I, I233b 26-29, MM II93a I-tO. In these instances there is no ostensible reason to think that what is said of aid." differs radically from the statements abont al<Tx<!v'I in the Rilet.ric. This is also true of EN I 179b 1113, BE 1229a 13-14, 1230a 16-21 where aid." is the sense of shame which makes one avoid doing wrong. A similar exchange between aid." and al<TX""'1 is found in Rhetoric, A 9, 67a 6-14, where, speaking formally of al<TX""'I, A. illustrates his point from two poets, both of whom use aid.". What we find rellected in A.' s usages is very likely the historical development of aid." toward a gradual fusion with alux<!v'I, a word of which Wilamowitz (Herakl..2, II 2SI) says "ist erst em Wort des 5. Jahrhunderts, das an Stelle al<TXo, tritt." For example, in Thueydides and Aristophanes (Gauthier & Jolif, II.I 322) al<Tx<!v.a9a<, al<Tx<Jv'l take the place of aldei<T9a<, aldcb" in dleir varied meanings; see also Barrett, p. 207: u alt3Bia8at. in Attic was obsolescent in favour of al<Tx<!vB<T9a< .•. and in its obsolescence acquired something of the ambivalence of its supplanter." In Homer ala." signified substantially a social idea: a respect and regard for others, and for oneself. An aspect of the first can possibly be seen in Antiphon's comment (at S5a 13) to those on their way to death with him: "Why cover your faces? Can it be that you fear that someone from this crowd will see you tomorrow?" The second, respect for oneself, a sense ·of one's honor which exercises a control over one's actions, can be seen to be behind the idea of al<TXvv'I as we meet it in the special topics in this sixth chapter and in the statement at 842 24: shame is an image of dishonor in the mind. aId." gradually underwent a change between Homer and Aristotle; see Sinclair, von. Erffa, and COMMBNTAllY 107 Gauthier & Jolif, II.1 320-22. By the fifth century aM." in Euripides, accordiug to Gauthier & Jolif, II.1 320, can be found in its tnditional sense, and also as shame for a present dishonor (Helen 417) and regret for a past fault ([phigenia in Tauris 713). In one play, the HippolrulS, it would seem to me that we can find its traditional social sense, e.g., at 78, 335, 1258-1259. On the other hand at 244, 772r-775, its denotation is the same as that which we find for aiaxVv'1 in our present chapter, whereas at 385-386 it may be the feeling of shame concerning oneself and so more directly alax~.'1, or it may well be Barrett's "sbamefastness" (p. 230) and thus the more traditional sense. While A. retains the technical term ala." and very possibly with a definite purpose in mind, I am not certain that the distinctions Cope, pp. 71-'12, mentions are clearly discernible, e.g., ala.", vere"lndia, a subjective feeling of honor which precedes and prevents the shameful act; alaxVv'1, plldor, an objective aspect which reflects upon the consequences of the act and the shame it brings with it. I am more inclincd to think: that the judgment of Gauthier & Joli£; Il.l 320, is correct: the concept ala." will become alaxVv'1 in Aristotle. And so speaking of the Rhetoric they can say (p. 321): "Dans la RMtorique Aristote d6fin.it I' aischun~ qu'il ne distingue pas de I' aida,'; and of EN 1128b 11-13 they say (p. 322): "On rernarquera qu'Aristote cite cornme une definition de l'aid8s ce qui etait en reaJite une definition de I'aisch."e• ... Ies deux concepts sont en effi:t pour lui identiques." Cpo 823 21. "a,,';;. b 14-15 "'EP< ••• xaKiilv Ta TWv = "that class of evils which seem ..."; <pa"opB.a agrees with the idea represented by this noun phrase. On da.,ela., see the definition of ala." at ENII28b II-I3 (<po{lo, TO, daoEta,), or the definition of alaxv.'1 in Plato's "Definitions 416a, Diogencs Laertius, Uves of the Philosophers: Zeno 7.Il2 (<po{lo, dao.ta,); on the idea in the word, see 62b 20 : • on a6Ea; and cpo A 10, 68b 23. b 15 xaKii\v ... !,-EAAcIv"""" &. was mentioned at 83b 13, this is a larger definitinn of shame than repentance for a wrong action just committed which Gauthier & Jolif see as the definition of ala." in the EN. Shame is an emotion which extends to the past through the present into the future, and while it concerns actions primarily (hut not exclusively, e.g., 84a 9-13), at least, as it is analyzed in this section, these actions do not have to have occurred (e.g., pelMVTW'); nor, if they occur, do they have to be noticed by others in order that shame be experienced. I say this because the principle upon which A'.s analysis of shame is built in this chapter seems to be the sense of moral rightness proper to the good man. For example, to take the first division in the chapter (83b 17 - 843 23), the things which cause shame: .hY"'eia expresses itself. from the ways (78b 14-IS) in which .d "ax/a..OT71' "ed.clOo.cl· O.ja. Even when action is not involved . 1 oiv. 68b 23. 24-26./a see 68b I4 : 1.. sc. cpo 79b 16-17. Characters: Shamelessness 9 is essentially correct in its generic definition. SpengelJ..'Y"'pl.. For in this sense the a~oEia spoken about (83 b 14) in connection with this emotion of shame caD readily refer to the MEa a person has ofhimself. c£ 83a 28 : z. On the other hand. 68b 23 and note. 72) with calling shame a ". One caD also understand.sharnelesm.. perhaps.I.8oia.'Y"'eta would designate an intellectual attitude (78b IO) toward the shameful.a designates the complete insensitivity to it which would follow upon such an aItitude. tn.e. On xa. his v:iew of his own honor. Ta alalecl in such a person... In fact many types among the varied characters share in what A. i.EL Cpo 84a 24. we see at 84a 24-26. "all those acts which proceed from vice"..g.. see 80a 6 : 1... ill!'Ya ini.. b I7 6p". TOVTO'.. In fact.... 270-73).7-9. the Mea in question is mainly the opinion.. d"clO. would appear to be an d. at 84".' Me1f" but far more limited are its specific differences which b 16 : reduce shamelessn.eE'..108 41USTOTLE. the view. ~al 6. a total lack of feeling with regard to the shameful. is a rp&{Jo. leya is being used as it is at 66b 27-34. a.a". This is in many ways quite reasonable. aM"'... On the Palst Legotion 206. he introduces the section by saying that the ~axd of which he is speaking are 8aa dnd ~axia. b 19 il>v 'Pp. (Qllaestiones naturales et moral. his self-respect. 3 4. see also 84". This is rather interesting to me. (83b 19-20).. is rather close. p.a. His specific concern is with as seen in EN n08a 31-32 and II28b 10-35. 66b 29.. and thus not so much a "dOo.. b 19-20 _I~ Ipy... leya in a way similar to the interpretation given to a.... if aiM>. Therefore aiM>. Theophrastus.. but it reduces itself to the prob' lem seen earlier with respect to neaOT71'. to a fOrm of alaxeoxied. c£ 66b 28 : z. fed. its affinity to sbamelesmes.uOTe. z 6)... cpo A 10. see #30. and I would interpret d". of others which causes a person to experience sbame. From the fint perspective one caD seen the survival of the traditional meaning of aiM... e. would qualify in this chapter as .e. Where d).aOo6 leya at 66b 28.g. Alexander of Aphrodisw' problem (mentioned by Cope.xuv. as a liE.... See 7Sa 32.it is still the sense of not possessing what is proper to the good man that causes shame. 84a. His violation of this causes him to experience shame. and his argument is that. ~aTatpeOv.. 'RHETORIC' II the reason given for each is that they are either a v:iolation of a v:irtue or the exercise of a v:iee. in alaxV"'1. .. MoE/a" this is something all good persons of any age experience. pp. Cpo A la.9-13 . c£ Demosthenes.II. " Tusc. mentions logography. he and his attitude are described somewhat vividly by Suetonius: The Lives of Ihe Caesars: Vespasian 23. see ?lib 18 : z.95. which Cicero. read in cod. Odes 2. Huod. Against Diogeiton 13. Cope. <j>£P"v Apart Irom the obvious implications. 38Ib (page)..pu""". see. 6. Erg.. Erg. or from the helpless" (Cope.. a derogatory term in the fourth century.. 66b II-I3. I incline toward reading it since it gives the general class of which the preceding is an instance.. To refuse to return money or propCIty entrusted to one's care... Cope does not read it. Against Eulhynus. clothes robbing. and Horace. b 22 : I • 48.17) was. On the idea in dd""i<1a. usury..8.... for example .. Herod. 74.. among such occupations. ".I05 (Lobel &: Page). p. quod est iniustitiae.u. calls injustice ("qui propter avaritiam clam depositum non reddidit.. Kassel omits it..fI.. a speech which is a ~l><1J "aem<aTa81j"'1" • il ol&. e. considered among the G<eeks a challenge to the gods to destroy both the individual and his community.. A corrected and by three of the edd. one who spends his time in pimping. b 25 ".at ?lib IZ : 3. Ross alone reads aC. Apart from the betrayal of trust it was thnught to be an outrage to friendship.. 5. ef. speaking of a similar situation... and even that wretchedly small. 66b IS : 1. lu~ Cf. (b 26). On the verb see 63b 32.. 88b 22 : 1.. Lysias.." "to make a profit of mean and triJling things..broc.. as Cope (p.. 68b 18 : z. it is frequendy used of "the meaner vices of cheating and de&auding.. 3.COMMBNTARY 109 b 20 : 1 olDY ••• cpuY£iv Cpo Archilochus. in some instances -:. b 22-Z3 b 23 cl"oAU." as well as defaulting. Z. Anacreon.lAl . 73) remarks.~ cf. 68b 6-26.a distinction may be at work. refusing payment of a debt.3.1~ ol~ See A 9. 6 (Diehl &: Beuder). p. b Z4 I'o"'pWv ••• 4&uv1i. ol~ ••• I'oi) &Ei On the exchange of ool .8>\. Sec Isoerates.7. Ross secludes it.ij. Spengcl. the activity here described with respect to things or persons is set down at EN II2Ib 31 ...a b:a . Irg.IIZ2a 16 as that of ai<1xeo"ie~"a. 66b Io-II.. see A 10..pij. the proverb could also refer to such pracrices as forcing people to redeem the slain . • &. 73). Alcaeus. It does seem that no real difference is intended here any more than at 78b 10-20.10. Greedy for gain. thus it includes unjust actions among the causes of shame. 68b 17.g. and it marks the oWdoOeBeO. thievery. b 21 : 1 '"' . pCIty gambling.86. Io general.'I" The particular topics in this section through 84b 16 arc introduced by the articular infinitive. or things base and vile. 213-215) or demanding money from parents for the burial of their children (Cicero.... >lTTO. IllHBTORlC' I[ at a price (see. s{inoeo..ov.g." While the first is quite attractive.).7). 67b 27-33. Spengd.. b 28 ~. is well exemplified in Terence.g. Kassd alone read: T& an6. Richards) is that the shameful action is the deceit on the pact of the agent..no AlUSTOTLB. i. to ask nonethdess. to conceal one's real purpose. see LS. These 07Jl's. 1.ie~a. If it is taken together with what precedes ("al inal. p... aln": "and though one has failed z . to make a request of the other when he seems lik:dy to demand the return of something owed.e.. Theophrastus. However.28.o. i/aaow: III. II Me.. 01.pUas See 83b 26. well off. Cope. Homer.." The only way this statement makes some sense is to take it as another example of the topic. Thurot..""e'plIlS See 66b 16 : a. "in regard to" money. 229. sc. This is true whether one interprets 83b 28-30 (dav...l '<0 d"'D'<"""'X1J>Co'<ll in the effort." 306) would be inaI.'" .• ~'<'<av At the heart of this somewhat ambivalent passage (see the conjectures of Thurot..a then spells out the intent in all the actions: namely. b 27 'Is i. Aeneid 9. etc.ICaaOa. 58b 381£. 8n aITS") in either of twO ways: (I) "to seek a loan from another when he seems likdy to maIte a request of you.. 6. Verrine Orations II 1. Dcmosthenes... to demand a return of something owed when the other seems likdy to put a request to you". (2) "to seek a loan under the guise of asking a favor [when one will appear to be asking a favor]." 39~I. EN II6sb 19. . Ross alone reads with Bywater. (EN II21b 17-21) who go to excess in taking...a see EN II22a 2-13. On 1'7Jad... b 31 : dvdeue.. . The idea of the topic from the viewpoint of the >lTTO.aell' . e. aln")' the verb which would be logically understood (e. Iliad 24. c£ LS.s . persons of substance.... Charaders ]0. and they do exemplify that class of d. See "X7JI'e. b 28-31 >c.g.. b 30 : 1 ml&'v"v C£ A 3.. anOT8T1J%'1"OTa suggests aln" as the more likely verb to be understood. 1 2 01J1'.3.e.... in particular II7ff. 63a raj[. r. 9. the advantage of the second is that b 30 (inal.a.. and Vergil. IV. for i. Bywater. to praise with the apparent purpose of asking a favor. to ask for the return of something under the guise of asking a favor. inal.. appears to extend them to include b 2~28. .a MEn.. e. phormio 41-46. for the meaning in ala"eo..d 6uvell. "Observations ctitiques [1].a MEn) gives unity to b 28-31 as the statement of the actions of one person. b 26 dvu. These actions are all called signs of meanness (b 3I). to ask a favor under the guise of demanding a return of something owed.e.sllHlO8(!o. wealthy. .. 1.a would refer certainly to the actions described at b 28-31 (aa••/CaaBa. . .. stood subject of the articular infinitive.. as not bdonging to the idea of beal"sip.u sc. b 35 ."ia.ptlv." See 71a 22 : 3. 26\)-2'70: "ah vereor coram in os te laudare amplius.....LV sc.a aVTo6 tpaa"B'" suggests1 in making every kind of st.84a 2 x . meanness. s. • t'.~ xo). n • cU.o~ here in the moral sense: a vileness. fuur of the edd.1 practically the same as navTa no's.COMMBNTARY III b 32 "'06' ." 561-<52) as already present at 83b 35.. MM II93a 21-22. a 6 : 1 ...II50b 28.. A" the Virtues and Vi"" 1251b 14-16 calls it one of the consequents of aosA.e. Spengd.purp.. e. the addition of nae&'IITa~ as object of the verb suggests that the praise meant is praise which is excessive. II-I2...Lv " . (TOUTO) 8 . .J "aUXe. Adelph.. accusative agreeing with underb 34 " . masculine.. its meaning here is probably "those who are ddicate.. Kassel secludes the whole phrase as an Aristotelian addition...xp"""'X("~ 66b 19: 1. ne id adsentandi magis quam quo habeam gratum facere existumes. (sc. See 83b ]I : •.1Ea8C1. ....." "ai .. (TO) av. see S.a .~ See S6a 29 :'.g. 111I.v9eela. 84a I :1 .II27b ]2....C&~ov. of a higher rank". a S n:ci....... sc.." ••v6'<'1. &V. 2 olv... ro8."rCZ AirEL" X(l1 E:n:a:yyo.. a 2 ~axl.>. and to Kayser..13 ." a 4 : 1 ov •• 6(~. Cope reads "Oo/!ovTa rHoAaHBia. for the case.. looks upon naPTa as a repetition from a 4. "o>. p...ptlv.."'i~. nAel".. 3 .. however. low-mindedoess.aAa"la TIl'....... i.. in On the Virtues and Vices I251b 2 it is a consequent of aa. In one sense Kayser is correct. says more specifically in our passage) the difficulties tolerated by those who are neeu{JUTBeO' "d. "oAaHBla.. singular.~ is the reading of the codd.~ ''holding a higher position." but "sdf-indulgent" is a possibility. Cl'lJt'd..<E~ At EN II50b 3 Te"f'7i is called a .. Rhetorik..:. "and frequendy do so. EN II270.. • loa...Aiye"..~ a 3 .].xd...l. b 35 "'It'd.~ See 68b 18 : 1 (where 83b 5 should be: 83b 35). C£ EN lI50a 9 ."ov) was a source of concern to Vahlen ("Kritik d.. TWV "eOI11l"OvT"'O. Terence.."... or (as A.. 1303: "to assert the achievements of others as one's own.. 3..v.(.. Cpo 91... the soft man is one easily overcome by pain.: "to stop at nothing [as TdlloTe. cpo leovula at 69a 13.... one who is deficient "with respect to those pains against which most people fight successfully" (II50b 1-2)..D.tement and proclamation about onesdE" Richards. for all proceed from moral badness. Since is read in all the codd. Dufour.010v~ •... Ta 8.ol". KCOC{wV sc..X.aluxea...a aluxea "al clvaluX. 8J.. .. and consequently the opportunity for the person to be as the other is. Kassel.. Spenge!.. a 9-I3 ("allnl .g... Dufour is acceptable. this appears to be reasonable punctuation. 1'<70v . Spengel. Inl: B. He now extends the principle to all the vices of character..~ 2 TWP xa- a 8 : J .w~ TM>~ . TOJ'ieOV" "from each of the rest of the vices of characrer... but I do not understand the period of Kas.~ rerov r'in short.ttEx£..l "oU. Cope (and Freese): "'".o£Ov£i~ .g.v Cpo A 7.. Dufour. en)p.. heaaTf" Tru" dllcov xtw.. on Ta c£ end of 83b 21 : 1.e. Sponge!. a 10 31'0L01 • ..olou~ .o. luov' aluXe"" The punctuation of Roemer. concerned with what causes shame. 6sa 4-5.6. Roemer. at A 6. (op. Ked C£ 79a 20--2I. . 3p.0. F since the chapter in this present section i.vd~ restricted with each example.•.a would be derived generally in the same way as th~ varied activities that are virtuous are derived at A 9.lx£Lv. I RHETORIC' II &. MElmoL an axiom used previously. Spengel. Roemer.. but there is no reason why these actions are to be called such any more than the others mentioned in this section. one's equals")...II2 ARISTOTLB. and the reason for it after the colon (a I2-I3). 66b 27-34. . a descending order which grows more a I I op. Cope read the same but punctuate differently. Ross print: .~ LS.. full parity with those in each group whose pO'Session of the honors he is without is the thing which causes him shame. "in addition to... d.. 6. and specified them as actions or signs of particular vices."-LCI See A 9. The summation. I am inclined to accept aluX"VTC"d (provocative of shame) of cod.. Cope since the whole statement. 66b 23-34- rae a9: J 2 b. statement (a 9-I2).I. gives the validating criterion for each class: namely. 6. i.. has given us examples of both.. riftO 'niw . is a single unit of thought. Tovar punctuate and read: xal Ta 6. ucci This is the punctuation of Ross. (but Ross omits the comma and colon).. lpyll Kill ...aluXVVTa (shameless) is possible.Ta. CJUyy.... laou)' IIlcrxpclv Here the edd.. see 83b IS.1'1 7 A.... . e.0.. 7. Without such equality..el..X...o'lI· IIlcrxp" y"p xlll IIlaxw. I would punctuate in this way and use parentheses as Tovar does. there would be no ground for him to experience shame at honors possessed by anyone in .... 63a 32. Kassel. Cope. 64b II-I3· 'a Io--I2 p. e.. 2 Kill . The rae clause gives the explanation of the general statement made.0IOJ~)...."1 ... . In 83b I98. and ." a7: J 8~ I I op.tov. 1'1) p. where he punctuates with a colon as do the edd. a 18-19 ........u.... it is specified by the relative clause /Jua ••• &vsld. The ~av~a refers minimally to the deficiencies mentioned at a 6-13.e..•• v{JeICea8ac) which might suggest the penalty. a 17 .u.!: "men are ashamed of .... eli. 1I•• "a! d~c. . or future condition. !'dAciv'<tdV the cause of his past.. " On the word see 69& 27.. a 12 i\6"'1 See also 84".la in general.c). or future personal experiences which lead. G_ the object of the preceding participles.G.at: "for in this case they now appear to be more the effect of his moral badness. .b~ . .. 6£ . "for in this situation [i..1X. Therefore d~c.. 6m. "Urxpii>v brackets it. A period is the punctuation accepted by four of the edd.tv .. d~ iI""PE-njGE'~ or submitting to degrading actions. ]Up.aultolae.... Cope... .....la.. 590c (pa.... despite the explanation of T. being equal with others] it is a cause of shame not to share.... orec. d. present.. c£ Plato.. 79& 9· a 13 : 1 en:l . Cope.I'/Clv .Ta.avula ."...." a 19 ilJv ••• iI(jpll. a.... as we find it in Herodotus 9.!"" . " a 18 R..a8at: to be physically outraged.. 3 . ~.l." 2 x.e.. S4b 7. the neuter of the demonstrative used substantivally: "to the same extent as they do. a 14 : 1 7tsv. Spengd. . partitive genitive." On the construction see S.. and the Roberts translation reflects the . or Plato. " .... l'iiAAOV sc. cf... v{JeIC."G.. He might experience envy or other emotions. I civoi61J i.I'1')..la is used here in a manner similar to its use in 78b 29 and A 7. Spengd... 919d... but olfers no reason...d TI.. Kassel omits the period and makes this together with what precedes (apart from his seclusion at a 18-19) one statement down to a 20..d.•.. which did exist for such actions... !'iiAAav sc. II 169-"76.. see e.v ihcav." "whenever (if ever) he himself is a 15-16 .£a8 .v means persons of equal station in life. (jl. Of'O""~ coordinate with :n.... Harrison... past.~oa.II••• 'Pie. 'Pal.. lJaa (a 17) at a 18-19 (Tma . These lines are interpreted in a I~I : 1 " .. read by four odd....). Laws 777d.." o.71 tAe. "among which is to be physically outraged.. different ways by the translators.II3 COMMBNTAlty any of the groups mentioned....oGcru. Kassel "and these are acts of prostituting one's body a 18 . Spengd. Ian alaxed.g..caVTa .11 such present.".co.... I 37£.. 6sa 5 (and see noteS thereto)... and not in the legal sense...8. u. IIS3.. and on dT. disgrace and censure. Cope...a.!...15.. l~ ru. "ona . 69b 21. LS. as "acts of service or subservience. 78.S' • •.. 78. Kassd includes the whole in parentheses ("al Ta ". see A 10. says about such action in EN u09b 30 uub 3 i. Tovar punctuate: . 2 Exmll XIII cbcOV'<'Il On voluntary-involuntary action.l~ m.. which is a fairly concise statement of what he says about (iia in EN u09b 30ff." It seems more correct to interpret the lines as follows (the reasons are given in the subsequent notes): "And on the one hand acts of licentiousness both voluntary and involuntary are shameful. tp6eO'llTQ. For example. if we understand tpB{!Ol1TO. lixov". axOVTa.IIub 3. I would interpret our phrase (c£ Bl~. quae spedatlt ad incontinentiam. 68b 10-11. 78.6.a..t 84a 20. we have: "acts that 'have a tendency to or reference to' compulsion. On dxoAaula see A 9.nj(J"~ (84& 18). uv'JITsivovra.por~ [acts done in the sight a 20 : of all]. "Ill 6' EI~ ." While this can be defended as having some meaning. • &"0'111'0. Roemer. Ta .v This should be interpreted as was Ta d~ V"1J~. p.'~.. licentiousness. Il"ona) .ICrP cpi~. Ta 6' el~ (ila. . I find it difficult to understand how Cope.. d"OAQalav sc. Spengel.. "at WcOVT4' (rQ /J' sl. or as 84a 34f: Ta . 'Pa••~q." which comes to mean "acts oflicentiousness" since in the context these things have to be actionsif . 68b 26 . "d 6. p.. ptav d"ona) '. Cope omits the clause rei d' Bi...rance. and in particular 68b 32 . as A. In his discussion of the voluntary-involuntary in that first chapter of Book 3.. 73b 34 : 2 and EN Il09b 30 ..77b 5..IIl9b 18. opens with the statement that the involuntary action appears to be the one made under constraint or ill igno." If 'P~~o'Ta. and I find it the most reasonable..69b 27. p. Ta e!~ 1ln1J~'Tlj(J"~." which he then translates: "And of these.m carry any meaning.. then they should also be understood.! correct. does not so understand them." but insists. says at A I5. (JIIVTEi.ona are to be understood here on an analogy with (?) 84a 1. 66b 13-15 and EN Iu8b 15 . J "Ill "EV . and translates the phrase: "the involuntary being such as are done under compulsion. all that have a tendency or reference to (all that subserve) licentiousness are disgraceful. A. however.. Furtb=ore. a 20-21 "Ill 6' .II4 ARISTOTLE. auvTslvovra and translate in terms of acts. xlllbov"." This is the same as his interpretation of Ta el~ V"1J~ETljU. He .Il"o. (iiq "al dnaTl1 d"o~u.... . finds no problem in interpreting a 18." 2 XIII "Ill ". But Cope.. (iia." ott. the acts done under compulsion are involuntary. · This is the punctuation of Ross. o'P8a).) or 83b 14. on interpreting our phrase here as: UTa ai.. 2.. . Dufour. IV) to mean: "things which have to do with lust. still such acts cannot be called unqualifiedly Il"ona if all that A..£ (8ua e!~ QT..t~ ~lllv axov". 'RHBTORIC' II 84a 20 general tenor of these interpretations: "And acts of yielding to the lust of others are shameful whether willing or unwilling (yielding to force being an instance of unwillingness).o>'llcrl. i.... he a. We now tum to the second division neo. &o~"~ov"<... "<ooa. those done Wlder compulsion are truly involuntary. while acts of licentiousness which are. but with a concentration on the specifying difference.a. limitation of the definition is quite reasonable.. (83b 12) which is introdnced (840 24-27) by a partial repetition of the definition of alaxW>! (83b 13-15). a 24-26 "". which we are told means that the initiative for the action is external to the agent and is such that the agent contributes nothing to the act (IIIoa 2-3).pi "&o~(a~ . as a synonym of ae&J. It should be noted. and sums up his position at the end of the chapter at HIla 22-24: an action done under compulsion (Le.tN'"I~ .e.. dip M840 27. that shame as an em0tion is "a vivid inrpression" of disgrace personally incurred..g. Shame depends upon whose esteem is lost. in the minds of others. the loss of the esteem of others which constitutes the disgrace does not in itself cause shame (e. Xcipov "foI its own sake". for which reason I would take d." a 25 . the initiative is outside the agent) is involuntary.0. C£. the dishonor itsel£ a 25-26 cN&El~ . or could be considered. involWltary in a broader sense.COMMENTARY IIS then spends the rest of the chapter in determining what is meant by "under constraint" and "in ignorance. 83b 19 (TowTa .. the disgrace incurred in the minds of others.l". and so: "dishonor. ~ .. specifies at 840 27-29.." "disgrace. However. d60fla: the loss of reputation..~ A. that these truly involuntary acts are not the kind of actions A.. esteem (Mfa). . Ti.is the sole caose of the shame. Since we are concerned here with neo. But even as such they are a caose of shame to the person since yidding to the force (a 21. Ti.}... see also 68b 18 : 2.dela. "a loss of respect in the esteem of others" .t IIIOa 2-3. a 23 a . Thus.e. 66b II.13 where de.ks (IIrob 1-3) whether "under constraint" should still mean what it was said to mean .. cill' ij aLii "and since [b.. determines here what was partly assumed in the definition at 83b 13-15: namely.. Wr0l'olnj) seems to come from personal cowardice. a phrase A. 84b 22-24)./a is defined in terms of a. After reviewing other actions in which the initiative might be considered external and which he calls mixed (voluntary-involuntary)..ei] no one attends to another's opinion of himself except in the case of who they are who enter- .. not any of the consequents of such a loss. for example. however.:a a summary of the preceding division.a. II a 21 IivCIV&p (. has been describing from 83b 13 to here.. This disgracenamely.&'LA(a~ See A 9.). i. "X". He answers his question in the affirmative at lIIOb IS-16. a 24 "&o~!~ the loss of one's reputation.. OUI concern is with the first.. are a source of shame.deela..a" this. ...wv _ 34-35 " ..iiAAOV sc.. (a 37) in a sentence which illustrates this p.')... ddc7J'..""" honor"... On Td Iv &p9aJ. _ 35-36 38ev . My. 63a 32-33. Ross alone of the edd. 28-29 fur the use of the same norm in a related situation. "'Ppo&" . In instances like this one can ask with Spenge! on 86a 28: "cur ttansitus in singularem?" In this division there is • Ti.wv 28-29: "ed.e.a. p. If there is • sequence of ideas here in what is presumably intended to be • unified statement.•• 8..o-rLI'ELTClL a XClTCUPPOVEi See 79b 24-25... L4. turns to the more general category of d..u6 ARISTOTLE..81l' .. 63a 34-35.... z &eDp. see ..p.. .. ("as speakers of the trudr"). we must determine the .. down to 843. On the shift in subject matter.~.a" people (whether they are held in particular regard or not) whose opinion matters sufliciendy to cawe others to experience shame. _ 29-30 81lUP.. its u1tim. modified by cr. encloses this in paren- _ 36 Ill&. (any good) "£rom among those which bring _ 31 : 1 Tidv -np."o~ i. is the object of 'PIl0n/Cov". _ 33 :. 83' 32-33. the things which.. c£ S...rticuIar topic. theses.81l.29 there is a shift to the plural. cawe men to be held in esteem. al"xVvovTw. 81.. oJ> is retrospective and transitional (Denniston. the word..cit." _ 32-33 'PtAo. t . This particular topic is developed _ 27 AOYOV €XC. See LS. a brief development of 84a 6p.. 'Ppovlp.po" sec 84a 20 : 1..." as arA 6. 61a 27 . 78h 14-15:1.34-36. z rppovip..a. ... 470).. "equals.e.£IIO.. to "..te purpose is to set forth the people before whom shame is felt.• Ill&. 84b similar shift £rom I'T-20.oGv.. C RHETORI C I II tain it.27-29. on • parallel widr palAo. neo. see also A 6.oiou~ i. .. at A 5...ia (c£ 83b 12-13) at 843. "eo' _ 27-28 81l.. p. a 28 : 1 qnl.150 81b 21..t. . cpo SSh 28-29.. See 79b 25-26. p.. P.. 25-26..ci~..•• 8.. At 843.ci~c.34.1l~av-n. after which A. We are given here the development of two of the five classes set forth at 843. p." ml6. My •• lx. al"xVvovTa.. For the idea in the word.b 2. cU1/9••••n". pm.ou. we are told the things which are Tip.v . We should note that while the analysis concerns the kind of people held in esteem (84' 27: dl. see 78b 15-16.: we have the singular here and in what immediately follows. See 6]_ 17. w. "desperately want something. 8sa 8--13.!). • loa" "because both instances [naesao. who have viewed one's shameful actions: in conspectu aliorum.l.). Theognis 85-86."" "ae ." namdy.. .e. I7. a 35. Euripides.1. s.. by those likely to be close associates (nae.. e. 67a 8 on Sappho.." The only part of this comment which would be consonant with the interpretation olfered here is the second reason . It also seems reasonable that in this division of the chapter devoted to those people before whom one experiences shame A. soit parce qu'i1s n'osent pas affronter Ie regard d'autrui OU iIs pourraient lire un bl~.. Iphigenia in Aulis 993-994.e.al aldOl. 281.0'~) of the act causes the greater shame (. Since it seems clear that the public character (Ta b d'l'6a). iev6ea/vo>Tal! "La manifestation de la pudeur...o'~ ."o. soit parce qu'i1s n'osent pas se lever sur I'objet qu'i1s respectent. nos.. b dtp8aA.Woo 01 iI>6eomol 1J TOtl~ dnd>Ta~....'tli The specification of the word must come from boX""" "those not liable to the same imputations. Hymn to Demeter 214... This idea would find confumation in 84b 32-36.~.0'~ d"''I'dT.a.. HippolyluS 246. in conspectu aliorum as Vater..and this idea is restated in the example given as an explanation of the proverb (dla TOVTO . 42.~ aidoMal.edo 68c..namdy. Cresphontes &g. If this is so.the eyes of others.g.. 8<H1I) .bov~) who give close attention to one (neoaixona.X"Ta~l constitute being in b 2 't". TOUTO'C'.ea.o.~ boxol (i. for example. (2) Td b dtp8a). aldOl: shame is in the eyes) most mean here that shame resides in a person's act being seen by others. d'l'6aA. II {In 1"01l~ naedoTa~ &eOl>T.. alae». the citations given as explanation for the proverb .. neoa. 457 (Nauck & Snell). Sappho 137 (Lobd & Page).seeing one's shame in the eyes of tho..X0. Wasps 446-447. ce sont en effet les yeux baisses.~ b. The fact that they are . '!"Po't'p" sc... aVi'oi. Xenophon. charges..g. and so the reason: Mi).l 323) commenting on EN II28b 13. oo.. Memorabilia 2.. and Plato. p. p. . 90. Aristophanes. 'or Gauthier & Jolif (II. 37) . (3) dla TO i.. should speak about a greater shame experienced for an act seen by others.. that their actions are shameful. Cope.." diJ'l'dnea is the accosative of the neuter pronoun referring to statements in the preceding part of the sentence.. The intent of these citations implies that the proverb here means that shame stands revealed in the eyes of the guilty person. pp. This idea is hinted at by Suidas (ed... d'l'6aA.. Ph...o'~ dva. Adler..it would appear that the proverb (TO b . are not to the point..ol) indicates that their usual way of acting is different. further.eat of the emotion as "the principal organ by which the emotion is expressed or manifested" (Cope. see also Schrader. see Riddell. 80)..COMMENTARY II7 meaning of (I) Ta l. says. d"''I'dnea) ... See.oi~. 84b I Suit 'to .. . that the eye is the . aidcb~) in one of the explanations given for the proverb..22 (see. p. . Br: "because there i.g. (B4b 2): b. Since such people are viewed as manifesdy good persons (cp. in this chapter B3b zoff. Although there is some confUsion in the codd." How this comes out of the Greek is difficult to see. "those who gossip. pp.llyym. He would place it preferably right after boxov. it make.." If it carries its technical meaning. no diJference (in regard to the effect upou the other) between not thinking (a thing wrong) and not publishing it to the world. i. 9r-92.e." He then interprets this to mean: "as far as the eJfcct upon the person who bas done something wrong is concerned.. told is as good as not being considered in the wrong" (Cooper).I18 AIlSTOTLB. Phil. I. or "not telling others is as good as not believing you wrong" (Roberts). and capable of being done by most people. · dii1o.).IB. p.. A reading is acceptable. Cope oJfers.'s statement here. b 5 ~IlYYEA'<LXoU~ those inclined to make known matters which are secret. We know (see 74h 7) that a d. Spengd reads it but has doubts since he bdieves that if it is Aristode's. and although Spengd's doubts make good sense. pf! . as A.." b 6 aioSiv ..). as is "having no tale. . to betray. given varied interpretations . also discusses the passage and conjectures Id••• for do"..... 84b rff.xov. it makes little sense of A. To.. Demosthenes.LV This sentence i..aaeT'I'Jpa is the kind of wrong which is onderstandable..aapra.ivELV Kassd alone of the edd. • BpBaa. and the amoont of shame which it cause. .. generally acceptable.tI Men experience shame before such people because they know whatever such lEuyy61n"ot think of them will be broadcast. leal TO. The yap c1au. Bonitz. to experience shame before them is natural although it may be unreasonable.) does not explain it.. him.01lTO"j not to proclaim something far and wide and not to have an opinion on it are one and the same. "righteous indignation" (see B 9). 'RIrETOllIC' II b 2-3 " . BI. Cope. it is out of place because 84b 3-4 (II y~ . "d. cf. Obviously "tho.e who are not inclined to be indulgent to those who commit such wrongs" are morally straitened individuals who judge others by the narrow standard they have set for themselves. gives a general reason for the specific topic mentioned (e. usually said not to be angry at the same actions in his fellowmen."av I doubt that this means anything more here than "to be angry at": "he i. no diJference whether the other really thinks it wrong.. tell tales. d. StuJkn.e..g. secludes this as an Aristotelian addition. Here it would appear that the general reason should be enonciated in this way: "for to such people [sc. EE 1233b 27-29). our cod. or merely says so to the world. p. b 4 VEfIo.1 '<ou~ ••• cltflo"P. generally uses it in this kind of analysis. t.<.e. •• and "a"oAOyo.'1Ko. The evidence for the speaker and ....-3.) emphasizes the danger from th..g.. (7\111 2~31.r..ure them of a good M~o among such people (843 27: My •• lX. From the example given ...• those whose esteem they still possess..01..r.." 60.1> ••• EupCIKocr(.p . 2· &'II"P'~~ i... 72b 21-22.'e ("""oA.e.. an impression borne out by the reason given here: . 80a 29).s. .oil....0. 76a 30 : J. it implies that the inability or refusal to respond to the request will result io the loss of one's M~o with these people (e.&oT<01I).• those whose way of life.' TW.of those among whom they have never failed sioce (among such) they are io the position of those admired..). are keenly aware of the faults of others and speak viciously about "al them. cpo Top. There are other ioterpretations of the statement which change the meaning and neglect the middle. Knowing that their past successes . see 741> 7 and I14b :1.. This refers to those mentioned io 84b 13.) T.. whose business.ive and subject of d. yae .. 60. b 9 : 1 Kill ot~ sc.. a freedom from a sense of shame. 600...e.TO.0.....01.o.Aoy.••••• b 13-14 &.t. and so a consequent sense of shame. See 81b 7 from which the impression is drawn that "oHoMyo.e. For the general idea in the word.KO>'oyo.'1P£. nor are we Wtaio of what was said.6. i~OyyeAT. and old acquaintances aware of no failures on their part (b 16-17). •.rpdo"••ol.• XAeoocr-rol.""•• as p.."o. they are more readily susceptible to olaV"'7 io their presenc•. They consist ofrwo groups: those who have just recendy wanted to be their friends (b 14-1S)... is with the faults of their fellow-men.. 16ra 23.. b 8 K. i.. However. "w.. olav. and so..• new friends.o.v See 82b 10.. and the classification of these people as "o". "al (T.sence .. people who lie in wait for an opportllDity to speak out. However. b 14 : 1 2 iJ&ol. b II-I2 "Ill tv o~ .. old acquaintances) whose opinion one respects. or who said it... .01. . The verb (naeaT1leB1.". must refer to those who experience the shame.g....6c1l is 1id"'"'!...~ The problem with these Iioes is that we have no evidence of any event to which we can asaibe it.Uy. A 12..ol~ "And as persons who are not yet held io disrepute they are ashamed In the presence of those who ask a favor for the first tim.&.0Te'P>! implies more than idle amusement or innocent pastime..'''''11' "And they experience shame io the pr. ... the two specifications of Ual'l'BAT"•• t..." This statement curies on the idea of the iotegrity of the person's 6O~0. "TA.. the subject of """....6T. &'''''.II9 COMMENTARY b 7 iJ&'K'I"'tvO' .rb. ordinarily.... b IS-16 &. not those before whom they experience it..n..a ..) (ian)..1 .. eyov. see Sophocles..l. tPI8bTa. 23C>-3I) aod Cope (p.E111 Sec l'E'1}PBiov/' 391. Moil al"xVv0VTa& must be understood with d'l'eoa&.. b 22 cN"O~ i. certainly the shameful actions indirectly mentioned in this division (842 24. is talking about actions even though he makes the construction personal both here and in 84-b 20: ". i... Isocrates. which permits us to say that this is not the tragic poet or that the scholiast has invented the story. Other conjectures have been made but they are equally unsatisfying. b 21 .. b 18 : t . Certainly the words which the scholiast cites are an apt illustr..dor from Athens to Syracuse on • mission of peace and fiiendship.oil. Lives of the Philosophers: Nidas 29).a" but . This presumably would have occurred prior to the Sicilian Expedition of 4-15.. 84-' 24. your admirers. ). For the general idea.. from his many citations of Euripides (he racks third after Homer.e. the persons mentioned are those ("eo. The context from 84-b 17 wil1110t tolerate any other meaoing.ov. of such actions. Now their servants and fiiends are put i. . Tyr.&a'ovre.£vCl\l~ Cpo 84-b 18.. the tragic poet. Isocrates) apparently knew his work intimatdy. 83) remark. b 19 itppo&LC. 14-09...842 23). gentlemen of Syracuse. and that A.lso those mentioned in the first division (83b 17 . the -leTJPivov. for this present [the first.&oiivre" Ul'DVTB'...... P'I9. Tel. the people before whom men experience shame..b 26." The underlined phrase must be understood since A.~ See preceding note.. in reply Euripides comments: "'f for no other reason.ru 86-87....ci. In the account of the scholiast.e. as an ambass. dv~) of this division. apart from the absence of any confirmatory evidence.. (b 21).." As Spengd (pp. philoct. has already indicated what he has in mind by this topic at 842 16-20. Oed. ~ elP"IJp.~ ...n this class.. 3 0"1)p.... at least. On the positive side in some favor of the scholiast is the fact that we know Euripides was deeply regarded in Syracuse and that many Athenian captives owed their lives to him following the Sicilian disaster (plutarch.. To Demonicus IS. you should respect us.tion of the topic.. b 20 "'o.: "those who engage in acts of sexual intercourse are ashamed of the acts and also of the sign. the Athenians newly desirous to "be friends of the Syracusans make • request for peace which is rejected by the Syr. there is no firm reason. See commClit at 84a 25-26.cusans.84-b 17) by way of illustrating "'e~' d. A. explains the scholiast] request made of you..120 ARISTOTL~ cllHBTOBIC' II the statement comes from the scholiast (Anonymus) who assumes that the speaker is Euripides.~ •. ." On aA'IO. interprets our passage as a statement of what men are wont to do and cites EN r 128b 23-25 as a contrasting statement of what men should do.ov 84a 24 .. see e.oil cU.. these last are not necessarily the cause of shame to one if they are done in the presence of close friends. for it is somewhat diflicult to comprehend how A. b 23 56. sf. with respect to those conventionally evaluated. see 78b 'S-I6. po~ .>~ ••• voP..'18WE'v so. . A.'" Tij. p. and the reasons are set down at 8Ib 19. 060' (TOVTOV... 78b 14 . But there really is no connection between the two. II. b 26 ". expression.ck "po~ ..U"O••av d...e. b 25 oiln ". and in particular 74" 25 . in accord with what they really are. see pa IS.. given his definition of shame. Those which are TO "ed. cU.1)8WE'V "whose views (judgments) on speaking the truth they deeply despise.. In fact this present passage would confirm that interpretation.ov are those viewed as wrong in accord with established law... SE 173a 29-30.74b 22. 23'.v. is a possessive genitive with M~'1' which is governed by the verb. 7" 13-17... However. i. The validity of the statement rests on 84" 25-27: shame is occasioned not by the Mfa but by the quality of the person holding the 66~a.1)~ ". "for whose opinion in respect of perceiving the truth . vo. see 84" 33..ar6d an accwative of respect: "nor are they ashamed with respect to the same things before those well known to them.l 81)p('" here as there.3-24 oil8' WV . ..COMMENTARY b 22-26 1IAc. . . 84.. (Cope). 7" ro. Spengel.".. not abollt the actions men perform. In the discwsion on law and equity in A 13. This is the positive expression' of what was previowly stated negativdy at 84" 28-29 (Hal eli. I21 a general summation of the whole division b 2..ov The TO "eo' phrases are also acowatives of respect: "with respect to those things righdy evaluated . "for the validity of whose opinion we have a great contempt" (Cooper). ." Cope on this passage. x".) &iv: eli. vop.ck . wage.lou . refers to 8Ib 19-21 for the meaning of the. sage we are talking.84b 22. On "OTO'PeO"'v. .. "aTa'Pe.5i....IS : 1. or convention. The more wual interpretation found is: "whose opinions we quite look down on as untrustworthy" (Roberts). there is a difference between legal and real wrongness in an action. As was seen at 8Ib 19. p. pT.."criivro are those which are rightly viewed as wrong. Mf'l'). Actions which are TO "ed. could possibly speak of being ashamed in the presence of animals. In our p . this does not seem to be correct.." ...g. but about their emotional response to the actions they perform which are judged by others as wrong. Cpo A II. I would interpret O'leio b 24 ""... ". 50xoiiv. 14. . .. Twa xe.. z np"'TOY po.... "If certain people are related to there in the manner described....".9 more specifically: "these especially [see S..doxwOYT. is a cognate accusative....erOa. b 29-3 I IWT". and omit parentheses.. .a xe.• ixoy. punctuating with a comma after /J'Te~..'Pa.• or are persons near at hand. .. enclo. b 27: 1 .!e presence they feel shame. c£ 82a 20 : 3. 1246) whether they are onlookers ["al oIiTo.9 (-liera.!es this in parentheses without :my break with what precedes. . eli. Kassel alone of the edd.. 109).o." • •• ). Kassel gives his reason for the change in DeT Text. However. and he does so by naming again the group mentioned earlier at 84a 27-32. " Kassel conjectures <"aTd>. ij. (b 36-38: 6••.loy.if it is answered at all..ay... it is analyzed (84b 27 .." .85a I) first from a genexaI perspective.) de<iWT6~).8. At 84b 32-36 ("al OIiTO' ••• alcrO>1er. leola> as a collective singular denotes a class (c£ S.)." .EVo. 9C1Upoci~. At 84b 29-36: >Jera•.g. In 84b 29-31 (>Jera•..!e we said are the kind in who... Ross. as Cydias in his speech in the Assembly presented them .•. . IW .r.. cpo 87" 6. ~ (11..s..e.. alerO"ljer.. 'P'1'Pler"'>Ta.... "W~ IXo ... Spenge!..~ oil.la... i.a citing the scholiast.".o•• See 84" 27-28." b 29-30 ij 8C1Upo. Cope begin a new sentence with "iera. the other edd. p. 'RHETORIC' II 122...'1 b 28 : TOVTOV.v &.. specifies what he means by 84b 27-29 (neWTO' . Doing so is reasonable. C7lA"'Tai is simply a further addition occasioned by the statement) A.) Only Ross and Kassel enclose this within parentheses.. At b 29 ij cr..:..... 6') .".Ep ••. 54" 34- b I.ARISTOTLE.) he determines the OIiTO' o( b 2.aCo.". Ross alone conjecsecond w" e.".!e presence men experience shame.. "people such as tho. and a better use of the punctuation than that of Cope who encloses b 33-35 (~'lov ...~ of 83 b 13.cipXO'EV •. This is :mswered at b 2....~ OIiT"'~ is read by Roemer... ." 3 oiou~ .la> 7j~ (as does Richards. 1 d ... for the remark is parenthetical... Ross conjectures ~ <01> Oav. 2502b): "or those from whom they have some need which they will not.. /J'TB~) he mentions the four major groups in who..erOa. as does Freese. The usual correlation can be seen at A I..• T".&e "(disposed) as follows". p.~6p.. b 31 tures >J~ for the b 32-35 (C. Dufour.. at 84" 26/[ (d.. I do not see his reason. We begin here the last division of the chapter.v.. lJnicp("""'..). alerx..Ta.~ See 84" 31-32. '''''.. or likely to learn about (our action). 134. Its unpopularity in the fourth century B. c£ 77b 27..ol..ou~ and not merely people who will eventually hear about. or of Ci=o on Murena in the peroration of the Pro Murena (41. is studied in chap. 'Ao. a constructive. and the Athenians moved cleruchs into it. was clearly contrary to the intent and spirit of the Second Athenian League (on this last see OCD.205: "personarum ficta induct:io".. for thi.C. as a distressful feeling experienced by b 37 ~'1AoUv'fWV noTE good people at the absence in themselves of good things which they esteem and which are possessed by their equals. • . See the statements of Hecuba in Euripides' play of that name. and the whole chapter for comments on deliberative rhetoric. e... probably in 365 B. • Eci"ou In the year 365 Timotheus after a se. persona confutgitur quasi adsit. c. 8sa I it x"""'axUvou".C.. whereby Athens settled her own citizens (who retained their citi2enship) in conquered territory.85a I COMMENTARY 123 b 32 : 1 Ku&I.89): "Ibit igitur in exilium mioer? Quo? ad orientisne partis." "as if they were eyewitnesses [dew .g. an action which....uAav... c. D.~ A.. the following accusative and infinitive construction.. 4-53.. VI. is our primary source (see. eadem cum ignominia reverti" (Victorius). II. "aTa.. unde cum honote decesseris. b 33 : 1 E&1JI'-1JYOP'I"'" See A 3..] b 34-35 ':'~ . Panegyricus I05-Iog. is able to bring (b 3?f) the C'l/AOlTai within the general elass of 8aviJacnal.3-4. It i. quae non adest. 209/f.g. not a destructive." b 36-37 bpii"e". Siculus... Cicero..a.53.".. PW. or Auctor ad Herenn.66: "ConfOrmatio est.<I(3ELV Its subject is TO. 58b 8-10. cum aliqua... and as we see at SIb 21-23 the relationship between both persons is actually or potentially one of friendship.. CAH.xauao .)..... while legitimate since Sames was not a member. and in Isoerates.xtIVO'.n. see CAH. De oral... PW) fur this Athenian orator who argued.1JpouXI.. See. res maximas gessit? At habet magnum dolorem. 3.Xoiiv. gives a brief report of the formation of the League under the year 377/376 B. read by . against the establishment of cleruchies in Samos. Emulation. Cydias with his request is employing a form of what is sometimes called jimo.ige of ten months captured the island.. Our reading is that of four edd. .E~ ••• (3.. e. VI I05f£.valov" and it govern.. See OCD. Ip8. Spenge!. in qnibus annos multos legatus fnit . 968-974. is reflected in the constitution of the Second Athenian League.. Thus A.~ of the sixth century B.v We begin here a consideration of particular aspects which are determinants of the disposition of those who experience shame. emotion. process begun at the end 3 x>. Cope reads without the first ~ (which is omitted by cod. F." If we accept the future .. I R. those who look up to them as modds or as their students. However. a 3 ciYX".they must.• "olo. 8avpd'. e. for example: "men are ashamed whenever they have deeds or achievements upon which they bring dishonor . what is a realistic understanding here would be: some close and special blood relationship.ae ." see also the Vetus Translatio and Victorius. This group (including as it apparendy does 8sa S'"'l [see following note]: those taught or cOWlSeled.HETORIC' II 8sa 5 Cope. 2 01 ••.. interpretations: "Generally we fed shame before those for whose own misconduct we should also fed it" (Roberts)." In the previous topic men experience shame when they theuudves bring dishonnr upon the achievements of theuuelves or those closely rdared to them by blood. while the future may possibly be explained. taking 11 as the subject of the verb: "deeds or achievements which bring dishonor.. Hipp. it is likdy. Kassel has a sounder textual foundation and is read by the scholiast.I34 ARISTOTLE. presumably those mentioned at 8sa 2-3. already be engaged in a course of action which will dishonor these achievements.. or others closdy relared to them (e. Cope. yoyo"ua. Here men experience shame when these same people. and rivals) could also refer to 84h 30. men feel shame fnr those whom they themsdves respect" (Freese)... 424-42S. Kassel's oE. "tho.aa&7.aw) to Ssa s~ ("al Au> ••• 'P1A0T1po.. who cites an apposite example from Euripides. Some...e who defer to them as standards" (Cooper).. a S il Jw . "ai M•. Kassel reads: oro> eli•••• .whether their own or their ancestors or certain others with whom they have some kinship. ... "To speak generally we fed shame before those persons whose own disgrace would affect us" (Cooper). or rivals).sif... "In a word... The sentence has been given different. a 4 : 1 slp'!""'o. interpret II "aTalaxV>oVa&7 diJferendy. says. .g. Freese (Loeb). "And universally. clvCUPEpofLWo.v... oN".. it is difficult to understand how the context can tolerate it. Spengd. "those who refer (themselves) to them. is the reading of four edd. from 84b :>. as wdl as those. il <lclv .. A.. • .O! "and in general (men experience shame) in the case of all those on whose account they themsdves fed shame..•." Le. Spenge1.&."upon which they will bring dishonnr" ..g.. is attractive hut I find it difIicuIt to confine the reason at Ssa 6-7 (noUu. do something sham. in order to experience shame.. anaong others)..Tal). advisees. a 3-4 XIII 3Aw. we feel shame on be""!! of those whom we ourselves respect" Oebb Ill: Sandys). I :uso find a problem in the fact that with Kassel's reading the ~ngivenat ..~!1I Technically all blood relations up to second cousins. I follow the reading of the edd.efu1 themselves. ) who was killed for criticizing the tragedies ofDionysius..... Pit . .8sa 14 us COMMBNTARY 8sa 6-7 (noAAd . 87. alaxVvovTa.". it would seem. Lives of the Ten Orators: Antiphon 833 b-c.16. see. a9:' .... Against TimorchlU. a 12-13 . ss8a) and so: "to associate publicly with those who know their disgrace" (av'8&drlaw.. opolov... ij ly"aA.£Vo. a IO :.I .na6.~oefjaop. ..). "'i .. PhaeJrus 2.. p. 66a 20... The alternative ii. the opposite of the particular topics on shame presented in the chapter.owcrlou i.u-.. chap... su~ect to. PW... however. S3C (11 oJanee . 82b 6). ... a 3: ~"'e w.lvou~· as a sign of their shame... Cope. 26.g. is the equivalent of the Latin The second question usually (as here) anticipates and rejects the answer that would be given to the first.. Apart from this nothing is offered on the emotion opposed to shame. Plato.."'OP"aofloEY To.e. cpo 84b 17." "out of a sense of sbJune occasioned a 8-9 " . See 83b 13 where the words are cited as a a 13 ij flo" sc. e. c£ 84a 36.) is so confined. see the word at 72b 30.•" a I4-IS ". Hell 6. 430-367 B. a 6 IIfIo0<O' See 84a II-I2.C.. a 6) do or do not do many things. Since the poet and the orator are often confused there might be some vestige of the reason for the poet's death (mentioned here) in the story told about the orator.n... Apology 2. a II Eyxa>.laxuv'nJMI ~OY i.pcji 4Y. c£ Boa 19. shame. .....<piiiv See 79b IS..OU"fO\I~ by people such as these....tis). and see 68a 18 : . here introducing a second question.ly These lines should be compared with 8~ 34 .6b (11 MjA. hani..-Plutarcb..). an idiom meaning "go about in public" (Xen.~ ..) that men (alaxwopBVo.. Rtp.. Plato.4.. the conclusion to the chapter. .. a 8 lv <p""... See Plato.!lIJtuvop. and cpo 8~ 32-33 (rpMoT'pomll' . the Elder (ea.. see 79b IS.43 b. 4"'0. i. z •AY.) and Adam's note on it (PI... OCD. and so: modest..~ .. or Crit.op.....e..pl flo£'" ••• o(..e...u. .b I..m..tonu Apologia Suer. offers another explanation.8.. cpo A 8.. fIo"'''''II... bashful.. a 6-7 .... Acscbines.. There is a story told by Plutarch of the orator Antiphon (ps... S... CAHVI. possible example of aiM".. See 83a S. et. z A..8.ptcp • .>.. Yet this reason is meant to apply to 8S' 3-<1 since it is because of the shame fdt on account of such people (1. PhaeJo II7C.I p..).e... "are more ashamed" .a meaning called for by the context and derived from the meaning of the word as it is ordinarily used: sensitive to. CHAPTER 7 (Sec 85' IS) I . Introduction: 8s, IS-2.S I. 2. introduction to, and triple division of, 8S' IS-I? kindliness definition 8S' '7-19 expIanztion of definition when kindliness is gIOZt what 4••pb", in the cIe6nition 3. 8sa 1!)-2S (oj 8sa '!)-" (6J 85' 21-25 IT • Development: 8S' 2.S-2.9 melD' those who can be said to have kindliness. This is presented not so much by showing how men are disposed .s by considcrlng what kind of act they perfOrm in terms of the definition: .movey'a as.pIN,!, of kindlincss: a restatement of the triple division as now clear, and then - most unusual- how one ;. to develop kindliness in others III . Conclusion: 8S' 2.9-33 IV . Unkindlincss: 8S' 34 ~ 8Sb 10 development of unkindliness by Way of showing how to remove xde" in others. Again thiJ ;. done in the bare terms of the definition, that is, by showing that the person, or the act, ;. not commensurate with the definition ·.tenv ••. _1 .....; ... ix"""o; the usual division (cf. 78a 2.3-2S). The reading;' th.t of four edd. Tovar along with Spengd, Cope reads with the codd. iJ lisa IS-I6 ,.Iii,. There are two things to be said of thiJ chapter on xde'" the emotion ofkindlincss, good feeling toward another. In the Drst place, in organization it is, despite the brevity, the most loosdy constructed of all the chapterS which have been met thus far in the second book. It;' also different a IS XoiplV u8 AlUSTOTLE, 'RHETOR[C' II 85' 17 from the preceding chapters and those which follow in the nature of its analysis. It makes a token effort by way of simple statement to follow the triple division, but does not do so. The analysis is concerned more with what constitutes xde." and thereby what constitutes ar.ae",...la in the second half of the chapter, than in determining in any detail the disposition of those who experience xde." or the people toward whom, or the conditions under which, it is experienced. It defines xde., in terms of the actions of the person experiencing the emotion; this is unique among all the definitions of the emotions. Then, unlike the other chapters, it analyzes these actions in terms of those who would be the recipients of the emotion. Even in this last analysis, which might seem to be a development of the division "ed, -.:l.a, (those toward whom men fed kindliness), A. occupies himsdf only with recipients who exemplify certain specific kinds of need which illustrate the de6nition. He does not assume the definition and present US with general classes which exemplify the kind of people toward whom the emotion is felt. The best way to grasp what is meant by this criticism is to take an emotion closely related to xde." namely, ",.lla, and compare the division ned, d.a, (8la 8 - 8Ib 34) with what is said in our chapter in 8sa 21-2\1; this, in fact, is the entire statement on xde" in all its divisions. The second point to be made is that xde., as we find it analyzed in the chapter does not include the feeling of gratitude, as not only Cope, pp. 87, 89, suggests, but Cooper, Freese, and before them Schrader, p. 299, and presumably Vater, pp. 93-94 (reading, a. Cope does, .t a 17-18 xde" unove,,'" for xde .. lX"')' In. itself xde" means: (a) kindliness, benevolence. (b) gr.titude, (e) a favor cOnferred. But the intent of the dc6nition (a 17-19) of xde" as an emotion and its explanation in the chapter is an analysis of the emotion as kindliness, benevolence: helping someone in need and doing so without any expectation of a retum. Cope'. effort, p. 89, to defend (b) gratitude, does not really stand up. Gratitude as a feding, or emotion, is pleasure at and thankfulness for aJavor received. No matter how else the feeling or emotion is described, gratitude is a response to kindliness shown to one. But A. excludes this in the definition of xae'" e.g., 85a IS-n, and repeats it at 8sb 4; nor does he say anything itt the chapter which negates his definition. Further, 8Ib 35-37 makes it clear that xde', is kindliness shown to another. On pp. 94-95 of his commentary Cope speaks more correctly of xde" when he says that it is "confined to doing a service to a friend in need." a 17 l ....... ail XclPL~ On the definition, c£ ,sa 31 : 1. As was said in 78a 22, xde., (the feeling of kindness toward another) is, as a ..d90" exclusive to the Rhetoric. The "d90, met in the EN (where it is only mentioned, nosb 22), is xaed, and it would seem tomeanjoy, as it apparently does in the De an. 403a 18 where again it is simply mentioned. In the, Top. Iub Ss. 19 129 COMMBNTARY 21-26 it again appears to mean joy, as also in the Rhetoric to Alexander, i.e., Anaximenes 14221 17. When x<ie" appears in the EN at II20a 1S-I6, lI67b 19-25, it means gratitude, as it does in the Rhetoric 74a 23, MM I2IIb 23, and in Axanimenes I439b 22-26, I444b 41 - 144sa 2. In two other places in the Rhetoric, A I, S4b 34 and r 3, 06026, x<ie" appears to mean pleasure, joy, as we found xaea used above. xae', appears at EE I240b s-<s but there is some question about the reading. In EN 2-5 there is a possible hint of the meaning for xae" found in our present chapter, but, since A. is speaking about reciprocity, favor is the more reasonable meaning: give and receive a favor. This is the sense in which it is also found in Anaximenes 14440 37 - b I, and in our work at 79b 30 and in the MM I2IOb I. In these instances xae" as "favor" denotes something done for another, and as such is quite close to the idea of ~"ovl!Y{a in the Rhetoric definition at a IS. It is denominated xae" because it has the qualities particular to such an act. However, whether or not it comes from or is motivated by the emotion xae" as defined in the Rhetoric is not clear. Th2t can be determined in each instance only by seeing whether or not it fulfills all the requirements for such an action as xae" is defined in the Rhetoric. From SSb 1-5 it is clear that acts which seem to flow from x<ie" do not necessarily do so. C£ 85' 29-30. "B' Ix"'" is intransitive (!.S, B): with which the one • 17 xd' ilvo lxwho is in conformity is ,aid ... , i.e., "in confonnity with which one is said." • IS 6"oupylCl literally: ,ervice rendered; here probably: being helpful to, doing a favor for. And so: "Let kinclline.s (benevolence) be defined as being he!pful to (doing a favor for)." Cicero, De inv. 2.3S.IIZ on beneficium (Cope) helps toward an understanding of the idea here. This statement would rule out a IS-I9: 1 ",iI liwl .. :"<. oIxElvcp the idea of gratitude as an interpretation of x<ie" (see 85' IS) or even the expectation of any kind of a return from the one to whom the kindliness is shown: ,..",d' Iva T' (fflavT,p ""oveyovVT'. 2 ~ 6"oupyouv.... is the reading of three edd., Spenge!. Ross (according to whom T,p is missing in cod. A.), K2ssd, Cope read aVT,p T,p iinotJ.Qyo!i:vn. a 19 "'Eyli>.'1 &i sc. laTa,. Since x<ie" is .moveyla • .• T' l".lv'P, the statement at a 19-21 (,...".u", ... ,...u'aTa) is valid for both. However, ,..."al"'1 probably agrees with ~"oveyla and not xae": "the favor will be substantial if it is done for someone in desperate need." I say "probably" because a 21 (q.v.) which is part of the statement definitely requires some form of the verb "nouey"v, Cope, p. SS, cites EN II63a 9f[ as explanatory of ,..."aA", here. Since the distinctions offered there are directed to mutual 130 AllISTOTLB, 'RHETORIC' II favors typical of friendship based on utility, the comments are at most marginal to our word, which is well specified in our text. a 1!}-20 CRpcl&pCl &.ov-tv'l' Cpo 8"" 3 I. Ross alone of the edd. reads d.op""o~ with Bywater and Richards; see Richards, p. 109. a 20 : 1 ".ym).1dV XCll xcxAmWv These genitives are best taken with a.op"''!': "to one in need of something quite important and difIicult to obtain." Cope (p. 88) apparendy takes the words with v"ov~yla. This is attractive (see also Spengel, p. 232) since it would extend the scope of ;cd~,~ in what seems a legitimate way; e.g., ;C~I~ is present if (u"oveyla) the doing of the favor is: (a) for one in great need, or (b) of something important and difficult, or (e) at a critical moment. For example, the explanation of %~,~ (not necessarily the emotion) found in Plato, Definitions 413e is of larger extension: %~I~ ';'.~y.,,[a J"oV"'o, . .meldo"o, dyaBov . u"ov~yla I. "a~<ji. However, from all that A. says in the rest of the chapter, it appears to be essential to the idea of %d~o, that the Unoveyla is shown to one who is a.op""o,; cpo 85a 24z Ev xlllpoi~ ",o'oU-ro,~ again understand aeop"''!': "to one in need at critical moments which are important and difIicult" (TOIOVTOI, referring back to what preoedes; cf. 79b 28 : 1). On "a~o~ see 6sa 20 : 1. a 21 : 1 l\ "Ovos ... "ciA"""CI The idea intended seems clear: the kindness shown is very special. Since we apparendy revert to the personal construction here and this creates confusion, we can resolve the problem by understanding the a. of a. " at a 19 (with which Richards had difficulties; see 85a 1!}-20) together with UnoveJlii: ., (a.) po.o, (u"oveyfi) - "or if a 'person is alone in being helpful, or the first to be helpful, or is most helpful of aII." z c1pil;..~ See 78a 31 : z, 69a I : Z. a 22 : 1 't"ou-r- a partitive genitive: "and of these those appetites espe- ciaUy...." Z CIt ".."ck M"'IS See the definition of deY>1 as 6e.~I' pB't"a )'V"'1~, 78a 31, and the comment at 79a II : 1. 3 ",oil,,~ y,yvo"c!vou "for something not possessed." a 23 : 1 W,.,.;;.".., .•. in,au"ICl' For the relation of 1".Bvp[a to o~e<", see 68b 32 - 69a 2, 69a I : z, ?Oa 17-18. To,avTao, i.e., oes.", peTa )'V"'1'. z i!p... ~ Cpo 8"" 32. a 24 X"",:,,,.,,," ... X,"su"o,~ Cpo 86a 8 ("a"cba•• ,), 82a 32 ("I.a..o,). Both words, together with " ..I~ (a 2S), ",."ai" piye6o, Tij, d.>jaBw, (a 26), and the statement at a 28-29: made at 8sa 20 : 1. avtly"" ... petew, bear out the comment 131 COMMENTARY a Z4-zS c\ KLV&""el..... l"'LUuI'Ei ••• AUttoUl'EVOS If ..t.d""., is the approach of what is fearful (see 8za 3Z), then fear, or the emotion occasioned by a vivid sense of impending and harmful evil (82a ZI-ZZ), is present. The natural response to fear is the hope for safety (83a s-6) which is a desire (.,nBv,...r). Furthermore, the fact that fear makes one deliberate (83a 7) means that the appetitive faculty is present; see S7a Z : 1. The same natural e.g., 79>- II: response (l,..8v,...t) occurs in the case of one who is l,lBTal "de n1o'0C' d AV,",OVI-'670" on which see 79a II. .:1"".6,....." a ZS "'EVI,!, Cpo 79a IS-19 where those who are poor are characterized as among those who are bnB",..oWro,. "C1fI't1Ta,.....' = "those who help." exile as at 72b 6. Plutarch (Parallel Lives) in his Thea 26 : 1 cpuylliS mistoeles Z4-2S speaks of the assistance given to Themistocles in exile by his friends; see also Thucyd. 1.137.3. z I'LKPci 67nJP.-nj....,crLV The verb here tolerates the meaning found in vnovl!l'ta (a 18); further, the presence of vn01Jl!ytap at a 29 suggests that this is the operative ide, in a 2S-29 (d,•... ,...tC.,), and so I would translate: "even if their helpfulness is insignificant." In, way this lends confinnation to the interpretation at 8sa 20 : 1. a 26-1-7 &Lci"';' l'iYE8oS .•• KIlLPav to nplq., as Ha'l!6" does to qN')'ai'". ,..froB., T;j, 6mjl1• ." refers back a 27 K€)CIlPLal'ivoL sc. • Ia<: "have exp.....od fedings of kindness." Cpo the use of the verb here with its use at A 12, 73' 16 (to gratify others). a z7-28 orav ... &oUS No one. apart from the scholiast who receives small credence here. has any idea of what the reference is. a 28 ElS ....116...... is the reading of three odd., Spengd (although he questions it, p. 233). Cope. It is not the reading of any of the codd. Dufour, Kassel read Taiha with cod. A; cod. F reads TO'aVTa, which would be my preference, i.e., "with respect to the sort of instances mentioned." Cpo a 3Z, 33. a Z8-29 ness." l)(ELV '<ltv 6n:oupylllV C£ 8sa 18: "to show this helpful- a 29 : 1 £IS 1,,11 ij 1'011;.... This is the reading accepted by all; the punctuation, however, is that of Dufour. Tovar, Kassel, Cope. Ross punctuates with a colon; Roemer, Spenge!, with a comma. z C.......E with dijU. (dan), a 30. a 29-30 oI",.l <pIlVEPDv ..• i!xouaL This is a restatement of the triple division given at the beginning of the chapter, 8sa IS-16. Cope alone and Freese read "ai 6n for "ai or, at 8sa 30, and so Cope's comments should be ARISTOTLE. 'RHETORIC I [[ 85b 2 watched. "And so since it is manifest to whom and for what reasons kindliness is ,hown and how those are disposed who are kindly, it is clear that their presentation must be made ready from these sources by those etc. [cE RS31 : Z]." A.'s assurance that all is now eminendy clear is somewhat starding. It is true that he has covered each point, if very skctcbily, but "de'~ as a does not emerge clearly. To interpret it as a "feeling of kindliness toward another in need" is more a deduction from the fact that he calls it a and defines it as .",verla d••pAP", PT! d.d ...... " and from the explanations briefly given in the chapter, as well as a statement such as that at 8Ib 35-37. "dB., "dB., _ 31 : J me <"oU"""" i.e., from the particular (.I'd'l) topics presented for this emotion; cpo 82a 16. The methodology is set forth in general outline in COMMBNTAlI.Y I 354-55, and in some detail at Sgb 25-]2•. A.'s expectation that the method is to be used can be seen at A 7, 65b Ig; g, 66a 27, 68a 33. 19, 19b 17-28 where we are told that the Further, see the comment at analysis of the emotions was a presentation of particular topics au each. z ''''PCl<r1CEUClcniov ••• &E..,.w..,...Cl~ For the construction see 7Sa a6 : 1; and so we have: Xaeat1x£11aCIT4o~ dB,,-,vVvTa, TOU, PB1t ... Toil," ~£ .. . : "it is clear that their presentation must be made from these sources by those who show that some either are or have been in the kind of pain and need described, and that others have made or are making xome such helpful contribution in such need." On "aea ..".vdC ..., see 6Gb II. r a 33 II 6mjp.TDilv<"Cl~ is the reading of four edd.• Spenge!, Cope. Kassd reads it as < f}> Vn1}e ....OVVTa'. a 34 Iii; x.d "on the other hand it is also clear." I would take this as , the use of "al with M to supplement the adversative sense with the idea of a further addition (Denniston. p. 305). Here we are given another conclusion (cE a 29) considered to be obvious (tpa••eo.). But A. now introduces a new emotion: d"ae, ..Tla. a 35 - RSb I 4q>.llp.i.,S.Il •.. 4xClpIGTOU~ The verb carries the meaning found at A 4, 59b 29, 60a 10. From what follows at 85b 1-5 we remove the presence of kindliness and acts of kindliness in others by showing that the definition of "de" (85 a 17-21), in whole or in part, is not present. Rsb 1 II yap 3... , sc. ~ rae (6 .....va..., from 85a 31) lin. The structure in the subordinate clause to b 4 is a series of doublets: three sets of verbs, one of participles. b 2 : 1 iiy ,b,o C£ 63> 9 : 1. z ..ux"ll~ ClUllhcE.,W The verb whose subject is an understood .,..verla reinforces the prepositional phrase (on which cpo 59" 35). On C£ 6ga 32. wm. objectively considered.'s statement is correct.rn 1I'i. as far as the intent. here.it oI6':'~ is the reading of four edd. see S. action.ldcb~l there is a return for something. Ross reads.xCIV "or tbat tbey returned a favor.0&1 ••• "oil Cpo 64b 15.e oI6':'~ cI-re p. Cattgories. p. see Pol..ec "I~p. equal... tbey are uscful for any kind of analysis and have been used in the presentation of tbe particolar topics in the first and second books.e. For it is. sec 64b 15-16. or quality. Subjettively speaking.g.. pi! VmJeiT1laav. ST." b 7 "'Ip. ~ "not even in this respect. it is questionably correct (sec BSb 4 : 1) in the instance of pi! .~ are present. or the act. however.'s concern with tbe caregorics is to give one the tool for developing . . forced". to quantity. tbat the otber conditions for xde.. as A. IAaTTo. sldcb~. and tbe attitude of the agent are concerned.g. condition. position. Demosthenes.. under different categories and sec whether or not they arc witbout the constituents of xde". or greater favor .'o.. the good will. "for in botb instances '[i. b 6 ST. an06160ver. or done at ." The statement is certainly correct witb regard to el6cb~. but Spengel prefers the reading accepted above. sec 79b 7. as do Spengd and Cope: . is in fact tbe return of a favor (and is not a favor freely given without any expectation of a return)." 393: namely. is quite correct in saying that such an action on the part of one who is pi! el6cb~ is an act that may have its source in xde.e. an action that is in fact TO T"O~./incd. I think Cope. 91. 29. or place.'o. pi! z liP.. Aristogeitr>ll B.133 COMMENTAllY b 3 : 1 """1I"ClyxoicrS'IcrCIV "were COnstrained. z li"..rn el6dT8~ .orne time... 8n (lern1: "for kindliness is kindliness because it is this particolar tbing.~ . We have five of them here (b 6-7) ~ tbe other five are: relation.30 (Mal ~o'~ •. rail. but did not do one".provided. And he in fact exemplifics what he means: e. If an action. passion.. the ten categories.. on the form of the VCIb. or predicates (witb the understood reservation about substance as a predicate) that can be assigned to any being and arc studied in tbe work by that name. A.~ta which was introduced at 85a 34.e. 755a.eiov i.. says (85h 4).erda: look to the person acting. 10.'PonEp"'~ . b 4 : 1 or. I would add.On tbe use of '"IP. not doing a smaller favor. Strictly speaking. and 79b 30.iI&.. or of some magnitude. it cannot be called xde. for tbe idea. • XIITYJYop(~ i. introduces a causal clause. As indicated here. Ag. Here A..zap. the facts adduced (e.~ as dc.• T'''O~ .l6cb~. I256b 7.). or doing tbe same. The fact that tbe person placing the act does not know that bis act is such does not change its objective character.. TO'~ "z6eoi~ belong to tbe category of relation." a""t b 5 : 1 066' oiI. of dxae. b 8-9 they are not done solely for the recipient.. . a natural appetite (6"'i"'" ai £law al deBe." a ~I).134 to the person's enemies) are given as sign evidence of the presence of elxa- e"1Tta in those who do such things. in the fact the acts are not unselfish. are cognate accu- satives.g.. b 9 tplliiACI dli':'~ sc.): need signifies the want of something seen as good and so of value. at 79b 2. v"'leBT1J". The intrinsic connection between the acts and the absence of xde" reside.g.. 81b ~. as he said earlier.. 83b 33.... llano. A.2. for it signifies. has wed 'I'aiiAa a number of tinu:s in these early chapters . . see 79b ~I. goes on to say in so many words (""601. TavTd. and so do not fulfill the definition of xde" at 8sa 111-19. etc.A. Here it means "favor of no value.e.." As A. e. ~3. . b u-13 "ou.. In the EN at lI09b 32. once again speaks of a "popular definition which is all that Rhetoric requires.Iii" b 13 : 1 .. Introduction: SSh II-I6 I. For example. and at III40 2S-27 we have a statement on pity which makes sense only in terms of the definition given in the Rheroric. I would prefer to .g. >..) 8sh 16->4 (b) Bsh >4 .. hegin the chapter here. in the case of the present definition. Ti..860 l 3. Kassel. include 8sh II as the conclusion of chap. In his other works we find it simply mentioned in a catalogue of emotions. 8sh 16 .. The other references to 1160. p. 8sh II-[3 transition 2.S. In fact. Spengd 8Sh II xIXI ". De an. one is at a loss to determine how it can he called "popular" as opposed to scientific..3-2...S& 8 I.). 19b 2.4-28. r '9..CHAPTER 8 I .. 7. since it is the only extended treatment which we have of the concept in A. in the Rheroric at 87a 3-S and 88a 26-30 are understandable in terms of the explanation given in the present chapter. e..pl begin at 8sh I3 (1m"." On this matter see 60b 14 : " or the comments on any of the definitions thus far seen. UII a I-2..oyw". EN IIosb 23. as does Cope in his comments. . 2.. Devdopment: sSh 16 ... In the devdopment the order is changed to "oia.S.860 I8-86h8 attitude of those who experience pity: subjective aspeet what is necessary for one to fccl pity those who feel pity the things which excite pity: objective aspeet those for whom pity is felt: objective aspect Four edd. 8sh [3-[6 definition of pity II . we learn that one who acts involuntarily can be the object of pity Uust as we saw at Soa 10 that such a one is the object of "eao"'1'). Similar to these citations are those found in the Rhetoric at A I. 403a 17. MM 1I86a 12-13.. &>\ Cope. the usual division first mentioned at 78a 2. 860 4.86a 3 (. 93. It is not mentioned in EE. pity plays a prominent ..860 I7 3. 78a 22.. S4a 17. The implicit relationship here indicated is further emphasized at 860 27-29.18: "aegritudo ex miseria alterius iniuria Iaborantis... in the text can be physical or mental.. fear. at 86a 29fE. On the other hand his observation. On Av. In! d. At I439b 2..3 : . In fact to understaDd <p. concomitant mental sufferiug.. 99-100 .. 8zb 26-27.. the fearful (I449b 27. and this meaning of the word here is confirmed by 86.fI. This. appearance. 860 29 . While the Poetics speaks of pity. just as ''''X<p <p6"1!T'X<p "ai Av"'!e<p should be compared with 823 2. 17. and one cannot overlook the further fact (which A.. the pitiful. Thus <pa. etc. The Rhetoric. Obviously in" terms. c£ Steadman. 93. It is true that the evils specified in the chapter are physical.. also notes that the pitiful is different from the fearful and that the fearful often produces the opposite of pity (860 22-24).. one must turn to their definitions and explanations in the Rhetoric. 94 (and note Il ." lA••" <p.n.btp """<p) mental suffering can evoke pity only when it becomes known to another through some physical manifestation (word.see also pp. 86a 2. himself could not miss) that most of the physical evils he mentions carry..). e.'1 see 78a 21-22. Tusc. 8.that all mention of mental as opposed to physical suffering is absent in the text can be misleading.86b 8.. the use of spectacle and language to make the pitiful manifest.9.13 6 ARISTOTLE. states what is frequently implicit in the Poetics: nanrely.. our own text. on Victorius' interpretation of tpa .• • J. which is what the Renaissance critics and commentators on the Poetics did.I453a I. I456b 1-2). would not exclude mental pain and suffering from the word "a"••.. 91. p. Stanford writes brieJly on pity. I452a 2-3.'I" cb. 74-104.).. I453a 3-4. action. • Z. cpo 86a 5. 4-8.btp are quite sound. When we turn to the Poetics we find pity mentioned in conjunction with fear. 2 AU""I Cpo 82a 21 in the definition of fear.. 4-16. in itself. see LS.. actually or potentially.•••• "ax..found at 7Sa 31 : 3. The key idea for lAO.er!. a relationship found in the Rhetoric. pp. In a recent study on Greek tragedy.IlLI. <pa. Av.fI..smi in the Poelics. Diogenes Laertius."l...5-37 we are given the conditions necessary to arouse pity in the auditor... xa"ona6ov.7-2.9. comments in the Poetics such as those at I453b If[ indicate that pity is stirred by the manifest unmerited misfortune of another. Cope's reservation>. Lives of the Philosophers: Zeno III says of pity: Us •• . however.. lA..g.tvcp x"xci> On tnt.a. Furthermore." 3 bel 'P1l'VO!. I452b 32 .. p. see PP·23-26. of the definition (<pa . Tvrice Anaximenes mentions pity as one of the emotions: I440b I. 12. 'RHBTORIC' II 85b 13 part in the discussions of indignation in B 9 and of envy in B 10 (c£ 88a 2. in the meaning . Disp.. I453b 1.••• . the conditions echo in some respects the definition given here in the Rhttoric. B.. 1443 b 17. and see Cicero. it has nothing to say formally about the specific meaning of these terms. .. InOeed at 82a IOo-II the word is used of non-physical evil..2. in the Poetics.2. sense of pity. pp. c£ 86b 9-x6. says that we pity that Wldeserved suffering in others which we think that we ourselves or our friends could suffer. speaks of pity as experienced by the young. The adjective also enters into the: definition of indignation. I am not certain that s~hness can be drawn from the text here. Unless we are able to see such suffering as sometlting which we. in Sophocles... pp.40. too. On I".3). cf. 3. also. p. in Herod.. I.pT1XCji ..~lou TUyxcivE1V c£ Poetics 1453a 4-6. it is diflicult to comprehend how we can understand or appreciate suffering in another and so be able to "".a IO: X37 Ta .Oewno. or again in the words of Theseus to Oedipus.1453' I that the plot snitable to tragedy should be one which responds to man'.u.. 368-'7I. just as tltis idea of common fellowship is at work in goa 20 where A... .. on Thucyd. h 13-14 cpS . see. sense of kindly sentiment for his fellow-man..i.. l""'7ea aIUO'lTa ".U.. and so: "painfully destructive. Else.. see also Schadewalt.• Snell. This philantbropia ("ordinary sympathy. _." In general." h 14 &v . rpo{J. so. Lucas. the limitation of pity to those sufferings to which we ourselves or our friends are exposed ascribes a selfishness to the emotion which seems not necessarily to belong to' it". or Poblenz. and Gomme. calls it.g . . be perceptible - a1uO'lTri•• as A. p. is somewhat to my point: "It is simply the feeling of intimate unity with our fellow man..6. I tltink that there is a fine expression of what I mean in Cyrus' rellection.86. c£ Stanford. and Dover. 53/[ Pohlenz' description of philanthropy." as Else. The importance of this phrase in the deftnition becomes clear as the chapter develops. 59. p.LV While Cope's ohservation (pp.'lPCji C£ 82a . I believe it to be present here when A. e. Oedipus at C%nnus 566-568: "For I koow full well that I am a man and that my portion of tomorrow is no larger than yours. can suffer by reason of our cornman humanity shared with others. 246-52. It is more comprehensive than eleos since tltis has to do with our fellow man as suffering. There must be this element of selfregard in pity (as there is in fear) in order that the emotion may be what it is primarily (as opposed to fear): other-regarding.. correct ("the conception of general benevolence and love and duty to our fellow creature is of modern and Christian origins and finds no place in Aristotle's Ethicol System. We read ill the Poetics 1452b 38 .erl.0eamo•• fl ... ru at 8:>a 21 : 3 these are two closely related ideas."tend pity to one in the throes of it. 364. 26-27) is the compassion for oth"" aroused in man because of his sense of common humanity and fellowship with men. and yet it is indeed a . and fear: 9"la. 142. pp.j l. . It seems more reasonable to see at work here an idea found in the Poetks whicll became popular in the fourth century. 201-203. 13If[..Ta..85b X4 is that the: COMMENTARY "a"rI. 94-95) is h 14-Ij 3 xiv . says at 82. pp. i. 8Sb 13 : z) of the relationship between pity and fear. as is constandy done. points to the various meanings of hybris as an aa. 62b 22. Spengel. Ross.e.6. b 17 6. "'O"N"''''' at.. but we cannot forget that as part of tl.. Cope. occurs again at b 18.. . The verb (cp. . b 16 : ... 8Sb 13-14. Its importance becomes clear at 86a 27 ..O)"")'cI...I'-""cLV A glance at A S on eudaemonia. 8sb 21 the distress of the exchange 1 ").. IS.ii.. but questions the claim "that the Grew knew and described such punishable pride in its pattern by the master-name hybris. Lattimore.8 (in Diehl & Beuder) speaking of the hybris of the Athenians. or quite similar ("a~""'<1ja.. On 010..1"'Y'''' Cpo 82a2.. • tiv"y>C'I sc. see 7Sb 14 .p....IS : 3. its use at b 22) this kind of person.r.... Dufour reads ~TOv. On hybris as met in B 2. 8sb 31: b v(i~..ilv il "<iiIv Moii is the reading of three edd. (e. In our present passage A. 74a 8. 6.. completely secure and self-confident.. 2. appears to have in mind the attitude and feelings which are at the root of the act (e.86b 1. specifies their attitude (ssb 22-24). 7.." b 18 : b I!}-20 01 ..3-24.. readily explains why those who d.."pxE'V ""'1" 1 il .e." Yet Solon 3. pp.. S9b 34-35.g. On of the two pronouns see 60a I : 1.t... 13. 'RBBToruc' 11 natural instinct out of which comes the fellow-feeling with our fellow man.g. with the infinitive. ~T06...TB. The clause is an important addition.~la it denotes an attiIIlJ. i. Z otov oIp'l.). b 20 o6liev..o. and cf..ov ytltp ." ""'1" il"<iilv . The phrase TO. that the other person's destructive evil is seen as an evil proximately threatening the one who is to experience pity. 6sb 12."Ii. with an explanation (to b 24) of conditions which must be realized in the person who experiences pity. a"TOV. 76b I) states more finnly the necessity that one actually b. the misfortune should be the same (6'!'0 . There it was seen primarily as an aa.~ the second perfect with middle force: "those totally ruined".aOla••) aud which make it possible to speak of an aa of hybris. to the evil given in the definition. 010. A 4... or the oudine of that chapter (COMMBNTARY I 103)." b 21 6.. AnI.. z liij).... a!.'1"(OV'P. See 78a 32r-3J.138 ARISTOTLE.. namely.. We begin here the analysis of the division lXO.. "painfully destructive.. b 24. as leading .S. 2497.C1Tm1j a... ti. as A.oii Kassel alone reads a~Toii. another instance of the relation between pity and fear.oVTO.. ' "for they believe that further suJfering is beyond them. 86a 24-25. cpo 83a 3-S. another instance (cf.. b IS.)....ink theD1Selves to be enjoying an excess of it would easily become hybristic or.. see S. But aUTae".~ c£ definition at A 9... 'Pea. Both the practical wisdom and the experience make one aware of the possibility of undeserved misfortune in one's life. &. on 'Peo''1a. a life. .da'/Jo••r. 83' 27-28 is unclear. a b 24-25 at u ..~ single experience of both' Wldergoing a painful event and coming through it successfully.. 66b 2~22. What Cope. Agamem." b 23-24 ~ . and Ajax (e..t any time were part of the experience.. This is. It is the attitude and spirit of going to excess.d sc.wv ckyll8&iv TOUTO refers back to (b 23) TO /J~' . & /JBTa da'PalBla~ f/~'f1TO~.. lin "al (ofo.... in the sense of the adjective b 26 cppav. an experience which makes one sensitive to the =merited suffering of . b 22 &ij>..TB~).l &£ We begin here an enumeration of those who feel pity. "a8. particularly in view of the fact that il'1Av8. of excessive pride. p. (8sb 23) is assured. it would seem.. "aH. Furthermore..g. a life in which TO /J~ bM..t. The importance of experience in the development of this kind of practical wisdom is explained at EN II42' II-I8.a .g. they view their life as da'PaU<1TaTO~ & Plo~ (60b 28£). not an act.iv . This attitude is recognizable enough to fonn the substance of the brief note on the concept in PW.. recognized in Agamemnon (see Robertson). S.tion of dra8•• in A 6 that freedom from experiencing evil is a good.. as the TS" "at indicates. insolence.. in Creon of Sophocles' Antigone. b 24 .. So. dijlo.Ta• . b 22-23 El ymp ••. On the contrary...a makes life desirable and wanting in nothing (EN I097b I4.LpIIlV at 63a 17. XBa8a. • • ~"". Eudaemonia is atlTae"Bla C{JJij~ (60b I4£).' and governs the partitive genitive. it is difficult to understand how 8aeao~ would be the response to it since 8deao~ is the expectation of the ..o.~) .TB~ BI~ Ta dBwa does not signify that the individuals have suffered in the experience as they do here (e... IX (1897).. the action at 83a 27-28 is • repeated ("oUd". "IIXDv A glance at A 5 with its sum of external and internal goods which constitute .IS). 758-777) in his Ajax.. in the words of 60b 15.maeXB.): "it is clear that they also believe suffering any evil an impossibility..av 3. Petsae '708-831).. or Aeschylus describing it at Persae 821 as something "which when it has flowered bears a fruit" (and cpo Eumenides 533-534. is Theognis 151-152 saying that god gives hybris to the man about to be destroyed. It should be clear from the explan. The attitude of mind subsequent upon such a view is well described at 8sb 21: 1JPeICoIJf1W.85b 26 COMMBNTARY 139 to injustice is speaking of an attitude..) do not think themselves capable of meeting misfortune.wn 763-'766. has in mind in relating this to B 5.iida'/J""ta makes it obvious that those who believe themselves abundantly favored with it (. and if suffering .r.bsence or remoteness of the fearful (83a I7-I9).8.. 96. too.nother. arrogance. ".ction. ouya. 64b 12.mse . "". Cpo dAOyurra at b 30. apparendy in the sense of o~ Aoy... Bonitz.'.. so... T"a... b 31-32 (x.. referring back to anger and confidence...."ij &. 6ga 4. but not by Spengd.. dBlA6ueo.. we have the statement at A 10.. b 29 dp1JfL.i'. On anger. but not by Sponge!. 8Cia 1. 68b 18 : l. a. he says of anger (EN II49b I) that "it follows reason to some extent. 'P'l. Spengd.3. The neuter represeats an understood Ta na87j.ii.e. ltu/ex... These fedings are immediately specified as anger (see B 2) and confidence (B s.CI8taE' C£ 8sb .."0. 83' 13 .. yo. circumspect.349b 6c... The singular is questioned by Spengd. Aspects of courage as an absence of fear can be found in both: direcdy in confidence as the opposite of fear. i.I believe the point that A. .. See also 83b 7: 6aeeaAiov yae tj6ey7j· b 30 (liMy. b 28-29 a.. and .e.83b 10). Tl. thoughdess ot..."... see. C.1.a. pp....v."'aw.. I find the doubt a reasonable one for confidence. etc.Ta (Ta nd67j).IlI6a 3.a8l1as... the one who pities "must be such a one as to think that he him. or Kiihner. p..AAOV with the comparative see 64b 1-2..) The parentheses are read by the edd.. sc.. 'RHETORIC' II '40 ]I b 27 : 1 &EoAO. 96-97. This reason certainly applies to the "'. lliY'aTa = not heeding.7 : 2..8sb ARISTOTLE......~ "those who are not experiencing fedings of courage".." b 31 6(3p. and Cope..6'ro\j ." 8sb IiS-I7) than it does in anger or confidence.. I1... is making is that reason plays a more active role in pity as defmed (e.l .0. on the use of .a II A""'1ea. fall into the category TOW aVTO.. 2 e}My .u.... The person who is excessivdy fearful is deficient in confidence and is called a coward....rv. 234..g.. in the desire for retaliation.C6. on the matter in general.. 83a 17-19. which is described at 8sb 21-24. LS..UI..oii) here.". of whom it is characteristic that they are good in making judgments (EN I094b 23 . questionably to da6 . meaning (2)...6.. for example. 234 (aV~oii). c£ EN IlIsa 34 . Ta. see II4a 2S-26.. In the context.v Aoy.C6..!elf would suffer some evil.) The parentheses followed by a comma or no punctuation are read by the edd. see Bl.. 18: ~OW aVTo.o. where the reaction of the sense perceptions is more dominant. see. it is the one who is ..e.... C£ 8Sb 27 : 2.Cope. 32. C£ 7Da 2 : 1.g. & Gerth.'s use of the singular (av.a """d 'l'6a~. "overly timid". prudent.. and. 1Iv. Blass... one good at calculating. e.bov for these nd67j... i. "'''Oft "for these are one's own and are able ..Aov i. This attitude. p.109sa 2). A. on d.EpO' fLii>. questions the use of dAOy'aTa TOG lao.. Cope.. I believe. however. notes. . in anger. 8sb 13-14- b 2Sf-30 .. obviously excludes all thought of experiencing any serious harm. which explains.. 8sb IS.. selfconJidence. Q>. TQ.el 'ill~"'1ed (8sb 13).e~a. for the reasons see Bsh 32. i. 97-98. It is also the reading of Dufour..~ C£ LS. This. Medea 8. b 3S : 1 'tcdv cln•• b«.em B."""i. Cope. pp. see Euripides. " .. Otop.0. one acknowledges thzt there are men unworthy of their suJfering and so one can experience pity. quod accepimus de Timone. "da.0••• ti)J. C.' 01 p. "becawe of their:. Ross. inrmoderate courage (e..1 . it refers only to immoderate courage. dvap.. who punctuate with a comma. i. Tusc.. On the idea in the sentence. Kassel alone includes this within paren- a theses without any punctuation before it. b.. Cope.. The contrast in this single sentence..800 2 COMMBNTARY 141 b 32 •. slpl. On the other hand... b 33 : 1 clX"E1fA. is between two emotions. recognizing that there are good men. colon. Tovar. they are driven out of their senses by the fear. it permits the sentence to read intelIigendy. " .advOem". for the dislocation (if indeed there is one) in the codd. This is the reading of all the codd.£vO' strongly enforces the 'PoPODP"" u'P0dea. e. . On the other hand..).. orO ••• " .olcoin.. rae . is said for fear at 800 27-29.. T••a.lva. in fact.w On the word. I believe." 8Cia 1 a 2 : 1 .." T. .. b 33-34 oU Y"'p . preoccupation with their own emotion".T"~U ToU".).. where Roemer and Kassel locate it. hybris. although I can give no reason. see Sophocles.g.N. I would read eLll' . 4. "axel ¢aeT".. b 34 otxcI"..."".'15lv. taken as an integral part of the whole sentence8sb 29-34: "ai .a. ndO•• ... The phrase dll' 01 pna."". see 7& I3 : 2. See asb 34..''lYp. in hominum universum genus.aOed T.. nor does anyone else.. qui p. Kassel. anger.6...EVO~ sc. 2 p.~u '\"eN".' 01 p.aOij... at this place.. appellatur.. . if we read our phrase where it is found in the codd..1I. Sponge!.ET.. it makes for far more sense.. TOOT"'" here with Roemer.. hybris which is excessive and irrational self-confidence) and excessive fear.n"JV would then refer to the two major emotions mentioned: courage and fear. It is possible to see midpoint between them: the experiencing of reasonable courage and fear which permits the person to see the possibility of suJfering misfortune and so being capable of pity.1'1' ndO•• . or period after TO~TOW.2S on Timon of Athens: "ut odium . see LS. specifically its examples: anger self-confidence.. 2: "and generally speaking indeed (men feel pity) whenever one is so disposed that ... put at the end of the next classification 8sb 32-34: pf}T' cnJ ••• 01>0.e. see Cicero. The genitive is partitive... cpo 800 22-24: Tel ." Ixll oIl.pov. 5. Disp.VTOW read here makes sense in itscl£ Moreover.Ta is the side of the coin set forth in Bsh 14-IS. DC s60-S68.. 8Sb 29-34.. l.e. analyzes the expression in terms of neo. " II6).... II (86a 7-16)..e.ARISTOTLB. 99£.&.. 10.01.e. as AUn1JpOw x.. Moreover........... Cope: aVTrp.g... Cope... But Cope." y".d is nothing but a statement of the definition of the kind of evil that arouses pity..it seems to be fairly straightforward: (I) 8aa .. 100. from ##9.. "09.. he would agree in part with the interpretation offered here .J? CI."d sunt. "or to expect that they would happen. Schriften. . . "....6 . goes on to exemplify the destructive at 86a 7-9 and those caused by chance at 86a 9-12. the evils mentioned therein can be both physical and mental..... Kassd reads c!aVTq.• "cuncta mala.. 3II-12) refer the first to mental.. wants either av or y6Vlj17Ba8a.zl6&uv1Jpo. "a"d cpa ..." In what follows A..COvT"" is a second specification. and at I 65 the construction here.. From Victorius' comment on dva'e"""d compared with cp6ae""'Xrl."a I} Av""!ed.1. p.." .p il ... the disposition of those who pity has been set forth.va cp9ae. Nor do I agree with Cope." II6) essentially. There are no grounds. p. Spengd. shows that each word can denote both...g.8. however.Despite the disagreement about the statement here . Spengd. "tantum ilia [mala] esse.d (8sb I2). dplI. l. I} Taeax~ l" cpa. "well.. a S. in this he would agree with a 6 q>8C1p""'" Vahlen ("Kritik arist..... We have here a division of those things which men pity. (3) "al 817"" .. Thus we have two kinds of evil: (a) evils which are ruinous.> TOO•...9"11"'"d . quae perdendi vim habent.Taala" 82:1 21)..]"...... that the evils mentioned here are "evils affecting the body alone" (Cope refers to Bipontine #8. Tovar reads aVT<ii. Schriften. (b) those which are substantial and due to chance. Certainly in the definition of fear (ltlm] ..> TOO.. both those that are ruinous. Cope. quaecunque ilia sint. says it is based on the definition: namely. the second to bodily.... 8sb I3-14. for excluding """'7ew. one specification of the evil. p. for which chance is the cause. pp. 'RHBTORIC' II 86a 6 z il cN. then. but c£ S.. cpo BSh 13 : 3. provided they are substantial... and those. 99." is the reading of three edd. Spengd... a 4 : 1 Il>~. discusses the meaning of . On the expression see 78& 32-33...as would Vahlen ("Kritik arist. misericordiam excitare" . Atlm] cannot be confined to the body alone.. 1868 and cpo 1991. "For all destructive evils which are painful and distressing arowe pity. Ross: I} <Tq. "al &a""'1ew. p. •• iA . (2) "al Gaa ava'eBTIHd i."[..v Victorius and Schrader (pp. and from what A... Ross: I} <Tq. he may mean #9). quae interitum alferrent".oii the reading of three edd." Richards. et dva'e . Kassd alone secludes." z cl 8' We begin here the second division: nola iA. z cN.. pain. a 3 : 1 o. 235 . dva<eBT .d .. q6v.p il . . ~ela. was th.. How chance may be the cause of these misfortunes is explained in part at 6x b 39ff.xV~.. a7.. "a. While chance may be the cause of these misfortunes.w for physical assault upon a person. Xe1/eTT0'l'Mla (on the last two c£ 6xb 35-38).6) and 86b 3".. and by inxplication al"xo~.. is indefinite. Ha. C£ 7Xa II with which cpo EN XI26b 25-28.n. is to be understood with the following two sentences. and Cope.. is aware that they may also be the effect of voluntary human action and so not .."" c£ 78a 33.132ff.lll c£ Cicero.j3ijvlll sc.. 86a II). "al TO T. p8y.. arbitrary. Ordinarily with the statement in the articular infinitive (TO ... ~val"~' dr"""eTT'H>i . 6). 61b 39 .."... who interprets with "e~a" "when an ill results from what might naturally have been expected to lead to good. (leTTl IlA. and beyond human control. a 9 .u. p. nihil est enim tarn n. I yijPIl~ IClll V'.Bo~. z C£ 86a 7 . 73a X3. 6xb 7-14 (opposite of al. has tr.ia. read "'e~a. '72a 22.rfJpaTo~. as do Spengd (but he considers Vahlen correct)..dxlll' Cpo A X2. z _xcdcr••~ C£ 85' 24. Schriften.". De dmicitid j. I .a.. see." II7) who refers to 860 "7 (. x09. Also mentioned are "dllo~. 86a II). discusses it.d res vd seCWldas vel adversas.w IClll.w a X3 .• CN!. dip 6' 7j TVX'1 would bear out the twofold division argued for at 86a 5~. 5.g. on the construction.. 2073'. see S. z. avp(#i. z . uOJpd:r:OJv..d. pp.d <p8IlfIT'xck answered by 86a 9..11l. 1. d'=7Ie1a.lyo<po)..oAv'I'Mia..t of Ariadne in Catullus 64.1 Z a 8.ve the opposites.. as Victorius notes. On the force of "'eo".. 65a 33-34. e.3a 3 .a.)..ckpJ. 6xb x3-X4.BAv.crOl Cpo A 7. leTTl AA. tarn conveniens . 101£. 8Bw "'eo". I . Here we h. Kassd alone reads "al a/".. 60b X9-27 are 'l'iAo" ".. A.turae .xo~.•• draB ••) one would expect the dative..86a 13 143 COMMBNTARY -rox1J C£ A 5. 27-34There is no reason to think that A. l. The experience.. where we are told that good fortune iudf (61lTVxla) is owed simply to the causality of chance which. as presented. for a contrary view c£ Richards.. 69a 32. 6xb x5-26 (opposites of daBAvsuz.I7 where Laelius urges "ut amicitiam omnibus rebus humanis anteponatis.62a 12.. from a suggestion by Vahlen (''Kritik arist. 68w1)pc\!..tv ".ov8. Cope.lll is the reading accepted by the edd. -rox1J a 10 C\<P0).ptum." Among the components of eudzemonia presented in A 5. All the codd.gedy in mind in the instances meotioned in a 9-X3 but they can be found there..~ genitive absolute." a 12 .. EN IIx4a 21-30 where he considers a. c£ 6.o •. along with al"la this is usually in prose a term used in l. . do at 86024. .uS . The first pnnis~ent. 760 8..<0~ "de> In lA60v"w.C.). ~i ~o. sc. To argue that it stand alone makes sense only if we assume that the second idea present in A. and is spoken of in two speeches of Demosthenes'.. dyaDw•. 1516.noUS p... J xed TO .. Ross alone encloses 86a 19-25 ("eel . <A8OO"•• .. a IS : 61. .8"i.. (acquaintances) c£ 84b 17. compassion and pity for his dear friend reduced to begging. a 19 : J . & Gerth."eipov..OI>S We begin here the fino! division: those who are pitied. 1). it is not used as at A IS. ' oIS The article serves both infinitives On hrl c£ BSb 13 : 3. cpo 61b 9. the n is connective with h... .C. .. yvwplp. the king would be Artaxerxes III (3S8-338 B.S If Diopeithes is correctly identified above. Blass. pp. T' """. at 860 2S. opolov. (". z obceLOnj'r' On the dative..). a 16 ILmll. VI 2SI-54. . lAov". . c£ 82a 2I-2S. "iov): P. ... here is a prohlem... see PW. c£ Kiihner. II.. and 86a 25. Schriften."O\IS Z "'Ept .. and the gifts possibly were sent during or after the successful resistance of Perinthus and BY2antium to Philip. A likely candidate is the general who led a contingent of cleruchs to the 'I'hracian Chersonese (a military colony in fact which brought the Athenians into conflict in the area with Philip).llUO"v a 17 . •'TO') in parentheses.. z T1!t "'IIPU ~"O'u. see S."Da.oivow sc. That is to say that they fear for them. The use of ~. The point of the story is indicated at both 86a 18-19 (a.80v". then the . p~ . CAB.on on his way to death.OV'rIlS a 20 vAf/oII...on which c£ 86a 18 : 1 . points to !socrates.. Z YEVop. son of Arnasis (S69-?S26) and king of Egypt.. In a way this makes for a closeI articulation between 860 17. 72b 2S. is told in Herodotus 3.. lA80ww. C£ CiIa 17 : . who calis him Psammenitus.4).a conjW1ction which vahlen ("Kritik arist. The Team of Horses 48 for examples of other persons who receive pity. HoweveI.2... On ". 340-339 B. If at 860 24 we read with all the codd. n.d8E' There is no assurance as to which Diopeithes this is. "at ~01l.). On the Chersonese.e...n.polov." II7) fDvors. ifwe read as all the edd. a 18 : 1 . those closely related to them..o".rtS The story of Psammetichus III (?S26-S2S).o1". A more detailed explanation is given at 86a 24-2S.ammetichus expeIienced fear and dread for his . Spongel.. i. 235£. is a connective with "at ~otl. h. Diopeithes (9). 'ltHBTORJC' II 86a 20 a 14 : 1 4.U.) and 860 22-:'3 (~o~o pe. probably in the years 343/342.8a.S20. 3.'s mind is ""expressed.. lxov".144 ARISTO'ILE... death. Phil.14.. a thing that expelled pity. 31 (0£ I453b 14-37). and -ra rpoPeed were explained at 82a 37 . lIv". In the last passage A. His noble friend is not a close rdation.. Disp. 55a 21. a. Cicero.. cites similar ones. e. 4. A. .d. of a nail driving out a nail. cites as a proverb . and can be so used. A. 86a 24-25).PO).. 104.. however.). a 2. as he told Cambyses.86a 24 COMMBNTARY 145 for one very closely rdated to him was -rd de. a 2. therefore.o~ edd. Vablen (uKritik arist.-23 In the light of the use of this word at A I. p.oG". Cope. 7.).. II7Sb 8.." . Freese do not read it.'C".I iJ dlne d. All the a 24-25 k... For .oval dll TOV. 66b 4-7. at a 22-24 gives an explanation for the example.g."o.. I9. but with a stronger and more threatening force: the terrible.. With Vablen's conjecture our clause is rdated to the Psarnmetichus example at a 20-22. See 86a 18 : 1.) is joined with 860 18 (U." is the reading of all the codd. p......""eovrm. cf."oG We have just seen Ta sl . gave a general rule: the evil happening or about to happen to another for which we experience pity becomes a source of fear when it threatens us.]5. Pro lapsu 7 (in OCT ed. Victorius speaks of the meraphor in . read Vahlen's conjecture: <0'. the terrifying.2.C.pov ". beyond tears: ". something..-27..."eova. and Spengel.).OG a.-. ha. and while Psamrnetichus sees his disaster as possible for himself and so to be feared.. Seen as an imminent and substantial personal threat it becomes ." II7E) gives his reasons. "Rberorik. I453b 14. 9.. found in Lucian Apologia 9." TOV lUov (capable of expelling pity) as fear for the self takes over and drives out pity just as powerful desire drive.. 236. 82b 2..lip Radt.a"lat. Non posse suaviter vivi secundum Epicurum ro88a. Cope. found also in Plutarch. yae> in eleovaw . l ••ova. in mind the way in which the dreadful can just as readily evoke fear as pity.75 ("etiam novo quidam amore veterem amorom tamquam clavo clavum eiiciendum putaot"). 83a 4. agrees with it. ...82b 4.otov. out reason (EN III9b IO and cpo II54a 27...." as the story told by Herodotus demands. . (I) To read without <o~ "de> unites our clause to 86a 18 (sABoDa. . in giving us the father (Amasis) for the son has made a mistake.s). This.. However. and our clause is a further statement which gives the ground for the explanation.. Schriften. nor does Spengel. 27." on good grounds suggests "the opponent.. I think that A. Poetics I453a 22. For example. cf. Tusc.d (86a 5-16)....I. his emotional response is pity not fear. 88 TOo6. we must keep in mind that from the definition personal fear does operate in the experiencing of pity. a 22 5E. a 24 XP>\"'fLOV 65b 8.'0' lI'Ip '''''eove . k.1 n:POO'ClL't'oUv't'l "beggiog..EE. means that the clause at 86a "'5 ("a! TO. Te): since our clause is not . ".. (3. who nonetheless. the Persian king (529-522 B.~Ov a synonym for TO <paPeeo.2. 8no.. says in dfect at 8Sb 19-24.". Thus it is possible to join 86a 16 (~A.. the statement is not as meaningless as suggested .••••. 'RHBTORIC' II 86a 24 a new idea this is not acceptable. However.." (3) To translate "men experience pity when the dreadful is near themsdves" encounters two difficulties: the question is not when but whom men pity. still leaves a problem which is. too. 86a 28-29.aw) an attitude which inclines one to pity. d. p.. If not. 82b 26-27: that which causes fear for onesdf is the cause of pity for others. this statement is at odds with 8sb 32-33. moreover.. 85b 14-IS) A. Cope.. 900 21-22.ARISTOTLE. "further men pity when the evil is near themsdves. as Victorius does (so. . hetter handled by Vahlen's emendation. is the cause of overwhdrning fear which excludes the possibility of experiencing pity. to the person who experiences pity. lU. as A.""rnA""'.'' .dea. It has the same dfecc npon the person as tbatmentioned at 8sh 32--33' <pofJ. does insist dIat the person who experiences the emotion must consider that he can suffer the same evil and that it is near to him. Without this dement there i.. If we read with the codd....o. Vahlen's reading diminishes an idea necessary to the experience of pity for A.. Furthermore. 86a 28--29. explained at 82a 21-2S. This also appears to be the point of V ahlen's other citation (900 21-22) on why old men are inclined to pity: "they think that all possible suffering is close to them and this is (as we . two ofVahlen's citation.. as the fearfuI i... For it gives us the second part of the definition of pity presented at 8sb 13-19: narndy. It apparendy signifies a monstrous evil such as was the killing of his son to P. no pity. Can we then interpret T. d~ ToV~ TO) with 86a 24 (iT' lA_oVa••).even granting that the purpose of the whole passage is: those whom men pity. as noted above.. '4 of the Poetics would be.ammetichus or some of the incidents mentioned in chap. such a d. as pity is explained at 8Sb 13-19? In that passage it appears that to experience pity there must be an dement of apprehension and fear of the evil as possible for onesd£ In fact. Vahlen's point is that the whole passage (86a 18-29) has to do with those whom men pity and that our clause as found in the codd. a few comments are called for. and especially with 86a 22--23..o... and the new idea (if such is indeed necessary) is: for men to pity anyone they must see the evil as do." Following the codd.g... In the text (86a 22--23) the evil is called TO d.6p•••• a<p. would indicate this. and as such is said to be TO. His conjecture (a substantial one as he admits) and his explanation are quite attractive and tie in very well with the Psammetichus statement. (86a 24) as I do in this note simply as "evil" and mean by it evil which causes fear hut not overwhdrning fear l I am not '''''e01Jn. 82b 26-27. however. that evil must be a potential <pOfJ-eo.a. why does the person experience pity. e.e to themselves. does not contribute to this idea. Whether this idea correcdy represents the nature of pity (ef... 1"4) gives only half the definition of pity. the need to see the destructive evil as possible for onesdf (and so fearful) if one is to be able to pity anyone. (2) To interpret the codd. 86a 29-30 (..lov tpcdv. and so the pity for the othex. for example. which is slighdy to the point hexe.. to refer to them: "are pitiable (ie. 8lb 30) and from plural to singular as hexe (see 84a 25-26). trom third person plural to first plural (at 81a 14. 19 and "danger" at a 27.01 . Spenge!. p. ascribes our verb to the "(orators) who aid the effect of their descriptions... 6l'-"""~ Repeat In. the shift in person has frequendy been seen. illustrates with Thucyd. IS. Td 6.. in chap... 20.l. the speakexs. a 30-32 ..."". 237.27.." a 29-30 . 14 of the Poetics and could be so taken when it appears in the chapter on f= in the Rhetoric.. I find the interpretacion of UsewoTieov.. is interpreted as a synonym for Td "". p. On the statement "a"" hex... 2 &cp' eN"..g.. see 84ia 24-25: in such instances the probability that the one pitying may experience the same is far stronger.d). a 28 : 1 iv"ClG8C1 C£ Cila 20. social standing. "d8'1 = sufferings. ru a 27 : 1 p.." Apart &om thls startling shift in the subject of this division. 26..pyCl~Op.i with this clause... C£ 8e1a 27 : " 8e1a 24-25.. it necessarily fono.. odd. 's concern in this section is with those who are the objects of pity." If we keep in mind that A. )'BVlj = family.<ell &l . more successful in exciting pity). ~'rVfJaTa = posicion.. are especially successful in exciting pity.(Jee6. Clean's speech on Mytilene... Z Kul cttJ'tc{l "at is intensive and adverbial." In the Roberts translation we read: "it follows that those who heighten the effect of their words . on l~. see 86& 22.3-4. cpo 79a 26.6..1. e.. C£ bb 2(j. Cope. the conclusion to both causal clauses begins at 86a 32." subject of ~""e~a" understand Ta 6... a 25 '<oU~ 6l'-"(DU~ Cpo 87b 25-27. the problem with the usual interpretacion of this word and what folio." and interprets elss"I'o-rseo'U. l\9a 8 : 2. . a 32 auvCl". BA. ." c£ 62b 13 : 2. 1454& 13.. 66a 12 (various types of character are discussed in B 12-17).86a 32 147 COMMBNTAlIY certain.. on 118'1 c£ 6ga 18 : 3.. birth. On 1jA".•. becomes obvious: it shifts the subject of this whole passage &om the pexsons pitied to those who attempt to arouse pity in othersspecifically here. 3-40.oIvDU~ "those who contribute to the effect.."'v as seen in Poetics 1453b t8.g.la..iD... e. I would retain the subject of the division and in reference to that subject interpret the passage: "it follows necessarily that those who ."CI' "it appears more likely. But the g=1 interpretacion of the passages is "horror" at 8334.)''''1: "and since men experience pity either not at an or not to the same degree for suffexing which they neither foresee occurring ten thousand years hence nor recaU as having taken place ten thousand years past. lOS..<£ or Ta (c£ 86a 34). and the statement at 860 29-3S is consistent with what follows to the end of the chapter..~ Por the idea. Cope is intdligent and obviates the need for Kassd's parentheses. I do not agree with Roemer's reason for the seclusion.. The punctuation found in all the edd. a common periphrasis for Taxi"". Kassel. and cpo r 2. cod. Spengd.way". as does Tovar.... Cope reads with cod. Kassd. Beitrag. Roemer.. Tovar are in agreement. (Syy1l~ . a 35 x ..e. alu8tju•• . In the sentence at 86a 35 .g. 2...12a 9. . Quintilian on the idea. F reads Au8ijT.. 'Pcd". 105-106. voice. Ross. Kassd. aluBtju•• (which I would translate "by a display of feeling"). 'RHETORIC' 11 86b I contribute to the effect by their bearing.. a 33 t"eij. 32-33. Dufour..~ "For they make the misfortune appear near.38.. For a discussion of. Consequendy. 6tci . ub 22 . cod... see 86a 33)..0. 'e..lIi. They will be indicated when they occur....0 XIIXen.ci YOT"".) but which are entirdy coDSonant with the interpretation offered at 86a 32. pp.' is the reading of three edd.148 ARISTOTLE. a 34 1tpO 6"j. p. Spengd. 1to. I453b 1-6). 1t.... Cope. • lva.. F d. pp. A. Cope.. Spengd.y." Then the reason given at 86a 34-3S for this statement relates the protasis and apodosis of the sentence at 86a 29-34 (. The other edd.. Kassd.". I accept the reading of /Jillo. A. See 86a 34.d TO «vT6 and makes it part of the preceding sentence. Cope.oii". accepts it in a note to the passage.. Ross uses a comma followed by <><al> dId TOVTO.oiiv. as do Ross..Iva.ci "'cxxt.. Cope. Cope.. oSb 12..•" .. ycip 1to..) in a logical and reasoned way.. passages which may have contributed to the common interpretation of our 860 32-34 (.n. 860 4-16)... Tovar.. iuB1ju•• . lob 33-36. is the reading of Ross." All the codd. 1tpO . Spengd. Spengd.:... read without the article... Cope.b I in parentheses.g. The other edd.. shifts from the subject of this division (people who are pitied) to things which arouse pity (i.eou~ In the reading and punctuation of these lines. . 27007I. See also Poetics I455a 2.. (save Kassd).oii'l"O preceded by a colon or period is the reading of four edd.1 .yov6~ with Kassel. Dufour.! . a 34 . Spengd. see Vahlen.. e. 2 . dress [reading luSiiu. cites Cicero. Spengd. Ross encloses a 34 . Changes in both will be found in Ross. (Syytl~ .• ~. a 34-35 tyyU~ YOT""cI~.2-34 (cp.86b 8 iyyU~.". as he further illustrates his subject. 10. read TO "a. 6nea).. and by and large by their dramatic manner are more pitied.."" ij . seclude it.1 .b 4.. . Y"'ovcl~). 8tlb I : I 6. setting it before our eyes as something about to happen or as just past."e . not the plural fonns read by Roemer.. see r II. Cope... ••ol1 TO. " .oi. which would be more appropriately linked with Myov" an idea closer to "ecl<.. However.. On the use of .. I .. (a 7-8) and inl <pa.oyou~ See preceding note.... ileo.!.~ ••. /Iv.. -. cf....TO... refers to ""J.."".. SP!'llgel.1..s. /Jaa TO''''Ta would appear to mean "all other such things like ""J. LS. 67b 32.. and I am following it. ..."a not to "~cl<. 69a 27." 391-92). is the reading of all the codd.aElov 6..ci). . critically speaking...dA'''Ta .. This is re:lsonable.ci~ "pci~'4.." 2 fl4AAOV "o. and none of the edd. " ......... "I1dE.. see "Ef/.". (a 6) and liTa. (a 7) and TO.. which I would accept with Spengel. Ross transpose "al Td... The two clauses give the reason for a...awo. Cope. nAf/"/ov <pa1'"Ta. s4h 7.i.."l . I"T" "and most pitiable is it when those caught up in such crises act nobly... I find Kassel's change attractive insofar as it fits in coherendy ·with the text immediately preceding.. with Thurot.. Roemer... ... The reason given by Thurot ("Observations critiques [I). 6." b 3--4 . of those in the very act of dying. this is the reading of the codd. b 4-S "Ill D. "...COMMENTARY 149 b 2 ""l ."l Myov.OaA. ". " .ci crij".1.. sc. d.. "of those actually suffering".'a (on the passages... but . Kassel simply secludes the phrase... C. 86b 4-8) this appears to be a general summation of all that has preceded from 86a 29... "... Thurot ("Observations critiques [I)." 3"7) suggests some change also..g.. 8428. b 4-8 p.. .." m.lov (8sb 14). : "For all these instances evoke pity more readily by the &ct that the evil appears to be close at hand since both an innocent person is involved and the suffering is set before our eyes..i What we have in b 6-8 is a repetition of the definition of pity at 8Sb 13-16 and thus a cyclic closure to the clrapter: e.lwroWr""... IV...d "ci)..".DuN.." b 6 : 1 Ii.. at A 9...1 6' .I )..g." and li"a <fUa "all other things like lOyo".l'l'Il'''o"w. Tovar. b 3 /lOll ." with the genitive absolute expressing cause. ycip '<IIil-r1l Read here in the text (cf. (8Sb 16). It is the reading of the code!.d TO lyyV... even though coordinated with saOijTa" can refer to more than clothing and could include actions. e.. Spengel......" 307) is that BaOijTa..)." On . 2086d. tn. 66b 27-29."i iJua TO''''Ta.al••"Oa.oG "cieou~ For these lines the same text and punctuation is read by the edd. "dOov..".."". Kassel reads the same Greek but transposes b 6-7 to b 4.a T~ BYY.iov.".. b 4 olov ~a'l "oA"'~ "for example.. Cope.. see S. Dufour. (except Kassel). ..). . b 7 ""I cl>~ ••• /Iv. see 86b 6 : 2. "a.. to b 3 before ..<p (8sb 13). Iv d".!O.t. one cannot say that there is not comparably good and satisfying sense present without the transposition.'a and "ed'../••<18a•..· cinllYl"a XQe ••• TO.""". we find leYa joined with ""J. ". . . However.87h 15 T. on the other hand. is the real. 87b 3: "al dui ~l or.tion between pity and indignation 3. 1987. d': "On the one hand. See following note.. what is called indignation is ahove all the antithesis of pity. 86b 9-12 2..87 a S 1.. 3 wation between envy and malice 6. hath indignation and envy are considered as emotions which exclude pity. 3-5 summary II . as is seen in chaps. 8.. pity viewed in their effects 5... 86b 25-33 indignation.lv answered by 86h 16: ME . the subject of the chapter and the threefold division is not formally approached until 87a 61£ Instead.. 86b 16-25 relations among envy. Tws chapter i.CHAPTER 9 I . Development: 87a 6 . • v£l'-£criiv Por the infinitive see S. indignation. envy would also appear to he opposed ...." Indignation. fear 4. quite different in its structure from those seen thus far. a good third of the chapter is spent upon a quasi-definition of indignation together with a discussion on the relation of pity.6-13 division. not envy.. General Introduction: 86b 9 . 86b 33 ... p. cf. indignation. 9-10. 86b 12-16 a definition of indiguation w.8. At 87a 61£. assuming more or less the presence of a definition 86b 9 .. together with a restatement of tbe dc6mtion" given at 86b 1D-12 those at wbom men become indignant in the course of wbich discussion some things which cause: indignation are mentioned.. As the ourline indicates. pity. 87. envy.opposite to pity. the attitude of those who experience the emotion (a) 87b ]-4 (b) 87b 4-'5 summation and ttaDsitiOll those who experience the emotion III· General Summary and Conclusion: 87h IS-20 : 1 fUiA . appears to have missed a point which is correctly stated in the Rhet.8.1S (II08b If[). also says in the MM passage.. However. in EE the extreme called malice is not mentioned...." In other words there . There has always been a problem about these two extremes of indignation (envy. as A.v as we find it in the Rhetoric. In these passages it is further described as a mean state between envy (pain at all good fortune whether deserved or undeserved) and malice (pleasure at all misfortune whether deserved or undeserved)..p. The brief comments in the ethical works do not diH"er in any substantial way from the explanation of VB". vi.g... however.:...ric.defect whose mean is cho-physical reaction.\11""aBa •."".) . and is mentioned at EN nosb 1-6.vi.. as here· studied.• B1l"lIaylal!:. .. and the extreme is called more precisdy d7ti)ov..160-61. malice). as explained. 48b. However. cf. 1233 b IS-26.. This was also the view Plato expressed in phileb. MM II92b IS-29.."a. Iloa 2-3..yl"L~ The articular infmitive is indirect object to the verb (see S." b 10 . . In the way he analyzes the two extremes: envy ('1'860. Grant. and it surfaces in the commentaries on the EN: e.. as Grant suggests. on EN IL7. If anything is the opposite of '1'860. Such a rdation is not presco! between . detailed information on .... devdops the rest of the chapter in the fonn to which we have become accustomed. From these passages the following common statement can be drawn: indignation is pain felt at the undeserved good fortune of one's neighbor. yckp . On h. It is true.81J... Il2-13) is another matter.g. . Whether this structure rellects the uncertainty about this concept which is present in the ethical works (see. an absence of any reaction to the good or bad fortune of another... are not two extremes of excess and but simply different aspeers of the same psy. such as is found at Top. 1961) whose subject is the articular infinitive . pp.i". b n Tp6nav ••• i\8DU~ "in a certain sense and arising from the same motal disposition.t.."... A. EE (1233 b ISf[) extends the meaning when it identifies indign2tion also as pain for undeserved misfortune (which we know as pity) or as pleasure for deserved good fortune or deserved misfortune (which we learn from Rho/Qric s6b »-31 is the response of the man who is just)... Gauthier & Jolif.malice (h"xa1e"I<al</a)."". a kinship between pity and indignation in which one emotion is complementary to the other in a person. 3) that envy-malice are merdy diH"erent aspects of the same attitude of mind. Our phrase is a condensation of 8sb 13-16. that for any (both words. ihta.. Cope. BSb 13 : J.. It is called .~ express the same idea) one must tum to the Rhetoric.AllISTOTLE. What he missed is the fact that envy-malice. • . A./a n. 'RHEl'ORIC' 11 s6b II in what has preceded. IL1. EE 1221a 3. • XIIXD". appears to realize this problem at the conclusion of his general discussion in the present chapter where he acknowledges (86b 34 . A.""a.' it would be. e. .tQJ~ modifies the expression as it does in the next line: "those who undeservedly fare badly . Life of Homer 132 (cf. II.2. 86b IS-III) is indignation. The explanation given here of pity and indignation is dearly echoed in Pseudo-Plutarch.ense of moral obligation." a. Part of the right is that one receive in accord with one's merits ("aT' dElao): "in matters ofjustice the equal is prim2ri1y that which is proportionate to merit" (ENII58b 30-31. p. began to replace Xq~ in denoting need. b 13 : 1 &EL would seem to imply a .). w 6. These needs could be. oJ cf.. also on justice Gauther & Jolif. adverbial. or Gooddl." In """dx6Ba6ao (to be troubled.. legal. as we find the word used in the New Testament. pp. which i. etc.xov ycip sc.wrOUG' X"xcd~ On nqdTTS" "a"'... when such a law is violated the response of both men and the gods (e.. b 14 : 1 GUV<iX8CGeCl' XCII U££LV "For a good man should experience distress and pity at the sight of the undeserved misfortune of others. Grant (on EN I1. then what is violated here is the law of nature and man which is understood to command that right be done (EN If30b 33-24.) and unfair (TO a. Gruber. calls. b 14-15 c1I&.". r65. refined emotions. 65--'72. 78a 33) and which is strengthened by 86b 14-16: 000"" l'~ •. cpo II31a 24-27).fa "Q871.. EN II29b I. brie1ly reviews the idea of •• Herodotus. the good. LS. pp.O. cf. 238£) where we are also told that the Aristotelians considered these two emotions the dln.a. doa'...) says that they "seem to represent the natural and almost indestructible ideas of justice in the human mind.. as >16.. Robinson or Bauer.I 325-28.. here the "d~ 1/60'" Xq71t1To. distressed) there is the idea of AV"71 Toeax"'d71~ seen at 86b 18." an instinct in man of what is right. z . 80a 30 : 1.a~l"'~ "qdnovao) oJ.o. Speaking of the personification ofNerncsis and Aides in Greek mythology. the force Cope finds in the word (cf.o.o~ &i: i.. . Spenge!. ssb 30-31..ao. LS II. Hesiod.14-15: lI08a 30Jf.7.Baa. See below Sllb 14 : 3. "the law commands life in accord with every virtue and forbids life in accord with any vice").e.. !u Barrett..g.• ". . eaTL If we consider the unjust to be what is unlawful (TO "oed.86b '4 153 COMMBNTARY pity and envy. and see 86b 17. physical. On TqO"..~ see 69a 18 : 3. II. moral.~ Xfl7/lno. in Homer.. cf. necessity (although in the fifth century xe~ to some extent was still reserved for moral obligation) until it became dominant and was used to denote various kinds of need. or malice. b 12--13 ci"""" . TO'~ (d. 3 4yCl~""~ "p..... "edTT. fare well. would indicate. notes. on xe71aT&~ cf. or what A. XP'IGTOU Both pity and indignation are emotions experienced by the good man. on >16. . himself gives the meaning to n 'neo.d correlative to 86b 9.9... 0".i~ b 15 86b 20 Cpo EE I233b 26. Cope read with an equally good tradition and the support of the sclroliast BI. c£ 86b 18-19.olov see 87b 22-27. even the same as (Hal TatlT"'). to mean: "any and all the instances" in whiclr one ean speak of the presence of envy (and also indignation). untoward) at 86b 24: TI 'PaVAo. LS. I interpret ibraa.. noa b 19 : '-4.. In the very first instance (otl d.." does not seem likely.•~aylal').P"X. laov "al ..010.. Both readings give the same meaning. If it is good fortune...e.. . fao.). if the other person's good fortune (and also bad fortune) is seen as an imminent personal threat. opposite.. b 18 M"'I'" K. Taking it as Cope. It is frequendy joined with 8.yl'f is the reading of four edd.lV"'1 is present in envy also (Hal 6 'P8&.. 860 25-26. A.'\I The TO 6A ... might be considered an opposite to pity. see S... i. indignaQon.d .:.0 U . deserved or not.""v.. lb.tl"ea"Iq:.lvx••a8a• .. p. and others do. II 579.)." On the use of ro.. "common to all men who have the feeling. T~&"O') since it is very close to (cnl•.. to denote equality.. is analyzing here the necessary constituents of the two emotions in order to distinguish them trom fear which can easily enter into consideration. (bad. as we see at 86b 23-25 (iel•. . The genitives are dependent upon .S'I~ As we see at MM II92b 25-26.8 of Xenophon) defines envy as we find it here and also in B 10. Soaates (in the Memorabili. This is what differentiates envy from indignation. 3. . but rather because of what happens to one's neighbor must be equally present in caclr and every instance (of indignation and envy). Spengel.1. A. On TO. aVTO. A. The Hat is adverbial: "also". Kassel. so too envy.I. ...• e1l"ea~t~). as indignation. in &ct. or Gildersleeve. b II-12 (-ro ."p . II53g.. 1 cpe6vo~ See B 10... b 20-22 .. A reading of the edd.. ntay be suspect. b 16 SoIl. b 19-20 ci1. no. If Roemer.. The fact that . with cod.. ~"cipX..0.q . C£ Top.) and that its object is good fortune makes it seem like indignation. it could be seen as placing the person enjoying it in the class of those at 82b 2-22. the cod. Kassel are correct. :nI. Z bel ":.ARISTOTLE..l'lato.' ••• av.Iou . the envious man experiences pain at all good fortune. clause is the subject of the main verb 6••: "The attitude that 110t because something untoward will happen to oneself. in the same way (TO. s' av x.a~lov). 'RHETORIC' II 154 e.~aytao.. the diiference of envy trom indignation is clear: the envious man is pained at any good fortune experienced by someone like himselfwhether deserved or undeserved. ... from what follows..uTo.. C£ 74b 3 I.. (Td.0 li. . of whom A. the Xe7JaT6.jnae<a".... Disp. CI.1.g. cinse (tlnijeEs) Tq. 0 b 29 : J • '<'l""pICl~ as seen at A 6.u. in the other. deserved good fortune.. From 86b 12 to 87" S. . I1Y with the aorist (Ta. z The good man.. good fortune) to someone because he merits it is just. 6. 0. cpo 78b 7... : 0 IAn."'ij JAn.6 ". C£ Boa 30 : J. 6T' amq. ro. At 86b lS-16 we were told that undeserved good fortune is unjust (since justice demands that one receive in accord with one's merit.71 iva T' aVTq.. ." which is the way opposite to d... 11. infinitive)." The accusative with the passive verb... Here he states that indignation and envy are each accompanied by its own emotional response (i.g. A""7J8.. and malice in that order. cf. m••• xi/) z Welp!...7J On with o~x aT' at 88a 34. M'.3-24 )'U'"I 0 '<Clp"XiI •• C£ 82a 2. b 2.~I. au'"i> This statement in indirect discourse is governed by and expresses a future possibility (e. Cp. z XP1JcmI~ liEi yd!p ••• '<O. is noted by Cope. 0 •• m'. 63a 26. also 80a 30 : I. On the meaning.i7J. cin'e is the subject of the verb VniieEB.tatement of 86b 27-28 b 31 : J cil"f'Cd libel"CI ill". and.....anla nalhJ) which is diJfereut from the other and from that of pity. and so we can assume that what happens (punishment.ee 86b I4-IS). refers to: the punishment of wrongdoers..••v 'c..'<""~ b 28 . see S..1 : J.alTq.. is speaking in this section. b 22 ... and also (s6b 34ff:) from that of malice... see 6za 29 : 2.. e......Ta).." (just mentioned) and quite likely pity.. ... b 2S-2.. ...OVl..: "to hope that what has hap- b 32.9).". • 0 iAn.. III.). ~.9-30 This is a r ...ou'<O..mji Cpo 87b 22-24: d "86.•...d '<Ilt ••• b 2. J UvelY"1J a. cLUd "in the one instance envy . ... T.CI•. envy.. Leo." . fear.. atlTq. (86b 2.0 I'tv indignation.~ "And it is evident that opposite feelings refers to indignation and envy attend indeed upon these emotions....~ (lja8ofaBTa • •... .. b 2.' .1<p.86b 32 COMMBNTAlIY ISS b 20 I'i! S·. malice.... 1S9S...u. 4. in the eIfort to discriminate pity. tries to show its difference from indignation.. xa"""'eal'Ooo. 68b 2.. I"Cllq>OVOU~ As Cicero says (Tuse. A.8.. the antecedent to its clause of explanation at 86b 24: b23 'nN.7 tv.. p.18) in the continuation of the citation at 8sb 13 : 2: "nemo eninr parracidae aut proditoris supplicio misericordia comrnovetur.. See preceding note.. 'l'6&.. is the privation of something whidr is still in the process ("..• pity. Since I think that A.... Xale ..."vo/'t.ww..87'l 1 6 yeip .'s correction of his statements in EN. recognizes that the two emotions arc mordy different aspects of the same state of mind.. b 33 : 1 i\O~ 3 .~ ••hol Again the threefold division whidr we have seen in each chapter..1i • 5 xp>!a.dndexon. wishes to make a distinction at 87" 2.. refers hack to "'l"4> (a 1).d to one like him could happen to him also. in fact. "will b. i. qllJo>se&."'." b 34 m.~ Th.6. emotions."0') of becoming fully possessed and established.. cp8av... he will necessarily be pleased by its loss (malice).rp and .. ''The envions man..yvo~ . the people with whom men become indignant and the things which cause the emotion arc combined... passages concerned with malice have been mentioned in 86b 9 : 3... i.. at the outlines of th~ preceding .p6~ Here.cI a 6 np. 'RHETORIC' II 87" 6 pen. as in chap.." qllJoea. dearly found rejoicing at the misfortones of his neighbors....thing actually in one's possession (dndexo..' .ei 6' w.aRk..." say.. just mentioned from 86b 2.&/....p. qav.: "for that at whose acquiring and actual possession someone is pained he must necessarily take pleasure in its loss and complete destruction.. If this is answered by anything.1 ~mtpxOV"<. b 34 ... general grounds for such an attitude arc set down at 86a >4-27....pt.ov): sec 86b 9 : 3. is pained by the presence of something in another (envy). plato (Phileb.. As he goes on to say (87" 1-3). between o-r.). I. '"" ~': cpo II4b 27 : z. C£ 86b II.eoj". A glance.. In stating here that the malicions man and the envious man arc the sarne A.. is the ruin of som.. it is at a 8: 'l'a••e6v a 6-"'1 -ric.. which arc described in the following clause: 0 "de . whereas UTie.....x. however... a 3 1Ud1....156 ARISTOTLB. MM (the statement in EE is left open by the use of ..u.•.v/.p>!aE •••• cpOoP' 3 -. 2..•..... Cpo 6:Ia 29 : 1• C£ 86a >4.. is taken up in the next chapter. the doseness and affinity: cpo also 8<ja !}-I2. Thes. 48b). the feelings. y. we have A...). namdy. 3 . I would interpret our phras." Th... 87'l 1 • 2 : 1 .0... indignation: sec 86b 25-2.. then. if on. In this chapter. and in what follows to 87" 3 (. arc the emotion." ..6/f. and qllJoe~ which correspond to· ". 9.o6-n.. deserve.1 -ni> . (except Dufour). e...eo~ This is commonly I2ken to mean "all forms of good". 87a I6. see 78a 31 : J.. a 12 0. qroer. 6Gb 27 on d'VtldpBt as meaning either "power" or flposition·'.crc. 86b 9 . presumably chaps.. v".... 67a 16-17.. liwil."""" i. a I4-I5 XCII 01 .o6-ro~ C£ A S.. virtue.. spite are not given further notice in this chapter.e. well as those who are endowed with the gifts of nature such as good birth.~ cbu. "<oL~ 4y. is clear: men experience indignation at those who fare well because of goods which they do not deserve..0' "pity".. a 8 : 1 cD.. position. c!6aycl we are speaking of "the goods of nature.. The reason for this is given at a 1:>-13 . a 9 01.. ixOVT~ 4ycz8il is the reading of the codd.>v i. says: ''but a person will become indigoant at wealth and power.. Cope. _ _ I xcVJ. and. at all such things of which men of virtue.. courage.! .o!v auswered by 1. TO. 61a 12-24 on wealth.g.1 .." This statement of the Greek accepted by the edd. (86b 9-12). and see 60b 20-29..COMMENTAlIY 157 chapters reveals that the threefold division is formally followed in only three instmces. 70a 2Off. 06 yAp . beauty... 60b 30-37.lil J .. .u. and all other such advantages which in their minds only the morally good..'P' 61)110. and other such gifts.. on the plural see S.o. 1004. Spengel.II. justice... ••• Such "goods" are given in detail in A 5... and 6Ib 7-14." those bestowed by nature itself.:.ov p. as well as those endowed with natural goods. is the opposite of 11. Cope..iier.sa.. a.' a 14 .• 06"'PCly.o. Io. On that ground the argument is: if we are indignant with a person for deliberately [virtue is the result of deliberate choice] being good.~ £I. the edd.e.o~ C£ A 5. Among such goods they include things like wealth.. are worthy... Thus .. z elp. C£ 87a r5.w the other emotions. Why those endowed with natutal gifts should deserve other c!ya6cl is questionable and is questioned....." 504): 0~6' . • Ial..b'P. Spengel.dy C£ 74& 34 : z..LV "at someone manifestly enjoying undeserved good fortune".01 6i.At 87a I3-16 A.p. II. 59a 35......i.87a 5. since envy.d 'l'VCIB< 0%0"" ciy08c1.0.. (except Dufour). cpo a I3 "lo~.. a 10 : 1 .. Dufour reads a conjecture of Roemer's ("Zur Krltik.Ac.o6'«!' . a 15 06yw.). ". . 1'ot06is specified by what follows at a 14-16.~ z 4>.... In the phrase Tel rp<lae. a II-I2 (o~di a 13 : l ... on rpo. and is groWlded in the fact that .. sc.rrlJa. Z ". C£ A 4. generally speaking. then we should pity him for being deliberately evil.. Cope. Sponge!. knew them in the statement on . may very well mean what is obviously said in the Greek: namely.. e. who reads a conjecture of Roemer's: 01 dya601 o~a' (sc.. Spengel. From what follows... 6 (843 24). yde Tt TO 160. in which the article (5. . "the long established appears to be s0mething aIrin to the natural. mistakenly called I). at.e.... for not having the other draM which are held in honor and which A. 'RHETORIC' I[ Cope (pp. 703 6-9: 8. must be altered in a way similar to that of Roemer. governs TO. If men despise these people for not having these other dya6d. Tii qnla..w. 10 (88a 13). II3£) rejects the above and accepts with qualification the interpretation of Victorius. A II. 'Poas. From A S we know that the .. In such instances envy might be possible. 2.0..mlas. that men accept the fact that those who possess natural goods are worthy.. no matter what it is.. but not indignation...g. however. goods. From 88b 27-28 we learn that men despise the . TOOTO~ from a 12) el Ta qnla.. 6rb 39 . i.62a 12 and the observation at 88b 27-28 together with 88b 3. A. dra6a. speaks of our phrase as one used in transition to a new division and refers to instances in chaps.~Tvx[a at A S. it would appear that men in general expect them to have them and so would not be indignant if they do possess them. s (82b 4). dra6. and so do not experience indignation with such men as they do not with the morally good. i.. 62a 3: Haw. This is an interpretation which is quite reasonable and understandable. as far as I can see. c£ 70Il 6 : J..0. a 16 : J md S' is the reading of four edd. clpxlliov . specifies together with their possessors (good men) at 88b 3-'7.'" i. e.yyU~ . IIS3g) specifies the word: "the 'natural. Victorius understands our statement to mean that men are not indignant at those who possess natural goods and fare well because of them. . 240. In a note to the passage.alj ae. On the other hand. 2 (78b 10.e.. . not a new division. Ostensibly. these goods are not natural. There may be a hint at such an attitude among men as A. 70Il 7.. Kassel reads l".. of such dya6d which bring with them success... could mean that those endowed with natural goods are deserving Qike the morally good) of 'other dyaM..g.. 2 . an identical good.. TQV1'O. long-established possession appears the same as possession by nature. ••." lyyo.. (sc. The instance in 2 is change to a new idea. 8 (860 29).-'7. If we ore to accept Victorius and Cope.~vXoVvrs.. the text. The following do not appear to me to be correct: 8.ARISTOTLB.. qouaLv The dative is governed by vepsuiiv. lxova.. it is accepted only by Dufuur among the edd. it is possible that A. p.e.ne. a 17 'ToiC. 10. This brings us back to the disputed statement: it is not totally unreasonable to think that A. as the morally good are.tlTvxo. are those who possess natural goods.eayia. used a similar type of orgument with regard to habit and nature.) 1j qnla. ) to acquire political office in the State. It illustrates 87a 21£ a 25 01 pkI . a 22 c:.. do"•••). a 19.. a 29 liPI'o.loW. Bxb 19-20. Mil. 01 6' "the latter" (those in long possession of the good) .e. It is possible to see the principle realized in the first three. 109.au. civic office." seeA 4.. mowom".•. ICed 6. c£ 62a 36-37- a 26-27 .o elIpl'o. II5.. Avno6aLV...e..oii 'NJtmo~ "any chance person"..on given at a 25: "Por that which appears to have been always as it is now seems to be the reality.. 64b 9.0 yellp ••• ixE'" See the comment at 87a 16 : z on this explanation of the rea.. i. On cU'18c!.... as "the real.. 59b 4... .COMMBNTARY 159 a 19 'ni'w ". government officials (of whom one a 20 c!pXov.O' apxOVTE~ a 23 : I Z recendy acquired riches they have wed the money (d. and cpo 860 28.EVO' group was called "archous") and those with power or position of any sort. . and drw an appropriateness and fitness in the possession of the particular good. p..'" C£ 6Ia 20.b. and so cause indignation. 108). with Richards. Avno6a••.•. 9Ia 15-19. 240.elI ytvo~ sc. .. Kul yeip "for in fact" (Denniston.... p. Cope. with the result that recent possessors do not seem to possess what is their own. Spengd.a ~~. and do"•••• a 28: I . has a note on the difference between cpal••aBa... 8')a 17-20: Ad•... a 21 : I noAucpW>L Kul oiIu""o. c£ B 16. 74b I. on depO~TO' see 6]a 2B. z xed <Iv "especially i£" This is the reading of the edd. power. sc." The principle at work in this section is the newness of the possessed good (cp. in all these instances the pain is that of the indignation aroused in others. abundance of friends.~ xed 6wci(l. WithcllcnBunderstand do"o6a •• the indicative stating the actual result. .) as the cawe of the indignation. p. z ei"uMylca.: "those of established and inherited wealth". 6Sb 14-16 ("al il .. "the former".eN..~ .. 7..o.. "al dno6. Ross alone reads n ae/JOTIo.. ywo..crcN. with di1IicuIty in the last... The point of the statement is that having J "EOn>... A.~ sc.. 76b 140 17.E' Cpo the we at A 15.. C£ A 5.ov i. cUl".2. c£ LS.... there must be some rdation between the good and the possessor so that a proportion is preserved. a good 6unily... 6Ib 35-38 and 60b 38 6Ia II.e. a 20-21 c\I'0u..." One should compare with this statement that atA 7.. 13... with B')a 23-25: Hal . p. except Kassd who with Cope reads "cJv.A: "and anything whatsoever of the same sort. prefers "aiM•..cUe. i. uperior in any way whatever. a..ov •..ince) . punctuating with a comma at the end. a 33: I cil'. b I : 1 el liE p.64a z.S42. Cope's note.. cf.. I2b z'7-z8. a 31-32 WyWECJLV iiv oW •.IufJ"'ITfi: "even if an inferior contends with a . agree on the reading and punctuation.ouCJIo.....pOVT~ "distinguished. 87" 19.. P. Spenge!." With a few minor differences the edd..~ The reading of four edd. 116. p. in his How to Study Poetry 360."I\ not the sam. This is acceptable since 87" z7ff. II6-18.. The text is (in part) from Iliad U. VEIUCJ"IITOV "it follows that [ow] it is a cause of indignation if a man. which defines their inferiority. Spengd punctuate with • oJ.cufJ"'ITB" as the subject of an understood BUTI """<1"'ITO' seems more reasonable than the accusative and infinitive as object. i. Cope read leW oJ. cdI. 2 . on the idea cf. C£ outline. . Hal br.q"CJ~"lJTEiv C£ Iba 18 : z. but it is found in the Life ofHomer 132. . the basic argument cf... 47<>-79· 3 "oU~ Ov • • • "particu1arly so when they are engaged in one and the same matter..A. see 86a 6-7... "but if the subject of challenge is 2 Kiv ••.. d..IUfJ"'ITB'V. pp...." The phrase is in explanatory apposition with Td. attributed to PlulaIch.tv oW "particularly '0.64b z3· I> 3-4 ol~ . a 32 K. Kassd. as well .i!.. Kassd.... I do not understand Cope's period after eiJySViUIV.. ''Kritik arist.p".d <." answered by 87b I: . e...ciXo." as used at A S.p".1 ~. 2 !£cu'_II p.• d.e.•. begins the apodosis to colon after BVy••iuw. Kassel. r II... 1ITTOJ ...".." II9.." Cf. a conjecture of Ross's read also by Kassel. but see his note.. .KIlI". 'S. not a period. II..e. inferiors contending with their superiors in the very thing . obtains a good not appropriate to him.ollii . Kassel alone encloses this in parentheses. on oJ. 871> I-Z d IIi . An articu1ar infinitive <Td> •. 64a 31 .g. Schriften. should be compared with Denniston. the second line is not found there. a 33-3 S &8w ." b k-3 ~a.. KPEt.e. 63b 3S .. Ross. pp.. a. 'RHBTORIC' II a 30 : 1 &"''P. cpo Vahlen. in particular..OVL so. 61a 13..0> To" ij... Cope read nhtn-oiiuw.u. 87a 33 : 2. i. or Alcibiades speaking of the marriage ofhis father. Isccratcs..1 (and . through he be morally good. The Team of Horses 3I.OUCJ'Kij~ For the nzture of A 7.160 ARISTOTLB. p. cT>v TafjTa would be anything which brings honor with it and is the anteeedent of di. In the light of the reason given (b 6: Td . a more general class. virtue..pB<1f/T.. 2 . z .COMMBNTARY 161 b 3 &ij>. as stated here. preferring mjMI or d~Ao. (~rIT').. p.....~ TIiW Gpol.. Cope alone reads b9: 1 ne4E8OW. b 6-7 . 87b 9-II. the particular class. 35 : 1. but indignant only if the decision can be made that the person is unworthy of the good.• dlHauw) for the statement at b S.. Tbe good man is the man of moral virtue and like the anovdaro.. I09.. Cope. .0 .• justice.•. Tbese words are practically synonyms. b4 rae b 6 ". As a man ot moral virtue he will not tolerate the ~ust.. articular infinitive subject of ot! dl"a.d .. 79b 37£. and we have been told (86b 14-16) that undeserved success is something unjust. cf..""..ol. ""YXciv""'''v sc.V""'" "'p .1I ".. ..".. or as we read here. CPU.." In the light of the previous note.. On ""o~daro..J. ".8al _1 ""au&. e. the more general class: good people capable of making an intelligent judgment on what is right or wrong.o.p.o.c& x61C'<".. b 7 ily.. however.. cf. Ross alone conjectures <4. For ouly by possessing these "greatest goods" can a person decide whether or not another is unworthy of them.. bravery.... p. b 9-II " ... As A. "ij OfLOL.. cpo also 7fJ8. at 79a 35 it was philosophy.y"..lib .o~"... 63b 2... at A 5. . 88b 14- v.."a! On the force of the ending. .. honor. in general.. (e. sc.: "and above all if they are ambitious for aN.. possession of =tain forms of good. There is an actual order from the particular to the general in the presentation of those who experience indignation: e. .. dyaOIiW."oG"... S!lb 32 : 1.. cf. see 6Ia 25 : Z. One might well be envious.. which are surely among Ta ""r'rlTa draOd.. says at 80ra IO-IZ.on who experiences indignation i.g. b 8: "et. 613 38-39 it was honor-conferring rewards. • '""T1J. considers the impersonal construction here inaccurate.. the most general class.g.> with Richards.• 87b 4-7..ia. 88. one cannot become indignant at another·. the objects of their desire will be anything which bring...G. . a less particular class.fLO' The object of these "ambitious" men is honor.. C£ 68b 20 : 1. 87b 7-9.. would seem to be necessary for this group to experience indignation.• 67b 21 : 2) "he judge. b 7-9 SEll.""a.. II9.I. correctly in each matter and in each case the truth is manifest to him" (EN III3" 29-32)... This second type of per.g...uvo •• actual possession of the goods.pl . 87b II-IS. S£..s: lao IIE... A 6..o.. b 10 : 1 jIociA. Boa 30 : 1. ) and genitive of the thing. troubles..g. referring to things which cause the emotion. "dllo. ' (Cooper. .g. "the cases of misfortune.oio" is used here.. and how the indignant feel. 2 ci. It cannot be understood because it actually sets forth persons and feelings opposite to the emotion. 1 """'""V apparendy governed by the . as its antecedent.v governed by the verb. the misfortunes are deserved. In 87b 13-1S we are given a general cl. immediately to 87b 3-1S...oio. The participles modifying the word are verbs which apply more readily to persons. 'RBBTORIC' II those honors which others." as Cope. '~l'iv. The sentence ('I'avseo. indignation..B. M) canilot be understood without knowing the definition of indignation. of those who do HoI experience indignation as a contrast to the general group (87b II-I3) who experience the emotion.. I> IS : ~ cU...u...V"L"IXEI/LEVU See 861> 9 : " 2.) are characterized at EN 109Sb 19-2.J6ie'0. if present. has been used quite consistendy for the things which cause an emotion (e. I would interpret. not things. see 87b 4. TOVT. as do others.U"". The word refers to those goods undeservedly possessed in their view by others.. 2 ".p ••• ci.. Radt..101.. at whom and for what reasons men become indignant. "of which others happen to be unworthy.o. sf I> 13 : 1.oiol.. c£ 87a IS where such (e.. mediately to 873 6 ..n. disaster .tion in bd . not Tlaw (i. have received". or not experience pain.. or. "Rhelorik. who are unworthy of them.) are mentioned in a section which has to do (c£ chapter oucline II." interpret."a." If men rejoice or remain neutral in such instances. or failures one should rejoice...dpELV I> 17 : 1 obc yci....e. persons). would be governed by a'. I> II ". I would say that this refers to the contents of the whole chapter. 88a 28 : 2.. I do not see how it can be so interpreted here. Freese.87a S.g.v8pcmo8':'8E~ Such persons (whose opposites are the AJ. I> 16 X. In fact he has just set down some opposites to in.. The reason is now given that £rom what has been said in the chapter the opposites are clear. 2S is the first instance). 78. e. On the possibility of ".2) with the people at whom men become indigoant. Jebb & Sandys similarly). Although ". c£ 871> 17 : 1...0 as choosing a life suitable to cawe.87b IS together with 86b 9 .pBt17JTCxot on an analogy with the verb which can take a dative of the person (TO"TO.ARISTOTLlI. :md ".~ qEIV Cpo 86b 26-28.11 a:Aco>~ I> 12 cr. "at what kind of men they are at whose misfortunes. In EE I:>33 b 20-21 the feeling of pleasure at the misfortune of another is said to be without a name.. to feel joy or nothing at all [b 16] at the failures of the undeserving) and further demonstrates that those who think it is their right to be pitied happen to be unworthy.aT6. 2 c. as he goes on to say (dlUT' . that "if our discourse develops in the judges (auditors) a corresponding attitude of mind (i." b 18 : J "oU~ . the grounds on which they expect to receive pity. causes. A. in this concluding statement reverts to the argument of the opening statement of the chapter: namely. on the verb.. 3 Myo~ Le. discourse.).. and so.. we will in fact make it impo. 5gb 16 : I. For the opposite of pain at undeserved good fortune (indignation) would be joy at deserved bad fortune.e." This concluding paragraph is somewhat strange in its argument. As he says at 86b 12-14:. (eUT') lA••i" "with the result that pity is impossible if our discourse develops in the hearers a corresponding attitude of mind and further deroonsttates ..~ The consequ=.G. 80b 3I. A 13.p.. 83a 8. The argument here (seemingly somewhat unnecessarily involved) is that if we put forward persons..[.~ .. that indignatinn is the contrary of pity but that there is a kinship between them. After presenting the threefold analysis of indignation.' governs d~~. 74b 12. in fact worthy not to receive pity.. see 55a 26. ~.COMMENTAlIY ". . " ... 2 lCp. reasons opposite to those which arouse indignation (pain at undeserved good fortune).sible for others to experience both indignation and also pity. i.ci~ C£ 77b 21 : J.. But to arouse such a response in others is to remove any grounds for their feeling pity (pain at undeserved bad fortune)... orin MM II92b 22-23: the man who feels pain at undeserved good fortune (indignation) is the sarne man who feels pain at undeserved misfortune (pity). it will be impossible to pity. see 6Gb II.GlCoucicrn Cpo 77b Z4.. 8sa 3I. 77b 23 : 2.. too. . This idea is repeated in the defiDition found in the Topics (which in its terminology is quite similar to that of our Rktom de6nition) at l09h 36-]7.11 good fortune of those who are one's e'l""l.. see. c£ 86b 19-:00.~ The usual division for the study of the emotions £irst mentioned at 78a Z3-2S. The de6nition given here in the Rktoric hovers hetween these two ideas. . hut simply: at .a . It is b n-34 6 'Pe6vo~ ••• ixeLVDU~ essentially the same as that given at 86b 18-:0:0.JAW. cause. phrase simply reiterates. as we are told at EN IlO?> 8-27. EE IZ33 h 19-:>0 defines it as pain at deserved good fortune.. The. or again deserved good fortune. e. which is bad in se (see also 88a 36). that the major cause of envy is ohjective..q r. 87b 34-35 3. .CHAPTER 10 I· Introduction: 87b ZI-34 with division and de6nition of envy II . Development: 87b 34 . IIoa 1-4: pain experienced at the manifest good fortune of good people. However. As"equals" is explained lo"'. Ixov". the self enters in as a secondarY. It is an emotion. 88a S-zS the attitude of those who experience envy: the subjective aspect of the emotion the things which cause the emotion: the objective aspect of the emotion the persoDS who are envied: the objective aspect III . hut not at . As we find envy in the ethical writings (c£ 861> 9 : z for the full passages). it is defined as the pain experienced at all good fortune.. Men are moved by envy hecause of what happens to another. EE I:O:OIa 38-40 (adding the qualification "even at those who deserve their good fortune"). in itself. not subjective.. into something good. not a primary. MM Il9>h :05-:>6. hut with a different emphasis.r.ov. Conclusion: 88a ZS-30 87b 21-:0:0 &.ee 861> :00-:0:0. It is pain at good fortune.g.. This is an idea found again at EE 1Z34> 30 where we are told that it contrihutes to injustice. what is said at 86h 20-:0:0: namely.11 good fortune. EN Il08h 4. here it serves as the apodosis to the statement at h n-:>4The definition of envy is stated.88a :>5 I. and there is no way in which it CUI he made. yoyed by another (d. as at A 6. b 23-24 I'it tVII ..." as we find envy defined by Socrates in Xenophon. Zeno 7. C£ also 62a 5-6 on a category of goods particularly subject to envy. e. or of Cicero... C£ 78b 24.. b 22 .OLOU. phileb.. See also 88a 38." The discussion of 'P80•• .. disposition)..• av.50e is not relevant.. 06.II. ..IIl: pain at another's goods. . 'x. joying the goods mentioned..qi). (attitude. ' ... .•• 1It. cpo 78b 18:-19..vo~ . for """".. c£ LS. quae nihil noceant invidenti. c£ II2a I : 1.ou the Basle edition of Isingrin..a> c£ 8Ib 34 : 3." On '1'a. ylY..'s statement at 86b 19 (dAA' . .0 . c£ 8Cia 25.) and not any personal desire for the good (. is birth. "Not with the intent that something may accrue to themsd~ but because of those enjoying the good fortune. ~A... .. is it envy or malice which is at issue? And the comments of Anaximenes I#DO 34-39 on how to stir up envy in others are based partly on an understanding of it in direct opposition to A.. and in greater detail in A 5....' ". Tusc.. e. an "equal" in the sense of "someone just like onesd£" C£ 8Ja 10. " A. 6. c£ 86b 20..8. sc.. or to "friends." This is a straightforward statement to the dfect that the object of and the cause of envy are the good .. However."!!o...1I Y"o... on . MO'PaJ. equals experience envy". Disp.melexo. and EE I233b 1\r20). is the reading of Ross.g..aEt.. but other-directed. Cope read with the codd.166 ARISTOTLlI....~ l.•• <p1l(Vov-... If the other person loses the good.g.. • •.•. in Plato... which bear Plato's name.. "equals" is more specific than the generic term given in the definition of Diogenes Laertius. or appear to have.•• I. .-n:cipX. Mem. is not happy with it" and Cope. ~ll8ln8' "'0.ov. 242.. c£ 86b 20-22... wealth)." eil nmeaxo. envy goes even though the envious person is also without the good. 87b 25-27: i. Plutarch also has a small treatise On Envy and Hate. p.....lI' na. Spengd. Kassd with b 27 or~ I"xpbv D. 4.melexs•• ) where the constitutive elements of envy and indignation are given: not self-directed.... or. and in the Definitions 416...'1<a. b 23 : 1 4yll8ew These are those mentioned both in a passing way in B 10.7..-nji We begin here the explanation of b 24-25 .aElov). 3. . . C£ 62b 20 : 2. The statement here was anticipated at 86b 20-22 (...16: "invidentiam esse mcunt aegritudinem susceptam propter alterius res secundas. 63a 29.. "Such people as have... 47b .olou~ Cpo 86a 25-26..a.Eb."la" IE". Spengd.7.el w-n:pllyl~ <pIl'VOI'Wn "at the nwrifest good fortune of .ivn.JU1' d..a . c£ 7IIa 31 : 3.. MEa. 'RHBTORIC' II at 87b 25-27 there is no necessary reason to confine them to "good men" (as the Topics passage does.).<a (possessions.. t.. b 26-27 y. "06 d.e. 2 bp. lineage. Three edd..9. " h 33 cpu. though he is worthy." a somewhat unique word h 32 lol." h 34 1"lCpoljluxo.£~ "those with eminent accomplishments and good forume in their lives. not by Kassel.la••.u. also prefers. says in part "ro (P~) if LUs"'" is impersonal...p.. Pha. might well be conditioned to feel distress at another's good fortune. deprives himself of the goods he deserves .~ . to be reputed. in the second.. 01 £6"<UJ(oily. in A.8-29 6ncipx£'Y (liLl> ••• £law)· n<iY.cl60l. h 30 : 1 . 124. n." Kassel alone omits the second 01. although. Index (me[m ••).. he is clearly not a happy person in the best of circumstauces. if not.oaocpo.n08a r this type along with the ambitious and unambitious (c£ 87b 3D-F) is defined with rdation to From the detailed description of the small-minded man in On lhe Virlues and Vices I2srb 16-24.." save the parentheses.a~ b 241 who faIl just short of having everything. note that two dilfcrent ideas of the root word (60".la. Cope.. I could accept any of those offered.. despite the variety.mae". h :. C£A S. ...oL "those who love a reputation.j"<le.. "exceptioually" honored.~ in the meaning of 8?a 30 : 1.c:.". fame. owing to the fact that he does not consider himself worthy of good things.... the punctuation given in the entry seems more reasonable. As likely subjects of praise and encomium (c£ A 9..") are present: here. In a very cursory way we learn . Ross and Tovar also punctuate with a colon after <pOo." With the reading accepted whicb Bonitz.'" and a colon after <pOo'eeol. If the parentheses are read. is redundant as far as the sense is concerned. pretend"... In this word and the following.... "to be thought to be. 67b :'7"-3S).eeol.pciy. such people arc aware of their superior qualities (c£ A 7) and concerned about them.61b 2. the interpretation is: "and those experience envy [sc.0. From here to 88a S we have the second division of the h 3S : 1 icp' oI~ cbapter on the things whicb cause envy. h 28 oil'£Y. The parentheses are read by four of the edd.. cpo Plato.. 6ra 27 .COMMENTARY 167 p..~ The question here is punctuation. These three also read a period after . Spengd. <p8o.. a ILI..tItus 27Sb..cp. A suitable comment on this class is found at EN 112sa 17"-24 where it is said that "the small-minded man. "seem." At II07b 21 . and no punctuation after Vn<le". as it usually is.!." The fact that the classes mentioned in 87b 273S arc likely subjects of envy is fairly obvious even without the occasional reason presented by A. "pretenders to wisdom. ro .w is its subject.I'£YO' C£ A S.. from which it can be seen why one so fortunate h 31 £66cz'l'ovl. the desire for the honor in itsd£ oe8YfWTa. . c£ 87b 26-27.. p. see 78b 28 : 1.).a~ if they differ. read by the edd. t. For the idea in stl". tpUOT'. "For those achievements or possessions which arouse in men the love of fame and for which they are ambitious and for which they desire renown.... Cope. read with Roemer his conjecture: MEn <"a/yb•• > '1'6011060""..a~ .aTa See 62a 5-12. Spenge!. 2 saw . a 9 dp'lp. a 7 : 1 66lin cp8avaUG'v The reading of Ross.... in the preceding two divisions. Nauck & Snell)."e'o.. 8Sa 1-3 lcp' aI~ . ] CPClVCpav..... the beginning of the final division of the chapter.69a 2.xpc'ji m.. This is not always clear in the interpretations..g.. as well as all the things which are the gifts of good fortune . 1'B6••ciiTa~ refers 10 a 6: TO'~ .. Other things that cawe envy are indicated at 88a 1-5...••. a 9-10 ".. .. xedvq>... .. 4RHETORIC' II 88a 9 that they are in pan the aya6& mentioned.vaw TOtlTO'~..&ci pb is solitarium.. a passage he refers to in what immediatdy follows at a 6-7. goods whose possession while not conferring distinction still confer substantial honor.EflExOUC... C£ 88a 9-10.. The saying is identified by Nauck as Aeschylus' (frg. . . as: 1 2 a 6 &1''' 'Just now. 87b 23-27. because of whose possession they fall off excellence but slighdy.-6a.. Two edd. a 8 "Cll .. tp6o.. Obviously TOtl~ .. In:IO"'O.aGv."" .'s. etc. It is important in this topic (a 7-17) which is concerned with rivals that we understand that the main subject is: those whom nlen envy.6oUw.. Four of the edd.. e. Kassd.." In other words. 56lin The point behind the fint phrase is made at a 9-II.. 8Sa II-12 picks up MEn.. would dn so in that the former indicates the desire for fame in the eyes of others which is won by one's achievements. ~ p. see following two notes).he reading ..O-' ho~ w.lKOUG.x1j.lvou~ presumably those mentioned in a 6-7 (e. see 87b 23 : 1.. c£ 69" I : 2.lv 4y...V What is meant by this phrase is clearly: "or those thing. "'o.. . On tp." tpw... Spengd... expresses the whole appetitive drive in man toward what is seen as good. 68b 32 .virtually all these are subject to envy.. Cope agree on t... • le1/Ta.." i.. 2 .pc\~ 6~ .. (save Kassel).. "e&~ c£ 7lIb 14 : 2.bov~ . Cpo 86a 29-31.. Cope. sc.. 305... as well as those referred to at a j-<S (ol~ •.g.. tpuoTOpaii.. ... alI~ cpll. Spengd.10·.pc\~ p. the latter..• oN&d~ sc..e. a 6-7 XP6"'1' XCII "0.. Kassd double brackets as an addition (or possibly such) of A.168 ARISTOTLB.."ytl~ ...V For the idea in the word. .. Ii~ rivals." a 14 4".... e. :ned~ ToV~ before laopbov~. but they are rivals to those who are their competitors in general. .of such they are necessarily envious (13-17).'P' ... 134. Therefore I would have to interpret our statement to mean: "nor are they rivals of those to whom in their own eyes or the eyes of others they consider themsdves to be far inferior or far superior. a II: D~a' (II"MJTIpD6PTa. a 10 "oU~ . Kassd read a comma..g..... Spengd. too.. for they are rivals of those already mentioned...). secludes and II n8. . r. they are not rivals of others in like instances. however (0£ Der Text. (2) not those far removed in time or place or to whom they are clearly superior or inferior or those of similar status (9--13)..a6Ta.. 243..ClY""' . Cope.b 13.u-..AOTI.a. . they consider themselves to be far inferior or far superior. TD.. o£ following note. in law. 127. However.uoiWra. Kassd).. 6'REpQIELV. On the other hand. The statement is eyclic: men are envious of their rivals. A. a period) before our clause.. so. Certainly with the common punctuation I do not see the possibility of dismissing 006' (9'MOT'po6vTa. If one follow> the common punctuation. TO"fjl.6aaV't'Q).• Sle'lpBIIOV. then it would be corrdated with 88a 11-9: "al "ed~ o6~ 9"ADnpD6'Ta. .. and their rivals are (I) the aforementioned (11-9).Ta&) ned.xo...oo. the edd.. or in love. Cope. In the same way they are rivals of those engaged in similar pursuits.pl . . Usually the passage is interpreted as though there were a complete break before this clause. making the WotWTOJ~ clause a part of what precedes. p. the Anonymus Commentator read with cod.88a I4 COMMBNTARY of a 9--10. in politics. would transpose the clause to a 9: :ned~ TDU. lyl'~~ . Kassd.TIj"CI~ refers to a 7: TO'~ ••." After ....O•. they are particularly envious of certain kinds of rivals. etc. neel Ta TO&a6Ta: "Men are envious of their rivals. Ross. Kassel..CI The reading is that of cod.. p..BwTflI.) WP ••. if we punctuate with a complete break (Le.. TOO.. the verb to be understood with the clause. ("&1oT. sc. all save Tovar. for his reasons).. or who seek what they seek .g. in sports. 83a 22). oil'" (ned~ TOVTO!'. "So. three of the edd..a. illustrates the use of the phrase from Pindar to denote the outermost limits of the known world. e. or the eyes of others. Q)"a6T. e.w.. then the verb which introduces the whole clause should be understood. I I-I~ wI' irw . : "nor are they rivals of those to whom in their own eyes.g. Spengd. fP.. .. "ed.cahw~ XCII .. too. . 8Ie'lpbov. Cope punctuate with a comma before the clause. To6TOV~) WP "DAV• ••• For this reason Spengd. F: wua6Tw~ "al "oel TDVTDV~ "al "eel Ta TDI.." This offers the following sequence of statements in 88a 8-17: men are envious of their rivals. Of equal importance with the punctuation i... p. "al . (save Tovar. a a 12-13 ':' .moe'. we compete with those who follow the same ends as ourselves" (Roberts translation).po~ "oU~ .. competitors in general (as at 8... "those whose past acquisitions or present successes. cf.. p.. men are aware that the failure to win the good is their own.." On H.i.o~ . c£ LS. This is read by the edd....') resulting iu envy: "so that the failure which is painful cawes envy.OLO.S governed by an understood "." Cope.... Ross.. p.a "es"P.sreeo.. 134-35).Booo6". the reading of cod.oiS "POaijXEV "all that naturally belongs to them"..S. Preese (Loeb ed. a IS xul Wv ..oiS ". .7. is the reading and punctuation of Kassel. A. "OTe is the reading of Ross. It is accepted by Kassel (C£. Tovar read ror.Bo. XCX'Top9oUv'nIN SC. raxV (TVx06". Ross.. Dufour. TB ""'Tieo".• 88a 24 c£ 8Ib 16: 2.. " . In any event the reading of cod.Evo. 'RHBl'ORlC' II a 17 xIXl XEP"!L£US •... TaxV 01 " "dA. a 19-20 ". and Spengd read d. a 24 "..re. Immediately preceding our sentence Cope. TVXOVT'. naed C. . the failure to obtain the good won by the other (-r06ro) is a cawe of pain (Atmo.." Sc. TaxV 01 "lj"OJ.S 'N)tOv... .. a 23 '<GiS 6). Cope (on Cope. Dufour.•.0 "'p""I1~"'po.80006"" "those who either have now. It makes more sense to have a 23-25 ("a! 01 "olid .(y" sc.) read: "al Tol. The other edd." a a zz : 1 3u" "')". The 6~ Hai (Denniston.. bebe. P followed by a full stop makes sense whereas tying this in (rB .p' IX6-rWS "becawe of themselves"."at) with the next clause does not. a 2Z-23 &." 21 ". interprets: "who either have now in their possession or have once possessed. F. A is 110t at all clear. Cope read: "bclT}nd "OTB....> £nus .. Roemer.. Spenge! at 88a 24 where we find it in cod."o l..).. Kassel. 2 Spenge!. P reading seems the most reasonable in the context. tpB01IOVd& 't'oV'ro&" as at 88a 8.. 30S) strengthens the adversative sense.06"w) introduce two other instances of persons who are envied. ". 78a 33. Tal. 99) OilTO.." a 20 "."Xu 01 1'000.'."". 6ant1l11faa"•. <01> with which Spengel would agree... Three edd. as the reason given (a 19-21) says. <0. The cod..ES "And those who either have acquired something with difIiculty or have not ocquired it at all are enviow of those who got it quickly. pp. C£ 88a 18): roo. p. "al "d.AIUSTOTLB. Tovar. Ross alone encloses this in parentheses. XEK... TVxd. "but especially those near and like them.oiiy i. 3P. whether Y' or rB i."..1" •." In these two instances. po. 128. TaxV 01 " !'oA. or have ocquired. Der Text. " !'~ T~XdOTB' ".. Kassel read with Vater (p. Cope with cod.III.."OeBoVvT<'" C£ 83a 26. . Jebb &: Sandys intexpret: "in comparison with these.e.. a 18-19 01. 86b 9 : z where it was said in part that the confusion between the CWO appear. . Cope reads or~ but accepts in his note.. consequendy.uch as those mentioned [i. and I consider it co=t..la in the preceding chapter.. '''''' (a 28). Spengel.. See also I17b 17 : 1.. with which Vater (PI! .88a 26 a 2S : 1 171 COMMENTAllY U x . l a 26-27 c:.. or ".g.".. in the light of what has gone before. the use of Tl.no.. 129. at 78a 2S.e. and. together with oii~...s ZxOIl'<ES This. we can see the development: "It is al. In saying that the envious man and the malicious man are the same. who experiences envy and so pain at another's possession and enjoyment of good.. 80a 7. are made to feel envious [oth-. they are simply diiferent aspects of the same attitude of mind or general disposition. (a 2S) and signifies those who experience envy. pp. 99-100. Blalo)..87> 3.nm. • €<P' O~ is the reading of the edd. as h~ says at 86b 34 . Cope reads: . . experiencing joy and so pleasure at the other's loss of those goods. Cope. to have been corrected in the Rhetoric when A. . if men."0.S lv...... 1'1" or~. ~3O-3 I ... cpo I17b IS : z. this is co=t. points out that envy-malice are not two extremes of excess and defect whose mean i. recognizes that envy-malice are only diiferent movements experienced by one and the same general attitude of mind They are not opposites as indignation and pity are.. and the use of 1'1" or. p. as he states at 86b 9-14 and argues at 87a II-I3 (oil rde ...o clear at what things and with what persons men who are envious fmd delight and what their attitude of mind is.."1. 86b 26-3 I..e latter will not obtain pity from those with the power to grant it...a. 3 01 TOtoiiftL i.' (a 26) and 01 TOlo.I Tial stands for the persons in whom men take pleasure. This is the reading accepted by the edd and Spengel...s ylzp Z x _ )"unoiiv..."0.. refers back to ncii.(OlS ilcr8>\cr...e. so with this attitude they will rejoice at opposite in.. He opts for hi Tial. whereas those who deem themselves worthy of pity or of receiving some good are .. cf.' a 26 c:. would agree. for example.. A. 87b 19... For just as men with this attitude of mind [envyl experience pain. pp." rde oil" l"oOTe.00' and l"""a'l!".''0"". . If we look at the whole passage from 88a as. indignation.'). at 860 17. Just as there is no contradiction in a man who experiences indignation and so pain at undeserved misfortune finding joy and so pleasure in deserved misfortune (or deserved good fortune). 82a 20. '0 there is none in a man. .S Ex"""'~ bel . However.is simply a repetition of the clarification made in the Rhetoric between '1'8." The statement in the entry. . Rather.e' those who are envious. in the class of those enviedl. His difficulty basically is whether 1'1" or. it is clear that the. 79a 10.. .... etc.[ The "al is adverbial. lS. despite the discussion it has aroused . 80b 34... (a 27) and oiJ~. on the one hand.tances. See. . 88a 29 i. C£ 8sa 3I : 2.0"'" Ross alone reads dE'. instances of the loss or destruction of the goods en- a 28 : 1 "CIfIllcncWllriii'l".AllISTOTLE.. 94). .iin.106.lo. 'RHETORIC' II a 27 lv. Once again the emotion pity appears in an atgUDIent on what happens if a person is made to experience the opposite of the emotion under discussiop. z. 87b I7 : 1. p.~ joyed by another... It would be interesting to know whether this emphasis on pity is owed indirectly to the pervasive inHuence of forensic rhetoric.~ with Bonitz (StuJien. 2 "'••irill' See 86b 9 : I. a 29 41..e.".. . 88b II-I4 the things which cause the emotion: the objective aspect 4." In A. CijAo.al hJew. 88a 3S-38.Bu.uOTelo" draBo'" CijAo. disposition of those who experience the emotion: the subjective aspect 10 3. &ijAov the usual tripartite division. sec. there is nothing of any substance on CilAo. di.1 TIji IT6flO' in. Dam et imitatio wtutis aemulatio elicitur ... II) but that it has also 2Cquired a pejorative meaning. ..••. AUmj ..e careat. its object is the good .'Ij' Ai"aa8a. 35-38 2. h"Bu.. and BID... There is nothing at all in Anaximcncs on the emotion. 88. e.CHAPTER II I . 4.. EN IIoSb 23 and MM II86a 13. 87b 22-24] .. I:ij). 88b 14-22 the persons towmI whom the emotion is direCted: the objective aspect contempt: the emotion opposite to 5. nrxd•• . emulation i•• good emotion and an emotion which belong. It is merely mentioned in the ethical works as one of the emotions. Diogcnes Laertius.Bo.. ut et in laude et in vitia nomen hoc sit.17: "Invidentiam esse dicunt [ei. Transition: 88a 3I-3S definition of emulation II . Aemulatio aUtem dupliciter ilia quidem elicitur. cillov I'lp'Ia"" 01. in.... alius potiatur. div ""'TO. ip. a. ••..av 1I-ro. dll ... 88b 22-28 emulation to the section on the emotions III . Stobaeus. ""'To. 4" H(!BiTTO'VO' j Cicero. mlTo. to good men (88a 3S-36). Disp.'va. we find that emulation is generally linked with envy (as we find it at 8Ih 21-22. quod cupierit. Tusc.o~ Apart from what is said here on this emotion. Ethica 2.. Zeno 7. fl.. all A~"'7 in' d.lltp "ae. At EE I229a 38 in a discussion of fear it is identified in a passing way with the experience of A~"'1 (as we find it in our definition).g.... e.. si eo. When we turn elsewhere. a 32 :.~ . in A." in' illOTelo" draB ••" CijA•• all AUmjv inl TCP 4.88b 28 I. 38 ..B. 88.8. all A~".II1: ".. I'QXQ(!U1poJ baB. et est aemulatio aegritudo.o. Development: 88a 3S .g. General conclusion: 88b 29-30 88a 31-32 .178: "..88b definition explained by contrast with envy the attitude... yaOidv sc.. 2 a.. a 33: "highly valued. S.. 28.. Further... rp. but it is not the direct effect.are followed by a comma. C. 2 cNX 3.pl "'oU~ ...... C£ 7& 31 : 3· J rp". . cpo S6a 6.. The dative is instrumental...C0fA""". .. but those which are a 33 . that which is given to goodmen (EN II23b 35). ''Not because the goods are another's but because they are not also his". a~Tq.. "in persons like him by nature." a 38 ~ciy><lJ s. for the case. the man who is envious sees to it that his neighbor is deprived. 'RHBTORIC' II 174 seen in others who are one's p=s and seen as possible of attainment for the one who desires it. C£ 88.. 61a 28 .".~ a 36 01"....p . Furthermore they must be dya06 which are seen as possible of attainment by the individuaL Since the phrase ""de. the conclusion to the plorasis at 88a 32ff. and .. held in honor.crxEUci~.l .."Perieneing emulation prepares himself to obtain.."&<X0. envy..5..(...."'" x . here it governs the accusative and the infinitive: "the man e. '''"' <XO. This is also true in the case of anger.... this is not correct. c£ 86b 20 and Jdi BTL. morally good.lwTa TIl ''''''fAa dya66 (and he indicates some such in b II-14).88a 38 ARISTOTIB. fear....."""" .. a 37 : 1 .I.. "BfI' a 34 : 1 ".TS. rpOavov) The parentheses are used by the edd.. and it is intimately connected with nfA~ which is itself a sign that one has a reputation for doing good (c£ A 5." = in the case of..x".lape•• is in the definition of emulation and is therefore essential to the meaning of emulation.~ i. • AU"') . This paBSage is a brief explanation of emulation by contrasting it with envy.. c£ 88b 2. it introduces the first division. I have reservations about any suggestions at 88b 2. as he says at 88b II: C'1.. as envy is presented in the Rhetoric and the ethical works..61b 2)... C£ 80a 30 : 1. The closest envy comes to such an idea would be in the competition with rivals of whom one is also envious (88a 8--18). 6PT'fA". c£ 79& II. it is the prize of virtue.~ The presence of pain indicates in this instance the clear awareness of the absence of something seen as a good together with the desire to achieve it. "<ii <pUG.0 •. " Strictly speaking. a 35 bi:. 1304. It may be an added effect of envy.e. .. .~o"''''l1 not simply dyaOd. Spengel and Cope do not use them. Neither envy nor malice directly seeks to deprive the other of the goods possessed.. a 35-38 (&... It is an emotion which is self-directed but with an element of altruism in it (88b II-14)...w. LS. r.A• . and a colon after. Cope we have the reading of the codd. cpo A 8. as Spongel..~ y"p "pocrijl<OV· cN..b is solitarium and somewhat empha- z. for no one deems himself worthy of good things manifestly impossible for him.. p.."'1 dlj . This replacement is considered necessary by Vater (p.. . 6Cib 17. 134"1. T~' dE.. On the . 175 the ". 100) and schrader (p.eoi~ olv...eycxAclcJn>xo. p. "pocrijx. This lacuna is replaced in Dufour. .. 8. b 6--"'7 c:. z veo••. 21 : 1.i~ 4y..oiivra" i..... clyall&iv. and Cope. Ross alone encloses this in parentheses. which itself demands a knowledge of the definition." 307-308.. Roemer. indicates a lacuna after lxova.. All punctuate with a period at the end. Spengd.....rw cN&ol~ yUt> 4. atlT~')."aM.. on abundance of mends. c£ Thurot.88b 6 COMMBNTAlIY 88b I : 1 ~'1_A"'cN~ fLEv tic (S. 342) because of the "de clause.s by the conjectured words suggested by Victorius." The "de clause. as an explanation of the statement immediatdy preceding (cI. ".it" see B 12... On public o£lices.. the whole passage has better coherence. certain good things..k . b 5 1<Aoiho~ •.r. 2897)... Muret.. It may well be.. According to the definition.. the punctuation before varies but in all instances is sensible. 3 xcd.. the secluded passage. p. Muret: 1..0 ." but I am not certain that its coherence as it stands is not quite adequate.TO. "Observations critiques [IJ.~..lI&i~ This is the reading of the codd..xo.. and Cope.....• clpxcd On wealth.. C£ 78b 3-4.. Spen- lxouaL ••. that "if the [conjectured] words are added.volfL"'" cl&6vcx...v· b 3 : 1 &. it should not be necessary to repeat it when speaking of emulous persons. says. p. In Spenge!. incorporates it into his interpretation. (I"... Cope. "it follows of necessity that those inclined to emulation are persons who deem themsdves worthy of the good things which they do not possess. i. • . under the influence of Victorius.... Kassel doublebrackets ~~.. on ".. b 4-5 h-<. Ros. 2522. S.. a desire denoted by d<.a. .. C£ Denniston.. "al (TOIO. cI~"'aTa with no punctuation before.. 244. b 2 fLiI lxoua.oiho.) or. three edd. lit is the reading of the edd. the possibility of obtllining the good things is part of the definition of emulation. 4y. This is the reading and punctuation of Tovar.xo". men can be emulous only of good things which they can secure for themsdves. a~To" lap. 133.... the tksi. sc..e fo.. is a logical clarification of that statement. 0.e. 58.lOi .. "de) where "de ("nanIdy") would be explanatory. c£ 87a 13 : 3.oiin"a..• p... Therefore.e. As was said at 88a 33. . 65b 32. Vater. lxova... Vablen. all the rest he considers spurious. lxova. Kassel also accepts it but as 8. 88b I) because they are good.. C7l40Va. "al (C'14WT. 46...." The major problem in the reading ofthe text occurs for the commentators (and here the reading of our edd."o/ who already possess good things and describes their attitude (88b 6-7).ot £/". . 134) is misleading. p.ixova.8T' Ii ne0aij". Toi~ dra8.lval Toi.) oU.. his comment on the whole clause .. they strive fot further distinction. e.1"a.a. changed this to ..•. quia tales esse par est eos qui talibus bonis aiIluunt... dya8o.e.e. Cope adopts this reading but his note (p.." rae neoaij"o. i. mlTO... we should attend to what A..oi~ araBoi. 2 cr.said and is saying about C'ii40. xa! IxlZ'" 6T' 1q!oaij'lB Toi. dyaBoi' . . ne0m!".)~ dyaBov~..0..." or possibly: "." elva&..v Its antecedent is TaVTa (b 10).). i.. "Kritik d.V dyaB'.. dyaM...ot. Muret initiated the problems by translating: "bonos enim vires esse se par esse arbittantur. Rhetarik. than it would be with ro.a. neoaij".. and so one would expect that those who experience it would consider themselves worthy of good (as they do. Spengel.. pp. and that at Top. r4e "eoaijHO'Jl aUTo.. 136b 27-32 .. was reading.." .. dya6o. After all this effort a return to the reading of the codd.. b 7 Ily«8w.... might seem presumptuous. It would be interpreted: "for assuming that it is their duty to be good men they aspire to such good things because such goods belong by nature to those who are good..) Toi. . Toi~ araB'.....)' araBo..". aware of the es= in which they are held by others because of their draBd m. "xova.." The moral goodness is made mote obvious with dyaB. TOuWTa T'. TO. 'xova. <&>. 566... which is not the Greek of the text..we have this instance. Though araB. may be used rarely by A. Vater.. c£ 87a IS.. is: C7lAova• .g. . Anonymus gives an interpretation but I would find it difficult to determine what h... has . is influenced by them) in the clause OTI ne0aij". (-fi". Brandis.1']6 ARISTOTLE. 'RHBI'ORIC' II 88b 8 gd. TO.... this is effectively the interpretation offered above of the Greek of the codd.." 566..~ rae ne0aij"ov a~.v (c£ Vablen. sciI. /!xoue. Thus when he speaks in our passage (88b 3-7) of C7IAm . lxova.. argued that A wrote only: "'. It might first be noted that Stephanus indicates that he read: II." This demands: 0..• dId Td olea8a. . and C7IAmT.1va. Emulation is an emotion of those who are morally good (88a 35-36).. p. Por 8T' neoaij'" Ross reads ola "eo.. draB'... in tum changed this to: .".. 101. Toi~ dya6<b. However. neoaij"o. it is natural for him to interpret the attitude as the attitude of people who believe it their duty to be good and so aspire to the good things which belong naturally to the morally good... p. "those who are morally good. b 8 : 1 xed cril~ sc. IxotJa&. 100-101. 204). dra6oi~ elva..it is surely correct here..'.... elva• aut ToUTO IX. With a slight correction (the same is required in Stephanus) to the first part. dya6w. Ii neom!" •• Ix . Toi~ araBoi. exova. p..Ta d"a~d. ISO-lSI mentions snch wrtl'a dy~a in connection with his own life which is characterized (141) as worthy of emulation.. Courage is called an excellence of the soul at A S. ...b 16) . A.• xoil).. cf. The people who are emulated (C'1lwTol) (the third division) arc those who possess these goods or goods b IS like them... 62b 14-18 beauty and health are excellences of the body which are productive of many good things. lLoil)..88b 16 3 auYY£"~'~ b 9: b 10 : c£ 8Ib 34 : 3· ob.-28). 109. the C'1A." 2.. health.<0<.. b 13 : J oiy.. c£ 6Ib 9. At A b 12 ":'EPYft"'ci 9. 61a 28-32..wap.~ Virtue and virtues are discussed inA 9 as moral excellence and constitute the burden of EN... lv. speaks of virtue as a d.b I A. Richards."".o. iy. z _I 3""".n1 atA 9.<.. 13S... .o~ ..<o~ . <elva.~ On nAo""o.."... Cope begin a new topic with "al 6""".. II : J d S· t . 61a 21-22.. AntiJom.. Isocrates. a few more of which are mentioned at 88b 16--18.. Cope.. Ross alone conjectures: lIE"." .. c£ 76b 6 : •. eU'eyeT'~ "ollwv "al I'By.6Mua~ "and all the goods which yidd pIcasure to their neighbors". on d"&lav. 660 36 .~: On the idea in the word sec A S. c£ 6Ia 3 : •. oi.ov (. 610 3.. on "dUo. and one of the parts of de.dee/a. In fact.. It is de6ned .. cpo 8Ib 34 : "held in honor. the subject of discussion here." 2.. with which cpo 62. AtA 6.obviously "the best" for the person hitnsclf.. cpo 88b 1S-18 (01 "de . says. . b 14 ")'crii.. dvvdI'BVO'). Among the highly valued goods would be not only those that follow. Kassd. c£ 66a 36 : z. not necessarily for others..b 12. On the variant spelling of &..I" .. c£ A s. gives an odd interpretation to de... 66b I (c£ 6Gb 20-29..> following ..b 13 : "all the virtuous.. Thus it is that he limits health here as one of the goods that would qualify for the class: "rather than health.. which is the nature of the C'1Mmi Td lVT'l'a dya~d..e..111 b 16 oivSpeI. but certainly some from among those mentioned at 88a I-S andA S. 61b ']-14 and cpo 87a IS. Spcngd.. has in mind by a b virtue see 62. 6.t« the beginning of the second division. The term is de6ned at A S.Y'EI. For an idea of what A..a. is considered to be the best of all good things (c£ 62..~ Ross alone encloses this in parentheses with no punctuation before and a comma after.<.uwv....I'-'" J 2 177 COMMBNTAl!Y J OIXE'" 2 ~LO' "intimate friends of the family".. _. 87a 13 : 3. i. p.80<. 2 cip . 81l. x"llyxcl>I'-'" At A 9. or of whom many wish to be their acquaintances.those with many friends. (b) those who wrote . b 1!}-20 ot<.AllISTOTL~ 'RHEl'ORIC' II 88b 22 atA 9.~ It is obvious from what is said here that A. b 18 P>l""p. 3 E6 ""'Ei" picks up JJ". there is none for the man who misuses the art of rhetoric. 8ra 28-29.. is something for which men are held in honor. 67b 28 : 2. and when the word was used in t!>e fourth . by !socrates. to whom many wish to be like. e. but not as formally secure as he assumes. but it was:not considered in the analysis which followed there (c£ 66b 1 : 3) although we were told at A II. "o". or their friends. mythographers. c£ ssb 17-21. Anonymus. 67b 27-35 there is a definition of praise and its difference from encomium.. or those who have many acquaintances. At 84> 27-3 I admiration is used as a criterion pointing to those whom the admirer respects and holds in esteem. and others take: "Those men are objects of emulation to whom many wish to be like.ou'"'' Cpo 79b 25. b 17-18. or . particularly in the law courts. The words Aoyoyea".o. geographers.peeches at a price for others to deliver. 66b II-13 (c£ 66b II)." The second is that found in the Vetus Translatio and elsewhere: "Those men (etc. which permits us to say that Cope'. 5sb 17-21 where he notes that while there is a name for the man who misuses the art of dialectic (he is called a sophist).a. as we saw at 87b 3D-31. for example. where Ross alone punctuates differently and not successfully.b 33 we are told that it is something whose possession is advantageous. too..g. of b 12-13. and at A 9. For example. 62. of course. b 22 : 1 "0'"1).. (pp. (e) writers of eulogies. Anlidosis 147-149. however (c£ Bux in PW).ow. regards snch men with esteem. panegyric. is mentioned as one of the parts of ap8ni (66b 3).il'pa Hal 81lBl'l'BT""'. On the idea c£ 7'Jl1 7 and cpo 8Ia 14. historians. alone of the edd. epideictic literature. "aUol . reads" . none of the early historians is formally called a logographer. to the point he is developing here. which is. 71b 28 that it is "the knowledge of many admitable things" (c£ 7Ib 27 : 1).. 136-37) are true.. II ).. it. b 21 mll'vo. "Logographer" has a mixed history. the kind ofmisuse described. "allot There are two ways in which this sentence is taken. (a) early prose writers.. three interpretation. b 17 : 1 clpx>l as seen at 88b 5. 66b 4-7 most advantageous to othets..." b 20 8I1ufJA!.pYBToii. 8Ja 20 : 2 •.. (most likely Ionian constructions as !~oe. atA 6.oyoypcicp_ Ros. The first is that which the scholiast.. loyono.~".ta.j"d 10yoyea". c£ 67b 27-33.. it is explained in the following clause.oyecl'l'"') acquired a different meaning in the fourth century at Athens. In this respect the comment rellects the same kind of jndgment on rhetoric as was met atA I.) . It is this quality of unreliability which one senses in the use of the word to designate writers of eulogistic literature... and for the writers of epideictic literature. for example. This appears to be its meaning in our passage: namely. Timarchus 94 (applying it to Demosthenes). in emulation there is the pain attendant upon the dissatisfaction owing to the sense of want.g. Antid.e. or Aristotle. Cope would disagree). is considering persons and things as worthy of very much. De Iside et Onride 3s8f.341 describes the genre well: "Ipsi enim Graeci magis legendi et delectationis aut hominis a1icuius ornandi quam utilitatis huius forensis causa laudationes scriptitaverunt..I) as well as prose not seriously concerned with the truth." When Aoyoyeaq. To Philip I#3 "". More fully. disdain.e. To Philip 109. is used with "'0' 1"''1" as it is in our passage. Thucydides 1.. Dionysius ofHalicarnassus. "unreliable writers of stories.. It is this last meaning (see. Bux. Aeschines..lornm 4171O-f) which appears to be reflected in the use of the word for speech writers.. Plato. I 138-39. mythographers. e. e."'PPDVEiv Contempt..u.. De deftctu o. those concerned more with giving pleasure than with presenting the truth..nous prose.. Cicero... in essence. Rktoric r 7. geographers.. as we have seen at 88a 32-35.O. . argues that like AO"""O'. The range ofmeaning found in the word in its later use. Ag......:U.~ it was originally used in a serious way to denote prose writers including historians. There is little question that when it was used of speech writers (a practice called d"'oyea'l'ia by !socrates.. There is a difference in the three groups. Phaedrus 2S7C.. as Plato Phaedrus 2s8b-c would imply. Epaminondas. emulation.. and this is reflected in the change the word underwent when it was employed to denote serious prose like history (e... or AO.. Agesilaus. Herein lies their basic opposition.... quibus Themistocles. Aristides. with which compare his Evago.. those concerned more with pleasing the auditor or reader than with the strict truth. Thucydides I. Alexander a1iique laudantur. e.. b 22-24 lv. Isocrates. see. were unreliable...!ov"•. Philippus. In contempt there is the pleasure which comes with self-satisfaction." as Gomme. Plutarch. is considering persons and things as worthy of nothing at all (78b 15-16). appears to rdlect its earlier meaning.ds 93. Compare.. it may carry thismeaning.g. 2. puts it.. x . quorum sunt libri. Rep. those who are opposite to 01 C'I1OJTol (b 15-22).g.2I. emulation is defined as feeling that the highly honored good things possessed by an equal but also available to the one experiencing the emotion are personally desirable.. De orat.. The insulting character of the word resided in the fact that such writers were not concerned with the truth. i.g.88b 22 COMMBNTAllY 179 century for speech writer it was a tenn of opprobrium. 08a 34 (so Bux. i. At the same time the word retains its denotation for . 2) it was a derogatory term.. however...as 40.84..".. Plato. 392a. On the Composition ojWo.. m... and tend to be contemptuous because of the weaknesses. such people.III..)...) one devdops the . (d6".. 306£) argues for it as necessary for the sense.. b 29 : 1 &. and Conley ("IId01}.Tla "«I<a. dyaOai.l) and that Tomo.e..'TB~ to be deserving of such good.v i... Granted the opposition stated at b 22-23. It may hdp but it is not necessary. Spengd..' ......".180 ARISTOTLE..ov . but their oppositu (which is the point here. attainments which are harmful rather than uselUl to others. Such an attitude is partially foreshadowed at 86b 14.eI.".." TO HaT<lfPe0vei'". refers to the special topics..." .. Cope read: Tq.ux'l) TOW lnl.tV The people despised are those who through chance come into some valued good but are without other highly valued goods. refers to iIao. when shown persons who possess.: "it is necessary that those who are so disposed to emulate or be emulated by others tend to be contemptuous of all those who are subject to weaknesses which are opposite to the excellences which arouse emulation. t~ clJv Kassd alone reads >eai IE .a cl. 98112 in ]ebb & Sandys. . err lot."'e06a ••• b 25 : 1 .. things which give pain rather than pleasure to others.O~ del".e.. z ml "cN""'~ This is taken in a number of ways but I believe that inl is causal here (LS. . It is parallded at 80a 5-6.. The explanation of this is contained in a. opposite to the good things mentioned.. for example ]ebb's note. JA. and so: vices instead of virtues. In each instance w.. called "dOo" emotional proof This proof is incorporated with the logical and ethical into deductive and inductive forlOS of argument thus constituting the unified logos so critically necessary in the dfurt to communicate cffectivdy with another person. as is said at 78b 16-17: TOW 6~ "7]6 .. not Tel bT. xClxli i. cowardice instead of courage..-15 b 27-. see... those with Tel lva.v. People who are emulous (which means that they are the kind of people described at 88b 6-7: see note) would not consider these . &'uAU"""'. cf..... B. and four edd.' clJv ...a06.evo...... 'RHETORIC' II 88b 29 b 23 xed " . refers to Tel lvavda "«I<a just as T.. 77h 16 : 1.. Ross.. etc.~ lxov""~ as he explains in what immediatdy follows: those who are C7]AaJTI"ol (b 1-10) as wdl as the C7]A"'Tol (b 15-22). will turn away from them in disdain... and the response to them could frequendy be ("oAAd"..•. see 8sb 29 : Z). lxo~a..... They constitute the necessary material whereby (6.xo. ~'I)Aoilv "'" x""llfI>povEiv is the reading of the codd.taT" b .) one devdops in discourse anyone of the emotions studied.) contempt.. p. as it is at 88a 26Jf." pp..u. fI. "laT".. b 24 oG"". and from which (1< w. see b 26 (6ao • •••).." b 26 lvuvd.28 &. .E'~ very probably (as at A 8. 2. at 8sa 34f£ there is a somewhat similar presentation for kindliness. dissipated.. i. 660 18.88b 30 COMMBNTARY 181 2 5. t"".rn.. see Studies. are dissolved. 86b 91[ enters into some detail on the opposite of pity. indirectly becallSe of the rdation between anger and mildness.. for mildness in B 2.e. and. This was done formally in B 3 for anger. see 87b 17 : I. or 7. it was done for friendship at 82a II[ and for fear at 83a 13f£ For shame it was simply stated at 8sa 14-15.4) as source material from which to· devdop propositions about each emotion for enthymematic or paradeigmatic argumentation. and 86b 9 : I. on the meanings of "t. .. in the Rhetoric. b 30 . 6sb 20) in its third meaning (c£ 55. S~6. destroyed. The eH"ort at 87b 161[ (in the chapter on indignation) and at 88a 261[ 1m the chapter on envy) to set forth ways to dissipate the emotions are less direct and explicit.ME'tCO.. pp. SBa 26-27. . overact and re-act. the gifts of fortune. ln0V"" solely with the speaker's ~Oo.CHAPTER 12 I .. Development: 890' 3 .~.uxCl~ We have seen the problem ofthemeaning of ~Oo.89b 12 of the first age group: the young and their character traits (the study of age groups continues through chap. cf. easily angered. let us review briefiy some of the problems whicb . violent but not 14.fickle. and then look at A. each kind is explained briefly II ." In an eff'ort to understand whether A.8gb 12 their emotions: hot-tempered. 8g.890' 2 to chaps. Consequendy.m.rise if this is so. even a casual reading of the RNloric makes us aware that A. . gob 14) _permanent 3· 8g"7-34 4. • • • ~Oo. 890' 34. age groups. habits. since men give a favorable hearing to discourse whicb is addressed to and in accord with their own ~Oo" it i. 12-17: a study of the kinds of ~Oo. quite clear how the speakers by the language they employ will reflect such cbaracter both in themselves and in their discourse. Conclusion: 89b 13 i. (77b 24).. and the problems occasioned by identifying it as .trong..e. Despite this common interpretation. bigh-minded their actions: live in accord more with wbat is morally right than with what is advantageous. Introduction: 88b 30 . are hopeful.. in mind when he talks of the probative power of cbaracter.. I. .'. has more than the speaker's if00. courageous. are ready to show pity. as specified by emotions. to be the only entecbnic pistis. intends the speaker's ijOo. 89h 13 88b 30-31 TO. 3-9 desires of the young: ..I. Tel . to enjoy themselves III . use of the word in our treatise. Stile'! . bodily in character.. confident. The most obvious difficulty is in the area of . Any doubt would be removed by 90a 25-28: "such then are the f/0'1/ of the young and old. eager to win their attitudes: see the good rather than the bad. Again at 69a 28-3 I in discussing the motive forces behind human action he speaks of the role played by ii80~: "And in general all the circumstances which cause men's characters to differ must be considered. However. . Isb 23. When we tum to the use of iJ9o. The meaning found in (a) is the base for that in (b) and (c). 23-29 A. it leaves B 12-17 inexplicable. (a) iJ80. this will =lte a difference in him. 95' 23. 26-27.ARISTOTLB.'s statements in 12-17 that the auditors' iJ90~ in the speaking situation is presented as something whic:h must be known because of the way it affects the mauner in which auditors respond. of 12-17 a form of the entechnic pistis "d90" e. 5. and. p. 66. is found in the fourteen lines at 7Sa 7-20.if a man views himself as rich or poor . (b) i190~ of forms of government in A S and iJ90~ of B 12-17. 13. How. 59 appearances (I except I3b 3<>-31)..g. . "d90. but the iJ90~ he speaks of is the character of either the speaker or others.... is obviously saying in 12-17 and the position of those who confine iJ90' as entemnic pistis to the ~9o. 14-15. it could not be. it refers to what we ordinarily understand by "the character of a person. Such an argument on A." Furthermore it carries this basic meaning throughout the text. ~90~. 'RHETORIC' II ssb 30 the structure and the logical development of the work.. (2) 4 where it can only be the 7190' of others as entechnic pistis: 66a 13. A study of the sS instances as they arc read in the text and context establishes the following meanings: (I) 7 clear instances in which it refers to the speaker's >l90. at 76. (B 2-II). 9Ib 2D-31. 26. A. of course.'s view as much an entechnic pistis as "d9o~. of the speaker. clearly speaks of the two enteclmic pisteis Myo~. Thus Cope's view (Introd. The only extended statemcot on ~9o. however.. But this is precisely the problem: the conBict between what A. We arrive at B 12-17 after an extended analysis of two of the three entechnic pisteis: lcIyo~ (A 4-15). 2-II is the recognition by those who do so that theiJ90~ of 12-17 is in A. 163." Strangely all who subscribe to the view that the speaker's ~80' is the only enteclmic pistis still interpret this forward reference to be B 12-17.. some =lte the ~90. can we limit the meaning of ~80~ as "tcrn~ l . of speaker..X"o~ to the speaker? Indeed can we do so when it makes nlmy of the 59 uses of the term in our Rhetoric meaningless? For example. we will discuss these matters later.. says that ~90~ is not "d90~ (EN IIooa II-U) and from his explanation of iJ90~. then. In the light of the logical organization of the two books this is a substantial defect. Realizing this. 12-17 an extension of "d90~ as found in chaps. e. in the text in all it!. 90a 26-27.. It is clear from A. as enteclrnic pistis: 56a 2. IOS-I3) that it submits to three meanings is not correct. for example.. (c) 7180' of style in r 16. Siiss.'s part is an indication of the probative force of the auditors' iJ90. The purpose they serve is not known. pp. The one merit to be found in making chaps.g. gIa 20-21.rum. a contensporary.8...>jB. Finally.8.>j8. 12).. and (S) 3 where "character" is a possible interpretation.mmenlari. Theargwnent which underlies chaps.78a 6). Oddly enough. In content it is actually a chapter of transition from logical pistis (77b 16-23). the way a person habirually acts (1428b u) prinlllrily in the area of moral activity (c£ the actions he mentions).e. he effectively weakens or negates the power of his own .. b 5-1). 144Sb 3. with the auditors.trong in certain areas (89a 37. 86b 12-13.>j8. possibly 1445b 17) and auditors or others (7: 1429a II. as entechnic pistis. (4) 43 where it signifies either the speaker's or another's (e..g.>j8. moral integrity mixed (89a 3-16. the speaker's art is ruined should the auditors prove recalcitrant" (On the Embassy 340). the auditor's) '18. Should the speaker overlook the. 1434b 28-31..). (78a 7-20) and (78a 20-28)..>j8.>jB.>jB.e qllalities in his audience or dismiss them as insignificant or irrelevant. good will.... b 8-n). The comment on . as entechnic proo£ As Demosthenes remarks: "while other artistic or technical attainments are fairly autonomous.22. There are a few dUngs to note about the chapter. In such a relationship the auditors' .>j8. 59b 10.. that of the young: we learn that sound judgment i.: to cite a few: s6a 23. 14460 14. as entechnic pistis to the first category rather temerarious. ". moral integrity.88b 30 COMMENTARY 185 (3) I where it denotes the . To exemplify from the fir." (77b 24 . 91b 2. distributes his uses of . of both the speaker and another as entechnic pistis: 760 28. we must recognize the fact that A... pp. siva.. . but quite possible is: ". 12-17 is that by observing these traits and their presence or absence in his auditon the speaker ensures the effectiveness of his own . these are the qualities which appear in the analyses of the typical responses associated with a character type in 12-17. 35-37). good will. 3435). is obviously seen as an entechnic pistis for it must be understood and addressed by the speaker to ensure the credibility of his own >J0o. followed by a comment on .t charaCler (12).. 144lb 19-20. It should also be noted that Anaximenes. in a comparable manner between speaker (2 instances: 1430a 28-29.. This rather large range of referents along with the problems already mentioned makes the decision to limit . has made the auditor the ". 1430a 35." however. quality of character. This leaves us with the problem of Bland the interpretation of 78a 7-20. as entechnic proo£ The argument is stated blundy at 90a 2S-28 and earlier at A 8.b 2. is directed to that of the speaker and enumerates three traits which make one credible (as a speaker) to others: sound judgment. Thus Spengel has no hesitation in speaking of chaps." "characteristic": gob 29. 1:>-17 (the "indolem auditorwn") as the last of the three artistic proofs of 56a 1-4 (Specimen c. trait. It is certainly not devoted to the speaker's >J8. 76a 25. a general introduction to the psychological pisteis . 66a 8-14 (hrsl .>j8. and his meaning for the word is fundamentally the same as A:s. i. limited (89a 17-26.. In such a perception of rhetoric.. EE 1220b 7-20) there are three things found in that part of the soul called TO Oee"". 69b 6-7. EE 1220a 39 . intellectual convictions.E'~ at . This is the name given to an action repeatedly placed by a person. A 8. in fact. needs (i. A. So it is that the actual purpose of chaps. moral character. desires. c£ b 21.e. 90a 2S-28. to be effective. 12-17 with its study of the major character types is to show the speaker how his il90~ must attend and adjust to the il90~ of varied types of auditor if he is to address them successfully. the appetitive part: . 66a 26-27). . 58b 1-2. all of which flow into the judgments and decisions made by them. is like but not the same as that which flows from our nature. We can come to some understanding of its "'lJ1eanmg in the Rhetoric from what A. 70" 6 : 1. In the Rhetoric A. On this tnatter I would have to conclude that if any di!tinction on ~90~ as entechnic proof were to be made. 611>&. The chapters di!elose th.186 ARISTOTI. S4a 7 in the introductory lines of our treatise: "because of the habitude ['''''''j9.w. an action done over and over. is said to be like a second nature (EN nS2a 31>-32). it is this ~90~ which affects a person's decisions and judgments..90. the speaker must always recognize and utilize the fact that he is speaking to a certain kind of audience with a particular set of established attitudes.4 I. calls its root idea.t in A...g.. does not explain the meaning of il9o" but it is safe to say that it carries for the most part the ordinary meaning found in the ethical worle.av] derived from a stable di!position [dno lE."~) on the part of the auditor essential to the whole process (77b 21 : 1). I would say that A.b r). 9.~ (stable di!positions). in turn. This manner of acting.. interests. & we learn at A 10. 660 9-14). .. emotional responses.]. 'RHBTORIC' [J 88b 30 telos of rhetorical di!course (A 3. i..'s mind the speaker'.&9'1 (transitory motion proceeding from the capac- .'s notion of il90.". ~90~ cannot function autonomously as entechnic pistis nor con the auditors' ~90~ be viewed as neutral or passive as a source of proo£ The more realistic assessment of the speaker-auditor relation is that the auditor's ~90~ influences not only the speaker's il90~ but also the emotional resonance he lends his argument (. plays an important role in determining A..E. which. 1II40 9-10).4 9..e.. colis €E'~. and secondarily but equally as that of the auditors (e. Thus i!90~ is the ground for what A.. as we are also told there (70a 6-9). In itself this is an argument for the auditors' ~90~ as part of the enteehnic pistis ~90~. A lE~.g." (capacities). 67b 7-II) and judgment ("el. is a disposition already present in a person (see below) which can receive the effect of the repeated action and thus become further disposed for the doing of that action (EN IIo3b 7-25. speaks of this very notion of . a certain kind of ~90~)." According to A. EN TI03a 17-18.<. thinks of ij90' primarily as that of the speaker (e. Thus at 700 6 Ta l/hi refer to specifically diffi:rent actions repeatedly performed by an individual.. it seems..&90') and its intellectual temper (Mro~). 69a 7-3'. (EN nosb 19-28. 890~ (c£ A 10. :>3-24. uses it in the Rhetoric we arrive at this: l}6o. signifies a natural predisposi- Ie. In B 12-17 and its presentation ofl}6o" there is constant reference to the virtues (and so good moral character) as they are found in EN nD7a 2S . A. "eoal{!BTt"'7. "a! OJ. EE 12Wb 16-20).~". p. But ~6o. 17. 17a 17. 17-18. 140 21-:>2. greatness of spirit. as "moral character" is common in the Rhetoric. which iJ formally identified with moral character. ciA7jOw. which is a tendency toward (or away from) the standard of goodness proper to man (BE 1:>2Ib 3:>-34. etc. is shaped pardy uuder the direction of reason by IE" as an dective habit.I:>2Ia 12. Schiitrumpf. as a natural endowment would appear to be a dominant meaning at 11790 33 . In analyzing the character types A. IS. r 13. 16. 18b 23.i. 19-20. to be courage. at EN II44b 1-30 we read (4-6) that men are of the belief that each of the kinds of ~6o. iE'. 89> 35-37..IIosb 10. with which people are variously endowed by nature. In the expression l}Oo. If a Mwap'."uo"alov (II79b S-9) >lOo. of courage. That influence come. For example. that was the object of the first education in the Republic and Laws of Plato. As Burnet. In other words. when it adds choice and motive.88b 30 187 COMMENTARY ities). actually presents patterned ways of acting common to a type and indicative of good or bad moral character. Poetics 1448a 2. A. a finn disposition with respect to the appetitive part of the soul represented by the emotions which reflects the quality of the person's dominant habits in the sphere of moral activity..nSoa 24. ~6o. the tesult is a firm direction of the person toward or away from the good proper to man which iJ called virtue or vice. 28-:>9. and brave. it was the formation of this kind of l}Oo. Thus if we were to make specific the primary meaning of l}Oo.. EN III70 3-6: "The courage arising from the spirited temper seems to be most natural and. ISa 16-17. 66..e. A 10. 69a 15-19." This natural endowment disposes the individual to a degree for the ddiberate formation of the kind ofl}6o. there are kinds of l}6o. cpo EN II04b 11-13. Such an understanding of l}6o. 90a 16. . remarks. From the passages cited it would appear that the dvvdp. i. as A.. 4/[). liberality. 22. and their presence or ahsence in the varied character types. 66a 14-16. .-4). into an habitual way of acting in the area of moral activity. It is seen quite dearly atA 8. whether it be good or bad." possess no specific determination from nature (EE 122.g. . It is also the meaning found inA 9. temperance. 95b 14-IS. from the which shape the capacities to function in a certain way (EN IIoSb :>3-28. temperate.. for example.. EE 122. love of honor.0b 3S . does not always denote this finn disposition deliberatdy formed in part under the guidance of reason. speaks.0b Hi) but may be influenced one way or another. also calls it l}6o. is a firm disposition within the person formed pardy under the direction of reason (BE 1220b 5-7). n03a 24-26 and cf. (and he has in mind moral character) are somehow naturally present: men are just. and possess other kinds of character from the moment of birth (cp. e. pp. As a matter of fact. the irascible.. In its strict sense a.e addressed as of utmost importance to the speaker. In any event.2. In the same way the states of feding discussed at EE I233b 16 . however. In the sen. speaks of kinds of character denominated by natural capacities for =tain kinds of emotiom...S): "There are two kinds of emotions as we know from ancient tradition: one kind the Greeks called "d90" a word which we. of the statement at EE I220b 7-10 in which A. The same may be said.w "e.) can devdop =tain kinds of emotional respOIlSe. We also know that diJferent age groups (ljl". S58-59). It is in this sense. In itsdf. ." This is clear from Quintilian and Ci=o.••• Pi~ de'Pi~ (II79b 30) and that can be made ready for virtue (OJ soil is made ready for the seed) by education in virtue Wlder proper laws./a. Latin has no equivalent. 243) includes within the meaning "emotional states.e that such responses are somewhat stable and set they may be (and are) spoken of as fl90c. But in either meaning it includes an aspect of the personality of tho. it is a word for which according to Quintilian the Romans had no equivalent (6. MoTtS is the term used. Verdenius (p. as has been said.2-20 Quintilian takes up the concept.the wider .. interpreting it properly ond correctly.) respond almost Wlanimously to a spectrum of emotions peculiar to the age (and so the idea of the "ages of man". is using the word in its strict sense in the Rhetoric and when in . something that is . it would seem. at s£ "dB. When A. AP I56-I7S). but they do not constitute moral cltaracter. 69) argues that fl9.~ does not signify moral eharacter. As moral character fl90. Quintilian's failure in Wlderstanding may wdl be owing to O=o's failure (Roth. this fl9.188 ARISTOTLE. as I helicve..~ is interpreted as For example. In the Latin tradition 'lj"9. e. Through 8-IS his comments are promising (~g. and so that part of philosophy known .a'eiC1'''~ (12340 25).~." Such stable emotional responses or attitudes may be "praiseworthy or censurable states with respect to eharacter" (I233b 16-17). he effcctivdy undoes his whole intention to communicate...2. 'RHETORIC' 11 88b 30 tion for moral goodness. the lustful. an explicit reference by Quintilian (5.1". Kroll (p.ense would have to be determined from the context.I234a 33 are closely roated to moral character but they are not fl90~ as moral eharacter since they too are d. Horace. >18'' 7/ is called moral philosophy. the other kind they call fl90" a term for which. cf. We know that the emotions (nd9'l) are integral to fl90c. call adfectus. at 6. moral character Aristotelian fl90~ does not appear to have been understood in the Latin tradition.10. If he overlooks or dismisses it. however.~ can denote a "passing mood" which seems to mean an emotion typical ofone age group and not another.17) to B r:Jr-I7 cannot be reconciled with our text OJ we have it. In the same way we know that individuals because of the circumstances of life (TVXa. that Kroll and Verdcnius enlarge the meaning of fl9. signifies a stable and established attitude in the area of moral activity which is the result of some kind of reasoned action by the individual.g. 77b 25-28). and iJOo. For A." For another view on Cicero and ~Oo" c£ Fantham. ("dOo.1211£.43.. (which has been called 6. In conclusion we can say that in these chapters A. (a word he uses once. . perduring emotion. (c£ Drat...9). is a calm. ~Oo.. and how it may exert an effect on the audience. liro. However. First of all it should be said that Cicero recogniud the importance of the auditor.. 856. 56a 14-19.t. is a "dOo.. 37. 37-128.79. gentle.2Ia1f. 37-128 (cp. 79.iea "t.182-184) where he explairu >10. TO..lao: "Let us discus." On the meaning in "oio. momentary emotion.. Drat. 2.m..). and therefore of hi.. Thus ~Oo.. as is the speaker'. any response of the auditors to the speakers' ~Oo.. to the understanding of his hearers.o.) and so the discussion of iJOo. De or.".22 (.16. the auditors' 1jOo. In A.. c£ 77b 26-29. when used of the speaker. But his statements are directed to arousing an emotional respome in the audience. ~Oo" to the speaker.. or as Roth.. 1.S3. Everything dse met here and there in De or. e.U5-2. if he is not actually speaking of what we know as "aOo. .88b 31 COMMENTARY it is morts. at 18 it requires that the speaker be a vir bonfls). But in the last analysis ~Oo. is studied because it is apparently understood to be as much a "I.29.321 (ex eis opud quos . .. methodologically the discussion is simplified by locating it in the final place since there is no need to explain the many referents to the "dO.. See. "'TO""O. "aial . It is a response that is more intellectual than emotional..27.tis.t.g. 43. despite encounging statements-e. in a way which would qualify it for the ~Oo.b iuJicum person. is a more violent. 158--60).) in the third and final place is not in any way unusual...213. this would be done by the use of "dOo... says: "the speaker's ~Oo.~. the kind ofmeo they arc (Le....t.•) and compare 2.27.t.ctus.g.. their character] in rdation to their emotions.2. De inv. (c£ Martin.. 2.28.~ sc. (A 2.128. At most where he is presumed to be speaking of Aristotdian ~Oo.18a1f. Quintilian attributes the distinction to the more careful writers on the subject (6. and "dOo. see De foto I) as we find it in the Rhetoric.. 78a 20-28).322). of speaker or auditor ("ad naturas et ad mores et ad omncm vitae consuetudincm accomodatum") . 2. Cicero is speaking only of the ~Oo. There is no formal hierarchy among the "t. 97).1281£. 2. is the prominent quality in his personality and his style which respond. :z..44-186-187. could be seen as a rather loose deveIopment of this.115. In fact.53. c£ Martin. next the characters of men.he does not appear to understand ~O". b 31 :. as a form of "t. Cicero's comments on this matter arc contained substantially in Or. Further. is speaking of the allditor's ijOo.! which constitute a critical part of the nature of ~60.0. and understands the word essentially in the same sense as ~Oo.. in Roman rhetoric are called ajf. (66a 27: ... is fonnally a response to the ertckntial quality of the speaker (56a 5-8. at 131£ it denotes goodness in the speaker reflecting the morts dic.. hlTB""o. De or..... De orat. . cf. and 84ib II. a..H'Ij dq..&0'1. "ea"'''Ho~ The Vetus Translano and some of the older commentators.1a and the goods which are a necessary part of it: goods of the sou!. wealth..pav i. b 34·: J lll. good fortune can affect if0o.av e.o""G.~ Oearly A.. At A 10. The point is made for >lA/x.. U . 88b 30-3 I. 33-36 in Ross. agrees with the first interpretation but later (ibid. 2 " ... and those determined by fortune. has the moral virtues in mind and is speaking of ojO. A. In&O"pla.T1j..)".Since the goods of the soul are virtues. dqBT~ Hal "ax/a" 88b 34)..g.) and <. Kas. does not discuss the first two forma1ly for the reasons given at 88b 33-37 in Roemer. b 34-35 Elp.) in replying to Vater to accept the interpretation of the Vetus Translatio.. "'p..." .' "'po.. b 32-33 Atyw . 9 A. The explanation offered in the text for each of the four words lend. 69> 21-3 I we are told that youth.". B 2-I!. appears to be saying that 110" can be considered from four general viewpoints: dominant emotions (we have an example of sueb at 79" 10-25). On l~.sa 22. 86b 12-13.."aa-ro. p.. e.o! In A S." = On "dO".e1: "Bel dip .&0'1.g. and the gifts of fortune. qualities determined by age. rob 20-29. Spenge)'. can be considered under each aspect. 6. A. secludes the adverb. with respect to various age groups. 248.190 88b 35 ARJSTOTlB..0 ifOo. Hipp. and that this will be discussed later. rolfE. in a passing comment in Euripides.. 6 also in nedneav. b 3S-36 ". old age..sa 22. Hal with cod. understand "aTd only with the last two nouns.. as was. moral..... However...'~ .. among the emotions.!. Vater.. 62b Iolf. extrinsic goods. see 78a 20 : 2.. "we will treat next the ij67J.. " . cf. mentioned at . !E b 33 dp~_I'EV ". he concentrates on the last two showing how different periods in man's life as well as differing fortunes bring about certain artitudes. read." Cope. dispositions. Since the first two have been studied. inA 9 the virtues and the vices. is not one of the emotions in the Rhetoric but is found in the EN. we can include A S. 'RIIEl'ORIC' II governs each of the following four nouns.. 6zb 13 : 2. Anger was discussed in B 2. mentions moral goods which individual men eboose ("oia "eoa'eomal . Ii9a 8: 2.. and .. In A 6 after defining the nature of good he partially repeats and adds to these goods. 986-987..g.. . confirmation to this interpretation as does the scholiast in a general way for .oi.hoose to . of the body." and 9Ib 5 for 7jA. Kassel alone of the edd. 140.e.roda. in A S there was a discussion of . U .. reasons are not strong...pa. traits of personality (emotional. p. p.po.a. and see 62b 12-28'..o/a" TVXa. .. intellectual) which can determine if00. habits (specifically moral habits.". F. e. Ross following Spenge). However... and the courageous man needs strength and power. seems more reasonable. 61b 28-31 and 10..Ali".g."oi. And there is the statement. 61a 12-24.. The three age groups are studied in chaps.. that even such . 69Q. i. 0.ay." On "ea"r". M".. of de""""''''. which tromA.... another irrational dement. speaking of . among which are mentioned at 60b 26-29 ""'''.la and one of the goods of the body. 70a 11-27. in which success is thought to be given by the gods (and so o£ 91b 1-4). 3 COMMBNTAllY 191 do ("oiw. 6:lb 4.po.'.... on good birth.. 7-8.... a s). awll"". e. in the strict sense as moral virtue.. 12-14: 1 Wx1JV This is one of the extrinsic goods. These are taken up in chaps.. when one is moved by rational desire for the good. It is the acquisition or possession of all. 7.. At A 10. 6ga I : Z.g..a.e. z . In his long discwsion of its meaning at EE 1246b 37 1248b 7 A. (890 8) are so readily dismissed and that (a 9ff. with appetites dominant. II9a I a 2 . wealth. 126a 12-13) while desire in opposition to reason is called h"Ov. 433b 3-7 and 433a 23-26. needs the chance gifts of fortune.89Q.b 7 where A.oi. on "power" see 60b 27 and 60b 27. 6xb 39 : 1.). II7a 27-33 which stress the fact that the young are ordinarily assumed "to live by their fedings (ndOBlr (EN lu8b 17). However. That character can be inJluenced by the accident of chance (fortune) becomes clear at EN II78a 28 .. o£ 67b 24. C£ A s. divine. the liberal man and the just man need wealth to exercise their virtue. or the most important goods whose cause is chance.00.. 86a 2S-26 it is used together with I . "al 8lto.. 91a 2<>-29. ... a 3 : 1 m.. as do EN 109sa 4-II and Top. petitive £acuity (r& 6ga 2-3. At 60b 22-23 it is a part of efJdaJ. 61b 39 . dO• . A.. it is called potl17l'1&...Ouf'lI". uses it here together with a. b 36 t». is introduced would lend confirmation to this.. !Sob 20-29.62a 12. In our present passage these notions are made a part of WXf/. 61b 1-14.). .narural.". A s.. 6sa 20.... xe>!para (our nAoiiro. "inclined to desiring. On h"Ovpla which is one of the dements of the ap68b 32 ." i.xol "cupidus" as Horace says of them at AP 16S.. In the words of 70a 11-19 hnOv.. 69Q."fOo."O.."<11)(1(1\1 C£ A s."fOo.1'''' . the other.1a. 60b 3<>-37.xl. IS-17.. in the explanation of the De an. 63a 19 that "in general all things deliberately chosen are good..envXia as his explanation of WXf/ (e. and also with i/071 as indicative of a set of established characteristics.....yEv .6gb s (the explanation of WX7l).6ga 2) see A II. B 8. or very many. (0£ also Top. 6xb 37 : z. this seems to be its meaning here and at B 17.la can be either rational or iIrationai desire. concluding in part at A 6.. 32 .010v07l... inclined to follow their desires (0£ .). "ea"".e. S. concludes (EE 124Bb 3-7) that there are two kinds of good fortune: one. From what follows immediately in our Rhetoric passage (a 4-7) it is more likdy that irrational desire is intended The fact that their po.. 70h II.xol _I 61i6eu ....lwo is a partitive genitive. The ordinary punctuation followed by the edd. Spengd.". The fact is. 70a I9if. 78b 18. dtn'fi at a 10). thus far e. on dtp{"oeo~ ("fickle. As Horace.it means rational wish. As we have seen povl1}(II..~ •.. a 8 l3ou)."). is not substantial and lasting (ou ".. . rii~ of the codd. Ross alone encloses this within parentheses with no punctuation before the parenthesis and a comma following.. . Cope. which.g. . S. "iram colligit ac ponit tem. 70" 21 : z) A.. ... 78b 5: on anger. . 1306.&~ as a synonym for del"i (e. AP 165 ("amata Tdinquere pernix") as an apt illustration of the meaning. Cope. Comparing them to the hunger and thirst of the sick (cf. on o<VO"p.. . however. quickly sated") gives the evidence for this word which is found with some frequency in Plutarch.." a 10 : J alal z~ c£ II9a 3 : z.6ia' . Ross reads dlo from a good tradition. but he presents the problem. as he says at EN I095a 8: the young live their lives and pursue each and every thing following the dictates of their feelings ("dOo~)..). The singular seems more likdy in the light of TavT17' (a 6).• IN "cyci).o.. ". wish.ere... 68b 14 : z. J b:p"T£i~ "they are powerless in the face of it". II.. indicates their transient character. "inclined to pursue"......1. says. C£ Horace.ioa~ Ross makes 89a 4 ("al TWO) down to a 10 (derfil one sentence.." a 4 Ii the reading of four edd.aydlo. z o6". see chap. AP 160 ("ct mutatur in ho. 2 OIol 'Iare capable.~ of the young. cf. and there is no reason that it does not. . 1M. 8ra 7.... which identifies desires for sensual pleasures (our 89'1 4-5) with irrational desire. 163 ("cereus in vitium fI. 69b II. A... 68b 20 :"z. "unable to resist.." LS. it must mean rational desire... that we have here three different topics relative to the ~O.. au O"".g.. 69a 2. see 69a 4 : z. 2. a 9 eu". Spcngd. 14. Uxo>. 'RHBTOIUC' II COOOe. and see Bob 36 : J . Victorius conjectured ~ for Tai~.. while impulsive and quick (d. 142. .. not three. ""o. and in this he is followed by Ross. as found in the other edd.-3. a 4-5 .' (quick-tempered).0. Cope. p.cpl .· 0..ou8YjTlXol a 5 "<jj .eia. is preferable: "avona. as does Cope..ecti").A1lISTOTLE. the other edd. c£ also a 7: o-q>ddea ""0. Spengd. read Tai~ with cod. at A II... a6: a 8-9 6Iiei.. AP 15!r-I60. ~lxopo. If it denotes that here. .cil3o>. p. 6tb 32 : 4. A II.. desire.>\cr£.0-'). Kassd. VlCtorius suggests Horace. 994. Here we learn that their desire forpre-eminence (".g. 63b 20 : 2. C£ 68b 21 : 1) and a motive for wrongdoing (e... ""'B<eiia8a~ None of the odd. guileless..o". C£ 64b 1-2... In contrast the old are concerned about money (89b 28-30 with which cpo EN I I20b II . 250) for Kassel righdy points to 73b 18. inclined to put the worst construetion on dIings (89b 21-22).g. I274b I8/[. Ross alone includes this within parentheses a 13-14 (. 98a 4.. AP 164. a 12) c£ 78a 32.) differendy.. speaks ofhim in the Politics.• dn:oTBnlm. the second..'Y"'PWfLEVO. see also OeD. Timocrates. IV 98/[ We do not know the comment made about Amphiaraos (one of the early Greek heroes)...b 2. who lived ca. &£ Cpo Horace.poxij~ . a 17 KCllCo1\e. This combined with their disregard for money recalls an earlier comment of A. Rep. and was a contemporary of Solon of Athens. q..that to be fond of comrades is far more honorable dian to be fond of money. We know him mosdy from the poetry of Alcaeus. a 15 rpv. Lives of the Philosophers: Pittacus I.'s at A 7. C£ 8!)a 8-9. ijx. De fin.•. Spenge!.a. 68b 1:>-"4). c£ 68b 20. Cope are in agreement save at 89a 18. The other edd. but it can also become excessive (as can 'PMO""/a. a contrast also found in Plato. PW.. a life by Diogenes Laertius. lit. 5.. for neuter C£ S. slaw) both of dIese".. A la.14). Demosthenes. 6Ia 37 ... and see 78b 39-30... 650-570 B.74-8I. 63b 2. see 68b 20: 1.. 70b 32-34) signifies pre-eminence. xtM a 14 &fLrpw " ..22.... For the meaning see B 2. this can be a legitimate love for honor..We find at 890 37 dIat the young cherish their friends and companions. Ag..I. At 78b 28-29 we are told in effect that Ithe young consider themsdves superior (Horace's "sublimis. not as ambillon. S..../JO •...il"... e.89a 17 COMMENTARY 193 a II : 1 rpv. On the idea in 1lnBpom. cpo 90b 8.~ and punctuates the text in b 12-21 ("al 'P."o. a 16 D.6T1.v.). Cicero. and it is questionable dIat the comment is lost (e. Spengd. E61\e ••~ The first means cynical. 64b 1-2 ." AP 165).ffmxail of Mytilene.61 speaks in a similar vein about the young.: "they are [sc. CAH.83-1. A II... Thucydides 3.pois the reason for dIeir love ofvictory since victory (as he also said earlier. 2098.. 67" 22-23. 549b. accepting things at face value (cp.oxp1\ . 78b 13 . p. see also A 9..g. a 13. A. 6. to "interpret this in its immediate context as love of honor.C. for its rdation to an act of dishonoring and injustice (d6""'a8a. 68a 23.. a supplementary participle. and nothing in the sayings attributed to him in Diogenes Laertius is direcdy illustrative of the preceding clause: 'PMoxplj/JaTol . . 2 OJ. 78b la." As is clear from A 5..~ . !t seems "bett~.. He was elected head of Mytilene (aisymnetes) for a period of ten years.79a 8. notes a lacuna here. where we read: " . at 89ll30... Tovar. is common in Attic (LS)... "for the most part". for Ross see 8ga 13-14. 1516. Roemer. Hope is of the future.".. and cpo ENU54b9-II.. Kassel..ral Virtue 4500-f. 99 Cope mentions varied meanings of llirt." oi• . p. To illustrate this physiological view of A. 'RHETORIC' II 89ll 21 52). miss one's object. 139) where A.. The present passage (e.g." Victorius citing Plato. silly. etl>i8'1' can also mean simple. refers to Plutarch. 04a 24. and Cope. is speaking of "a87) (aiM". LS. . uses it at r I.1 appears in this form as perfect participle in the codd.... a 19 e6"'"... "'. ~a "l. fiery in their appetites. """lt'l"tv. s... On M. those who believe readily. za. on p..-23)... a 18 "'DV'Ip~. At 78a 2... p.. as are 89b 30-33 and also ENII28b 14-15 (Cope. They do so says A. an idea amply illustrated at A II. a further reason is given as a more concrete and practical explanation of their hopefulness. The etl>i8. our impulses which arise in and are moved toward the corporeal and become violent or relaxed with bodily changes. "." But this would seem more proper of the group mentioned next.." however. a 22. o~ •..dli. although the augmented form r/>.. and raging because of the abundance and heat of their blood whereas in old men the source of the appetitive which lies about the liver i.ci 1<l... Spengd. who never fear deception and construe whatever they see or hear favorably.b 22 in the analysis of pleasure.. p. a colon. (a 18-19). "simple-minded.g... 4C9a says: "stl7j8. i. cpo . 89b I.. 1#.. a 21 ~cr...).oj. d"o~.... 955a It[.a~o.. because they have not yet been much deceived...~ at a 21 for. 13 b 19).. a dative of manner. cf...'s..iin. . I. foolish (as A. 'Pop. is aware of the corporeal (as opposed to the psychic) aspect of the emotions. the credulous. So it is that the young are quick to anger. of A.. the very nature of the young infuses them with warmth in the same way as those intoxicated with wine) is by way of confumation. 139). Kassd and Cope read from a good tradition.ci ci"' .i~a i.e. Cope p.. Dufuur.. Rep. are such because as yet they are innocent of most wickedness ("o"'1~ta. is to fail. the adverb.). 145 (also p. is used by the Greeks of those who follow the old ways.I. 12...0 : 2leferencewasmade to a few passages which indicate that A.. 31-32. ~ as we also read at Pr. on ilnta.b. 'lOa 27 ......£i... reckless.. being quenched. as does Plato. rp6cr. Cope. . Cope place a period after this word.194 ARISTOTLE..oJJ.. a 20-21 011'''''' 1'1) ". memory of the past (e. has a comment on it. 1#. following Victoriw believl'S that such a meaning may be possible here.6£~ This trait of hopefulness is what determines a number of the characteristics which follow down to 89ll 34a 19-20 C>crn£p . Cpo 90a 6-7. which is preferable.>i"" at a 18. P'Pv>7""" in middle voice takes an accusative. keen as they are to do the honorable (89' 34-35) they are more sensitive to what others think. together with pryaAotpvX1a (0£ 890.. the MEa of others in their regard. is said to be (A S.aMswra. of the codd..g. defined arA 9. at 83a 17-19 (as we are here at 890. the fierce. as was seen at 83a 13f[ where we are told further... IUT'. EN Iu8b II-I3). sc. .. hot-tempered (BvprMB") disposition diminishes a sense of fear for it is impossible to fear if one is angry..... 31-33)..) in the ·strict sense.60.. 29: "to hope for some good inspires confidence"). Owing to their limited experience the young are immature in the matter of what is honorable.e. . 89b 4-S. and cpo 89b 34: TSMvTal".. for OrOPTa. e. o£ 88b 30-31 .... 89b S. "sensitive to shame" (0£ 8sa 9 : 1) which expresses • 29 .. Wed TOV v&pouj they have as yet not entertained the idea of other standards of the honorable [...6IJmxo.890. Le.. a 31-34. This attitude exposes them more readily to the fear of clishonor which is shame (83 b 14-15.. this conjecture of Dobree (Kassel). i. 31 COMMBNTARY I9S a 24 'Ojj ••• -li . Courage. of all morally good things (660 33 : 1).• positive and customary law. is read by the edd. Consequently.Ta opo[. ijp4/". a.a 36-37). ~I!'8u. as he does with many of the following clauses in the chapter....(~I"rL.s oto" . b 9-II.lax.84b I (o~asl~ .. a 27 "the former of which" (6:>.• a 28. aAr! keea Wrolap/lr:lvovalV). e. "Educated only in the established rules and customs of their society [n.. a 30-31.v. Z olin yrlp is the reading of the codd. 62b 12-14 • virtue of the soul. o£ Euripides. not Bekker. 66b II-13.g. a 31 : 1 "EYC&)..r.. and o£ Boa 33." etc. e..PI!' "in the early years". Cope.... This is another indication of their concern for the honorable.'!Aol the idea more sharply than "modes!.S Ross alone encloses this within parentheses. read: "m. a 26 O'.• 89a :>'7-:>'9. the edd.• four odd ..". It should be clear that in pointing to characteristics of this sort in this age group A.. "al Blaba. here as explained at 73b 5 : 3 (I) and (3) (i) i. b f>-J7. Ion 720. the Tilo. has moral virtue in mind (. The combination of spirited and sanguine temperament makes for the greater degree of courage in the young (rlvae"OTSeO').'1'onea).g.." I understand vop." "shy. 6ra 3-4) a virtue of the young and.e... Ross conjectures 011. This cawes him to change the commonly accepted punctnation and so to join together topics which seem better separated. the opposite of fear.• Spengd. that confidence is a certain kind of hoping.. Their situation is described well at 84a 25 . . o£ 66b 17... is called at A 6.. This absence of fear is complemented by the positive quality of confidence. a:>. to be correct both from 90a 16-18... the honorable." Cope. 6sb 25: "All .elf-assurance which in turn inspires the self-esteem of the high-minded person. 'RHETORIC' II 89' 35 a 32 . is attributing to them either formal (deliberately acquired) or natural moral virtue (de'ni). whereas self is the object of action directed to the advantageous. However. d..ail.d". moral virtue) at 89a 36-37 (" 66 deonj .oj> yclcp . a 34-35 x .). all read 710 . Its difference from the honorable was indicated in the.90a 1 and earlier at A 8. A.men are won over by the advantageous. both explanations of the word are contained in the concept.d rlVI'rpiqa. Cpo Horace.. 147. 66b 17." At II24b 7-18 we read that he is the person who does good and repays good with greater good. 1516). identifying it as good and connecting it with virtue (c£ 660 33 : " 660 34-35)." The honorable is that which exists for its· own sake and is the goal of all good action... 62.Il2sa 16.e. (an instrumental dative of manner.a as "those things which do not lie in our power to do but are such as they are as a result of divine or human constraint. S. In describing the activity of the young as he does here. p. ordinarily. at work here i.preceding .A"" a 34 . At II23b 1-12 we find our present definition: "A person is thought to be high-minded who being in fact worthy deems himself worthy of great things. "mAail "For they live more by the rule of moral character than by that of calculation.. !'-iiAA. as he remarks at A IS.uch inA 6. as can be seen from the discussion of the idea at EN Il23a 34 . The advantageous is also a good (A 6."' a 33 !'-EymA.au "aAav)." because. that the honorable is an ultimate good chosen (when chosen) for its own sake.e.." .. discus.e. i. This appear...e as seen at 88b 3D-31. 66b 17. signifies in the ".on. has in mind: namely.." With the exception of Cope (lOo. "the force of circumstances. ":'EA7t. their attitude of hope combined with their inexperience of life fosters a self-confidence and . ". Action whose object is the honorable is not self-regarding. a." The distioction between . AP 164: "utilium tardus provisor.. 20) and is studied as . 1422a 2D-21 which explains d'ay"". whereas the advantageous is a relative good chosen with reference to a more ultimate good. In A 9...""Y".. A. tsb 19. refers to Anax. ""!'-'Popclv..196 A1USTOTLB..ake of honor.d "aM.~ This meaning of does not emerge explicitly from 8ga 19-29 but a comparison of a 19-29 with a 31-34 indicates what A. he says at EN lI20a 23-24: "virtuous actions are honorable and done fur the .&.67a 32 A...."'UXI... says as much at 89b 38 . 66a 33 .trict" sen. and from the explanation of 1j0 •• by deoni (i. The definition here is different from that at A 9. the compauion passage.. "no one chooses the absolute good but the good relative to himsel£" a 35-37 . and . which is what "lOa.. we learn at II~b I~ that the calculation can be quite correct and successful.II4Sa II. explains the passage by the 6. The first problem with Cope's observation is that virtue and moral character. C£ EN II78a 16-~I. From his statements on practical rcason.67a I we have. 7113.g. good or bad. The second problem with his comment is that from the companion passage at goa 16-18 we would have to say that the old for the most part do not act with virtue and moral character.89a 36 COMMENT AllY 197 note.g. MM II98a IQ-~I.. Furthermore it is not possible to have good practical reason without good moral character since virtue is both that which is in accord with right reason and that which aims a person at the right objective and so enables practical reason to take the right means.."&""1' concept of EN II44a 23f[ In view of the fact that cleverness itself is a form of reason.. as we have seen them. At 66b 36 . Cope. There can be no moral character. good is not always as simple as it might seem. for all such are not done for the sake of the seI£" In other words the unselfish choice of good is rd HaM. are a stable attitude formed pardy under the guidance of reason (88b 3Q-3I)." which is desire conjoined with reason. the object of the criticism and the contrast in the way of acting would seem to be the exercise of the practical reason upon what is practically expedient for the individual in given situations. In the first place." SchfitrumpC. and those things which are naturally good. Secondly. "all the objects of human choice which a person does not for his own sake are honorable.a. to grasp one'. In his analysis of moral virtue. Yet all of chap. I do not see how it responds to Cope. not necessarily his rcal good as a person (e.r"o~ that ''The intellect and its calculations are here distincdy excluded from any participation in virtue which is assigned soldy to the moral character. as also are things which arc absolutely good such as the things one does for onc's country while neglecting one's personal interests. and those which are not goods for the person himself. 14 on the old in detailing their deficiencies specifies deficiencies in moral virtue.. A. I believe. we find that it can be exercised wrongly. his personal good at a given moment which as a good rdative to himsdf i. in a reference to Cope. Thus in our present passage. to do an injustice . without some role for the intellect in the form of practical reason since moral character implicates "eoate. 147. goa 16-18. and (as he remarks at BB I~4ga IQ-II) for the truly good man the advantageous and the honorable coincide. but can in the case of a person not fully good result in what is an evil and not a good. p. the distinction A. wishes to make in our present passage on the actions of the young: e. as II~a 7-Iof[ implic:s. p. together with its companion. Moral character and virtue are not possible without the exercise of the intellect and its calculations. does not exclude the possibility of incomplete or deficient virtue and therefore an incorrect use of reason in deliberating. II44a 6 . has a strange note in which he asserts a 36 Aoy. 'RHBTORIC' II to another person rather than incur monetary loss).Xu"" i. II41b 8 . b 3 11_... and Sorabji.IIS7b S.: Chi/on 1. At 89b 4 (nd." This is a distinct step beyond thinking that they know all..ijv i. e. of the good. an articular infinitive in a construction similar to 6. a Spartan prominendy influential in his country (as indicated in later references to him). that of pleasUIe. cf. OCD.40-41. II 463~ (history of concept) and noteS to II39a 17 .. of pleasUIe.e.IIS6b 1.g.b 3. 89b 6-7. lIS3). The friendship of the young i.e..).VE. "in companionship". 2 Glen« sc. ck""'P""civou.Ta rde) unrestrained action . 212-39. On the expression cpo Euripides. i)A.1.68--73 we learn that the bUIden of his teaching was self-restraint but find no mention of OUI proverb. the aged. On al'de"tTJl'a see 74b S.V sc.. It is this complete self-assuxance (cf.. a 37 <po). 74b 2-10.g. On the idea in practical wisdom see Hardie.ARISTOTLE. EN lIS6a 31 . >1.3.a Td Xa4!6W. II4Qa 24 . PW. sc. served Sparta as an ephor and may have contributed significandy to that type of government found in Sparta. 6. Gauthier & Joli£.. "~l.. that of the old is generally a friendship of utility. see. see 63b I : z." The phrase A"I [in the direction of] Td I'dlAov "al a'l'o6eoneov is another instance of the article used with the adverb to fo= a noun (S. the case of the artK:ular infinitive is detem:rined by .II4sa II. d. Lives oJthe PI. On the meaning in 'I'M&-.b 30. the love of people for the pleasUIe they give. "ednB" from 89b 4. LS. A 13. S60-SS6 B. B. 74b 7.. In Diogenes Laertius.'. with Chilon singled out as the author of the saying: nothing in excess (41)... While potentially harmful. In EN IIS6a 7-19 three kinds of friendship are mentioned.OV. b 4 Xv.a Td.e'71. e. the main thought in b 2--7 is the manner of acting. 8ga 34) which leads to their excess in all that they do. &yav b 7 : 1 oroii ••• cir"Y can be considered a noun expression (cf. those in the prime of life.Although 1''76i. "confidendy allinn.n "They commit all their mistakes with excess and vehemence. and Terence.. The friendship of the young is directed to pleasUIe.. that of utility... Cpo EN IIssb 17 . 9sa 33-34b 6 &llGXUp(!..l'aTa as such do not have their SOUlce in moral perversity.LS). Andria 61: "ut nequid nimis".ca4!8w.. Hippo/rlus 26S. TO. however.C. .'1"AO.. pp.cji cru!.iIo:lOphe. EN IIS6a 24-30. 89b 1 : 1 l b 2 : 1 Xp(VE. In his Life oj Thaies 1. Diogenes remarks that the sayings of the Seven Sages of Greece receive varied attributions. cf.OV Cbilon (fl. al'aen. stresses the aspect of the manifest Wlmerited misfortWle of anodler which evokes pity and does not mention its other aspect: namdy.... points back to 78b 28-29 (~. This becomes clear from chap. and identifies the former (cp..av8eo". 8gb 8-g (dod T• • • • w. But they can be either the result of deliberation and moral choice (and so deliberately wrong actions) or the result of emotion (and so partially outside the control of deliberation).). 14.'av). 73b 36: 1. "If they do wrong to others. aaooj"aTa are acts which proceed· from moral badness and are done with knowledge and so are considered voluntary.)...}. The second.. 8sb 34 ."o" . C£ 74b 8. docs not say which they are.a are twofold. In this sense the wrong action of the yOWlg is fully in accord with the general mode of behavior attributed to them ill 8gb 3-7: one of excess. However.8-. tends to confirm the interpretation oifcred. the companion passage at 90a 18-'9 (sec also 9I~ ."'f" ••• €I. however. 9" .. However.• "':''f.. As to the meaning of 01. 01 . ~""%"eICovTa.". The first. 16g. Sec gIa 18 : 2 a10ug with A.g. . Here. some general sense . they could well qualify for those who do not experience pity.'s example at a Ig.E1J'fucol .u. not strong and violent.73a '3 : 1) with great wrong acts. pp.x-IJp. c£ bdow.COMMBNTARY 199 is given as the reason for their excess in wrong action. there are two statements which explain A.d 01 viOl "al 01 "Aov. it is because they mean to insult them. b 8-n D. . misfortune which the person who pities sees also as something possible for himsd£ As a matter of fact. 8sb 21-23 (oil."""". • &&. IJllelV .).g. "altOVerlav ("with wanton insolence in mind not small-minded malice"). from what A. Thus I am not sure that A.. the latter with minor. as do Cope's remarks. e..1. A.800 1 ("clv ol.. see. 90a 20 (which attributes youth's capability for pity to their <p. In our passage A.8-1g which. who are shown in general as mean and ignominious in their wrong action. not to do ·them actual harm" (Roberts).) another characteristic trait of the young is introduced and it is now offered (To6ro rde) as the reason for their unrestrained action.. •. GI3P'v . There we learn that hyhristic action is typical of the yOWlg and the wealthy as the means taken to asscrt their superiority. . 8 where piry is defined and explained.6. Po/. has said of the young in general. "'16m.. contains that aspect requisite for pity which is not mentioned in our passage: Ilamdy. is diminishing the wrongdoing of the young as we find 8gb 7-ll interpreted in the translations: e.a"lIav . together with our present passage (89b 7-8).ra•. and so both meanings arc possible. At A 89b S-6 ("a! .. vile" and "axoverla. The contrast between the wrongdoing of the young here and that of the old (goa 18-19). This passage is in tum reinforced by B . 129Sb 9-II says that the causes of d~'''''"a.g) is of assistance in deriving this understanding of the words.o}.'s use of tAs'l"'''o/ of the yOWlg. """06) is directly connected with the reason given here for the young's being disposed to pity. all men] in fact are".lsv'ed".lla is analY2ed at EN II27b 33 .t work here.54.. I RHETORIC .Ua as "cultivated insolence" might be more to the point." see Boa 30 : 1. MM II93a II-I9.. it is also confirmed hy the criterion used.. (EN 1128. 26. In fact. with cod. 2."Cv ••• 7jeo~...{a.Ta.iiJ~ "a{l. cf... iou~ The "al is alternative: "or...lo. De or." On the meaning of xe7lC1TOV~ and so of {J..Vo. the absence of moral badness. d"a.g. conveys is that it is a form of well-bred. tactful wit (as the word is ordinarily translated) and hwnor: e. init. S~J1:ean. 316-17) and that may be.. C£ chap.b'O>'OL Ross... 13. b II b 13 .. II. In this sense it is not a trait which one would readily identify with the young for whom 'I'£loycll"T'~ (care-free enjoyment of life) seems more characteristic. . 85b 14-15. The further specification of SVTean.e. I bdieve the first is correct: (.200 AllISTOTLB.J.. Spengd alone read 'I'. A.I.. EE 1234a 4-23. 9-10).t.87. ot de! E"".o.11 ~u. neoaayoe. n of fdlow-feding with man on the part of one who pities which makes him awal"C that he too can experience the misfortwle. (b) "they assume ..la originally had a pejorative sense (Gauthier & Jolif. b 9 Xp'l ..~ sll'ed"slo..Iu8b 3. and the general impression A. eVTean. Realistically the "wit" of the young by and large is more akin to what Cicero (Orat..ou~ ><. ." w"p.{ov~ (its alternate) as "morally good.) "they 'S$wne all men to be morally good or better than they [i. There are two ways in which our phrase can be inte<preted. i.e. or better than they [the young] are.218) calls dicaeitas ("in iaciendo mittendoque ridiculo") than to foutiae... . 89b 23. "formed of character rypes opposite to those just presented. 13. 89b 22-23. 89b 15 . I would prefer to read it as l{assd does. 89b 26. are queruloll' III .. Thi. ". 90a 19. or 9Da 25-29..p.hr. -). 13.ctions: live in the past their tlnotions and desires: anger. desires non-existent or feeble their actions: live in accord with the advantageous. (89b II.e. -)..""" .. 89b 30. 90" 18. (89' 18... violent. 90b 2)...ol (89b 8. (89' 26. we h. with the participle: "p.Mo.ve it at 88b 2!r30. do•• not seem to be an unusual use of transitional ".nd 90b 3). do wrong in a petty and malicious waYi are inclined to piry.dee'""l!o.. I25Sb 39.e. fond of living. Introduction: 89b 13 -IS II ." i. goa 11-16 attitudes of the old: hesitant. a"av~a (89b 6. ". ~d "aAd (89' 34. considered in each (the numbers are given serially): b. 14.t 01 d~ 1Cf!WPVTBl!o.. 90b 2). (89' IS. 89b 18. WIl6 •• .M6". or Pol.syaM'P"Xo. ungeneIOUS. a.ss. -). positive about nothiug.01 (89' 9. etl.". "I!dn. cynical. 9Da 4. ij8o~ Four odd. followed by a sentence introduced by de. but weak. Cope make thi. (89' 17. 90b I). 12. ". youth.de.06UIV (89b 7. not hopeful their .. (89' 19. -). (89' 3I. part of ch... distrustful. 90a II. . 1/6..st their prime more or less.. 6v". 90a 13. b 14 : 1 "Xoliav 2 tv..CHAPTER 13 I . old age. sldba. -) dd. (89) 35. i. not the honorable.a~o. -).. Spengd.. as the cooclusion of 12. ? 89b 26-27.o. small-minded.U..90a 6 2. 12-13 89b 13 TO ph . oIm.. -).'AoyeAOI". reveal. -). COOu. General conclusion: 90a 25-28 to chaps.. 'A~". 90a 34). self-seeking and thus looking to the advantageous not the honorable.Ao.. 90a 32).. -)." A study of ch'ps. prime oflife. Development: 89b 15 . aluXV'~Aol (89' 29. ". 89b 37.6P oJ. 90a 16. 9Da 2.. -). (89) ]7. cowardly.. lira.aTo. (89' 12. 89b 28-30. 90' 31 . 89b 20. and to begin 13 . (89b 4. ""loXI!7j". 89b 36. shamdc. ".l&~. the following qualitie. -)..90' 24 I.6v"'''In"oi (89' 3. 90a 6-11 3. " ataps{Ja.pawVvTa ...." However. "o"at povl>ia. III-la." . If Kassel is understanding d. b IS . confirm" as well as "maintain strongly.-rij . ... Third. b 16-17 .qTTO.... r7tpOa@&r'eo> apQ@TavoVr7t (89b 3)..ARISTOTLE. it appears that the verb understood with this clause is the one immediately preceding.. AP 1<>9-174.pa. three edd. Cope." Obviously the question arises as to whether one can d. 88b 30-31.. . will our phrase make sense with d.m.Ta" "to affirm with assurance. and the chapter itself indicate. 89b 6 (xal "dba.. Horace..oV... .. <ira.). rejects...a TO (b IS) understood: "and because human affairs in general turn out badly. his solution (i. a"a. In the light of these difficulties.. and Richards points out the first: namely.. e. that a number of scholars found it tolerable.. accepting the fact that >in•• <ira. There are three difficulties with such an interpretation.. We then have: "Not only do they aflirm nothing with assurance but they state everything with less assurance than is required... Thus they understand "@anoVr7'. ..).v. Kassel considers aymo sputious. a"a. "dAl. -).. Toward the end of 88b 30-3 I the significance of many of these qualities for .• d.ap. and that we have a phrase like ""''In".. doap.TO' (89a 25)..pa .q8o. Ross reads <iravTa.oiivTal.. Second. (890 8).ap....." This is the reading of all the codd.6v« "Y"" Spengd. i\S'I "for the most part possess characters.axveICona.. the more likdy contrast to the lack of sdf-assurance on the part of the old (89b 17-20) is the total sdf-confidence of the young. d.~a".. at 06b Io-II or plillo.ap..... 1573-1574) with both verbs.l ". .e.o. Both Spengd and Cope and the translators assume that the reference is to 89b 4.. "The result is that they are sure about nothing and under-do [translator's emphasis] everything" (Roberts). The following qualities are peculiar to the young: sVp«d/lolot (89a 6)..). as moral virtue was noted.g.v. b 18 : 1 ~. can mean "affirm. l!i'l" . is read by the codd..'.. as a dittography. e. ArAN AllANTA) is both reasonable and possible.. b 16 1<4£1. Cpo on the old. and assume that the relative inactivity of the old is contrasted with the hyperactivity of the young.Ta.. 1<4£u" ••• "p. Airon. .g. . the old do act in excess as 90a 9--10 (8"ee . 7dEi. 'RHBTORIC' II 90a 23..a.S. at 64b 2. which Richards... that 89b 4 is too far away to supply a verb easily. 89b 36 l<pllauro.. pp.pa.y~'t'WV another articular infinitive with a. suggesting dyan'. '!i'lll-"P~"o\v'" nulw is a cognate ac- cusarlve (S...? It seems to me that it does and that one can interpret it in this way: "Not only do they affirm nothing with assurance but they affirm everything with far less assurance than is required." On 1j8'1 cf.. Apol.. 68a 5 : J where it is used in the sarne sense. whereas Scipio is cited in the De amicitia of Ci= (16.~ K"[ C£ A 2.~: "as though they will one day hate..." The articular in£nitive ("to put the worse constrUction on everything") is predicate.. Ajax 677-683 (and ep. b 22-23 (cin.1 . see PW.~ They both hate and love (xal. cl>~ ""aojaon. The saying is fairly common in ancient literature: e..203 COMMENTARY 2 OiOV"C'tlL. whole testimony that most cautious word 'I think' [a. >f8o~ . 2086.v. Hippo/ylUs 253-257. J cill<p'&oJ. 614-615). 2Id: oJTO~ ". Oedipus Col. Ag. He is often referred to in the early literature and lived... On vno801H'f/V.. We also find there b 22-23 K"Xu"6".h or. b 21 .. as did most of these wise men.~ ep. ... AP 171.".. believe... Cope reads d"''P.rrrlao .. la . With our passage cpo 95a 26-33 (TO d.. 2 .). see the comment at 89a 17. c.g.." This is specified most likely by the reason. e...p[DlV in d..] which we customarily use even when.". ' ' ' ' fI b 24-25 ""l <pu. under oath. Sophocles... nea.. given from 89b 15-23. e. suspect.g. Victorius suggests Ci=o'. at 90a 5 we find .. '''''''l(!iav b 24 : J .~ <pu. Euripides.. b 19 : "'''x'' "without any reservation.. r6b 10-15.." S."eoo again." A..>\aov... Attica.d TO ..:. Diogenes Laertius notes as one of Bias' counsds to men: "to love friends as though they will one day hate them" (87).... Cpo 89b 6. Cpo 890 r8. the ""Planation of what is meant by the of the old who have frequently been deceived. Aulus Gellius (Noet.e... '"suppose..OTB~. . ..82-88.. have knowledge of". is not un\JSUai for a stronger statement of the uncertainty.~ IS...a... Bias of Priene is another of the Seven Sages whose· life we have in Diogenes Laertius.. Aristoerates 122 (660) accepts it as a sound principle in human affairs..aP''lTO. 'O"l"aTija8a.... l.v .. Cpo Horace..d.IMJ~ (this fellow supposes that he knows something though he knows not).Iie ... b 20 : J ""Yu.•.". b r5-17 (d... in the early part of the first half of the sixth century B.Hal).. Tal TO .o( .. The joining of the two adverb.... del 'PIAB").." as opposed to "know for a fact.. we state those facts we have as=tained and have oursdves seen.-Ijv B[DlV""~ ~"o8>l"'I" "the counsd of Bi.biITo. Plato. r 2 KClKO>\8.tfraw). comment on the testimony of Indutiomarus "who omitted from hi.59) as considering the sententia most pernicious to the very idea of friendship and something which he could not accept as a saying of Bias'. 56a 8. specifies his meaning of the word in what follows.Demosthenes.g. and scated that he 'knew' [scire] all" (For Fonteius 13-29). iaacn i..0 btl . In his Lives of the Philosophers: Bias 1...ldha..0 r"". OVH .~ 2 . "dv. He is spoken of for his statesmanship and legal expertise. .. the form with the double reduplication is "probably corrupt.po." b 26 fI.C.• 'CD ". b 29-30 060'''' . n...we.jO'IIO'ell' .14-4) cites as a seuteuna of Publilius Syrus' (who came as a slave [from? Antioch] to Rome in the first century B. tCIT" as it also is at De part. as a writer of mimes): "Hold a friend in such wise that you consider him one who easily becomes an enemy. ian.). notes that Simonides when charged with being avaricious (c£ Aristophanes.. Here it is ~ physical ." Plutarch.. Here. that of making money. 89b 33: <po(Jo. are predicates: "for money is one of these necessities... C£ 6xa 7. In the present instance the coldness is identified with the condition of old age itsdf ("oTetpO""'ivo •• .... 66b 7 : 1.. MoraUa 786b. (Jlo•.X")' At De part. 64d.. ne0tpO(J'f/n"ol.. inen").ivo •• . b 3I lv. see S4a 8. the codd.C.. and at the same time they know from experience that acquiring it is difIicult and losing it easy. as in the definition of fear at 820 21-22. 43 B. I"lS yoip a. read by Spengd.ea. b 28 : 1 clvu.0 cl7topoO.p. i. EN II21b 13-I4 (oj d' d••lev6'1lla • •. (jlov i.. the necessities of daily living.. cpo 89a 31-32. eliCITS ••• Td . "aTmpVX") and at Prob. Fear is identified with a coldness in the physical system. "aTd'PvEI. 954b 13 (6 <po(Jo." C£ 790 22.. The statement here is explained in what follows: "aT61pVY".. "eo<po(J1JT""" = "inclined to be anticipative in their fears. 'RHETORIC' II 17.e.e.' the physiological aspect of the emotion receives attention. "IITa'P.)... with ServiWi' comment: "Frigare. AP 170. Schrader cites Vergil. Cpo Horace. 1 Cpo 89a 26-27 and Horace..&x•• On the meaning in the verb... accepted by the other edd. he was growing old with the only pleasure left. C£ 63a 27 : 4.>v i.." v.69 ("extemplo Acneae solvuntur frigore membra"). xaleno.. 89b 27: "ed. and became quite popular ca. b 3O-]I lioiAol ....dv These are all subjects (ACId understood) to which 8.p6<jNxo.... v. save corrected A.... which reads the "eoOldonsnol'1". AP 171-172 ("res omnis . . xaT4tpvEI. animo 650b 27-28 (6"de <po(Jo.-. In 892 19-20 there is a physiological explanation for the sanguine temperament.o.noU z '""" ••. et est reciproca transIatio nam et timor pro frigore et frigus pro timore ponitnr.. 7tPCKpoP1]. c£ 77b 27-28. with the consequence that the old are d••lol.lio7ta(1]". C£ 66b 19 : 1. Aeneid 1. b 27 : 1 7t.ARISTOTLE. Cope.v.e. Kassd. z clvllYXllk.. and all b 32 7tpo. As LS note (s. Pax 698-699) remarked that since old age had robbed him of all other pleasures.. animo 692a 23 he atttibutes the coldness to a want of blood and a lack of heat. nO&erv) is direcdy to the point." On the metaphor in the word. timore. also offers an explanation. distinguishes a bad sense of the word \I. 200-202. EE. 17-21) and as such is a legitimate object .. faultfinding." or Sophocles.. This may explain the use of the word here. 2 Td<U'<czl. 700 16-27).• ~p"a) and that found at I25Ib 16-25 of On the Virtues and Vices (speci:6cally the consequence of p"'eo1pvxia: namely.'1Ta.v. A. 62a 21-29). Denniston. "eow6onrnol1J"') for fear. pessimism. seeking the larger share of good things for themselves) and a good sense (those who live in accord with what is their own excellence and nobility. i.. lI25a 17-34.CZUTO. This is usually interpreted to mean "because the object of all desire is the absent. ". and as fulfilling a need (EN III8b 18-19).!: "even this is a kind o£" Cope.e. b 33 xczTci<jm~I~ a good tradition.900 [ ("a! "ed. m. Here the first kind is implied because of the added pWov iJ 6••. the condition of the chilled bile which prepares the way ("eoQ)~O"O. 2 fL'XpO<J>uxlcz Cpo 89b 25-:>..Il. moral baseness) might indicate the selfseeking attitude A. moral virtoe.1I08a I.). 650b "7-30. and because of the clause which immediately follows. Cope read "aTa. cpo 89a 24... . pp. In De part. since there should be no limit to correct self-love. pp.24: "No one is so old that he does not think that he can live another year.i0i. b 36 : 1 ".olpq.." This is acceptable if the following clause is also taken as a general statement of fact: "and further because men particularly desire what they need.. However.).8 ("al . from A 6 the avp'Pieov is a good (62. "aAclv 1in.. 63.I.u69b 2). . life is seen by the old as good (A 6. MM which would justify the use of the word here as a reason for self-love. n. ed. ..IlN'L'O' C£ 7Ib 20: 1.t"cz. there is nothing in EN.o. the fullness of life and its assured continuance) and further because they particularly desire what they lack. for in acting in this way they do good both for themselves and for others). C£ 89& 34-3S." Ross.e. The statement at 84" 3-5 ("al Td "'P' ... anim. T" from b 34 : 1 "">. Kassel. 954b 10-13.I}vpooa. cf. cf. cf. Nauck & Snell). In the discussion of the love of self (EN II68a 28 .BufLi. "No one cherishes life like an old man" (frg.. ien." As an object of desire..205 COMMENTAlIY condition of old age with its accompanying coldness which prepares the way for timidity. A5 we know b 37-38 xczl "po~ .. 15455.O~"'O' A5 Cicero says in De senectute 7. also I19b 36 : 1. and in Frob.. pleasant (A II. and so "a! aliT. b 34-35 SuI< TO . On "al-6i (b 35: "al oli 6i).. appears to have in mind from what he says at 89b 37 . those who are in essence selfish. -IJp." Otherwise a more direct reference to the old seems called for by the context: "because their desire is for what is gone from them [i. EN lI07b 21 ... "in the final years"...e. it is the condition of the cooled blood. pettiness. . Z &Co. and the fact that the old moose the rdative good pli). more precise to join this reason for the cowardice of the old more a6: .. c£ S.".d ""l"Po!pOVTO~ Ross. and he extends this quality in a general way to those things whim are goods to • living person (672 2-3: TO "de aiTro. rdative good has a sdf-directed quality. c£ 89b 30-33. bBHa pli). Cope who in place of the parentheses punctuate with colons.a.. emotion as we have seen has a cogoitive dement.IClV a second reason.v II is attributed to their love of seI£ a. ". ". !}-16 gives a list of ""p'I'leovra which include many that are absolute goods although he is obviously thinking of them as goods rdative to the penon. the reason being that relative goods are sdf-directed (672 I: atlTov"de bBHa Tei To. !IDa 2 civ. On all1xwn7i.. as A. Kassd.206 ARISTOTLE. a 2-3 &LClt ••• ""1''Po!pOVTO~ "for. Tei 'olin. a 4-6 : J '"'" iP.21-25). Thinking only of themselves they disregard what othen think of them.5. 11.AclL •••) "for most of the things whim happen in life are bad." Kassel. the reason (dcd d"". .lvE' ••• XE"ipOV). yo..u. at least many of them tum out for the worse. 'RHBTORIC' 11 90a 6 of desire. such goods since even absolute goods (i.. Kassd and it is more effective than that of the other edd. LS. The restrictive particle gives a more satisfying sense here. Spengd....V· ci11:O~ .. E. ".eiav) is explained in a 4 &u.. ••• yoUV To.•• l".d In . 66b 3tS-]8 absolute goods are Hald (and he gives his meaning of HaMW at 66a 33-34) but relative goods are not." i....u.. (To. &Eo. TOG dOH2i'P Blval n: of being thought to be something. 2 TOG SOX£LV lIaf their reputation.).p .7tLl. Cowardice is a form of fear.. c£ !IDa 6 : 2.v).u.. Anaximenes 1422.Ta).).However. therefore."" ... mt>. Spengd. It appears. J xc"ipov Cpo 89b 12: ll1T•• •• "dna. Cope read with a good tradi- tion: Ka&-r:oV avprpe(lO'llTo.. and the fearful person is expectiug evil (82. goods desirable for their own sake) can be thought of as goods rdative to the person choosing.. As it is defined here at 90 a 1.11:E.. Cope read from a good tradition for the "de read by the other edd. 2830.dOXWTO' C£ 8sa 9: Shamdessness is defined at 83 b 16..e. Cpo 890 27..e. In other words. On the cowardice of the old. c£ 84a 24-26.ol J.). granting the physiological explanation given there. says at A 9." a 3: J ".. Z (To. since they do not attend to the honorable in the same degree as they attend to the advantageous. 89a 4-6 (Tei"de .~· JVhat follows. not good.pl..IOIV This is the punctuation of Ross. However.'e. it is a good rdative to the person. There is nothing intrinsically wrong wid. a IIS-I8 x .. xip6.. "eo.i: "they are not inclined toward desiring. 328d). a 6-7 x.....xol At A 9. Ii2b 4a 14 _'Ppov.. see S!lb 32: I... see 89a 3 : 1.. Kassd.. Cope alone read: ou" ilPe . A reading of A II. A is read by three edds...IT' b"6up~TO.(6. .o!"IIG'V ''have failed".CYjT'XO! C£ 89b 8-n. I believe. C£ 89a 21.... 2 lxAEl.1.. a IS 4vdx. but that courage is now beginning to fail them because of their experience of human affairs" (Ag.o... A transposes the two words." On "II""To"oi C£ 61b 37 : 2. p. Cope read with cod.~ .). )... a 16 . l fLUUov .. read with cod. 2 o.. ~ov..90a 19 207 COMMBNTAIIY closely with the previous one (experience) keeping in mind Acschines' remark (cited by Cope. a 35-37.GuIL!II' ""I b... and so the consequence at a 13: oifr' b"6up~T". continues this theme of the sdf-interest and odf-seeking of the old which he has mentioned a number of times: 89b 27-30 (T'..hd "Iedo... cod. comments on the role of the past and the future (9oa7-u) in the lives of the old.uao). from a good tradition.. that older men are more advanced in good critical judgment..."1>TO . ou p.. F. . 89b 36 . llfip. Ross. 156): "the lawgiver is quite aware. 0."ltu... TO.. "have slackened".'.900 I ("al 'PtJ. xlp6o~ "nor do they act from motives of desire but rather from those of gain. A.. Tim.~ Nestor in the Iliad is a good example. Spengd.d ~"'a. a 36.rehus 24). 66b 13-15 we have the definition of ''''''Peomlv77..v 89a 34-35... The language here (d••" pi> daB. they "appear to be able to control themsdves. 700 27 70b 29 focuses A... . GulLO! c£ 89& 9. Two lines bdow (o.o.l6un\IL..... In what follows at a IIS-I8 A." On the force of the termination. Since the dderly are rdativdy free of desire.ol olire "I1a"Tt"oi) all the edd.. a 19 : 1 oUx GfiP'v Ross.. 900 14 ("aT. a"II a 12 : 1 XIII III i"." a 13 "plIX"'LXol ...• tOT'V C£ a 18-19 XIII -. which Ross and Cope accept from cod... However that tradition also reads ddo"ia.) echoes that of 89a 8 (&••'m . not the ""Houeria. On b. a 9-10 46o)..8uplao. plo•. F ""I "I b"6upi. for the metaphor c£ 60a 24.6upiao of cod. C£ 89b 7 : 2. As Plato has the aged Cephalus say: "Know well that for me the desire for and pleasure in good talk increase as the pleasures of the body wither away" (Rep. . C£ 66b 13..). admit into d. 90a 24a 25 'rel ij8"1) C£ SSb 30-31. are inclined to pity because of their feeIing of common fellowship with all men (e. .'ol cf." On s1ITed.~ This is explained at a 21-22 ("dna . . 256... AP 173: "diflicilis.o{ou~ with (reflecting) their own character". 745. if 7}80' as a form of proof is in question (which it is).~ is the £orm A.E1]T'xOv e.61''' both ilie speakers iliemselves and the discourse). suggests this since 'I'tAdyeA.1 Myov. 8gb II. Horaoe. for we find that they are concerned with themselves ('I'I). 66a 25-28 (uvppofJUtrral . The infinitive with its object "dna. • • bp. p. pain at another's manifest and harmful misfortune which one could expect to suffer oneself particularly if it proximately threatens one (85b 14-27: 8 HCi•••• s1IAOYluToI yael· At 86a 27-29 he gives as a general principle for pity: what we fear as happening to ourselves is the thing that exciteS our pity when it happens to another.v. ..la...208 ARISTOTLE. UB'1Tt"d. e. Gorg. is subject to lyyu. 2 el"8Ev... a 20 : 1 al f'iv . Cwe1l).. 5131>-c.'a.AClV9Pld7dClV "The latter. "!!O~ TO uvptp£eo. the young. sc.). p.• Air••Ta)." This interpretation may be occasioned by a 28 ("ai mhol "al 01 ).8.O.O. and the explanation is sinIply the second PaIt of the definition of pity: namely. and so "receive favorably. qU.."I ••.i~ Kassel alone reads a~TO'~. 89a 3'7f£.g.. as well as persons similar to themselves. interprets: "since language.. cf.M'I'I. . AOYO' "how the speakers in the discourse they employ will reflect such characters both in themselves and in their words... . on 'I'I. 66a 10 (dl'~61"06. My. 1903. deeTfJ.. Kassel alone reads 'I'tAOYBMp.. ie. 157 (wiili Freese). cf. el. cf. this is not trUe. are acceptable to everyone. see 8Sb '4-'5." a 26 cl_&'xWT..aVToI.'~ ... Plato. naB. This appears to be the more correct interpretation although Cope.'. p. cf.. 2 'raU'rO ••• 6&UP'rlXO{ a 23 qUAOY£). From what has been said of the old. suspicious ("aX""cI"ToI). Spenge!. ." give credence to. However. hear with favor. "al 'I'. are cynical ("a"O?j8.0"'). 'RHETORIC' 11 90a 27 3 'r@'r<i As explained at 8gb 8-II the primary motive for pity on the part of the young is the unmerited misfortune of good men. '1'1). "the kinds of character. its effect is achieved 6..: S.). The young assume all to be good." i.I~)..g.v). 560 I." . Goodwin. a 4~ (dtd pi•. "querulous"."..'at: "for they believe that all possible suffering is near to them".e. has been using. "discourse addressed to and in accord a 26-27 'roU~ 'rcj> . queruIus. To1l.. 85b '3-'9. 7}.. a nominative plural for 'I'tAoyiA"TB~ (LS.8e.. a 27-28 7".e mind.). etC. s. a 22 : I D. a 21 tWn>i~ .g. at 89b II. 90b 6 not excessively confident or overly fearful not ex=sively trustful or d. more specifically to the text here.. 9Ib 7.ci~ov. s9b 27-30 we have both verbs so used. In the next seven .. 0 clearer punctUation break in English might be of hdp.90b I2 I. at A 4.e..dp. This is an instance (c£. 900 30 .. Since A. etc.. 2 . Introduction: 90a 29-30 II .. EN II06b 9-12. 88b 30-31) of.).~ as the generic term which includes the domioaot aod typical traits of 0 specific type. on dq>a<e. S..0 ij90~ accusative of respect. Devdopment: 90a 30 . We find it at 89b 13.vTO~ refers to the idea contained in it of subtracting us.g. 12-14 gOB 29 : 1 4"p..." i. 90b 17." Cope. ".g. a 30 ix. dlkin.the use of YJO... p.) 900 30-3' (b) 90a 3'-33 (e) goa 34 .>jV "removing the excess of each of the other two. etc. . adding (neoanOba. 6KIEfI(30). General conclusion: 90b 13 -14 to chaps.) 90b >-3 (I) '90b 3-6 2... 1601. begins to exemplify the statement of 90a 29-30 in what immediatdy follows.strustful (.90b (d) 90b I 1-' (. 90026.). of the other two . 158...~ C£ 90b 9-12.CHAPTER 14 general statement: cbaracrer of those in the prime of life lies midway between that of the young and that of the old I ..va .. the young.. both excess aod deficiency as we see at 90b iI-9 (i/aa . the old. e.. e. of the introductory statement specific instances: 90b 6-g not living only for honor or the advantageous frugal similarly with respect to anger and desire temperate with courage and vice vena not extravagant or general principle: those in the prime of life possess the valuable qualities of the young and the old the age period of those in the prime of life III .they will be neither excessivdy confident. . Le. I14b 26. 6-]b 2 (c£ 67b I : J).210 ARISTOTLE.6eeta.:. Baees.~ &I! .. ~ &I! 1<111 "so.e two virrues in the young and the old is obvious from the preceding chapters." "over-bold'..~ (8plI. a 31 8I1ppoGv. is used in a . z 1<111 oil. e. an active vinuc.• they make their judgments in accord with what is really the case.]. a 33 I<1I. 1x0V"ni~ points of correspondence among the three age groups are noted..." "confidence" was discussed at 83a 16 .. us8a Io-II we read that "the function of courage [d. = atpddea Baeew. "they are well disposed..83b 10. although this second meaning is possible...~ . 9Gb I : 1 clllell "PG~ olI(IofPCd There is no contradiction in this. C£ 6Sb 1 : 1. S9a 25.".. at 83a 2 Beaa". Beaa6TrJ."<iivTe" directing their lives neither hy frugality nor by extravagance but by what is proper..7 : b 6 .... 68a 18.'8ci> sc. elIv6plII~ each word see the references at 908 14 and 8!)a 27.• ""se/loA>lv. 66b 15-16. cRHBTORIC' II lines there is a series of active participles each specifying a'l""eo'ihrrs... b 2: explained at b 4-6.. but not for the presence of temperance a.. i. as we also find it at EN II07b 2-3: 6 d' b Tq.al. as "daring. •.. 6eaatl. b 4 vta. daring and not necessarily rashness. C£ S5.) of the... On the other hand. as was seen at I19b 37-38.~ p. 1 6p. at A 9.u. on the meaning in b 3 cnlxppov. the shifts in its meaning at oob 19-20.w. The same is true for the cowardice of the old (89b 30-33) •.YJ8~ Cpo 74b I.]. too. A specific statement on the absence of temperance and the presence of courage in the young is found at 89a 4-6 and 890 26-29..) appears to carry the meaning given here. but to produce daring [Bdeao.."" ot_iv meaning similar to "a60AOU here. See. audaciousness. i. z flup. for example." At I19b 14 : z the a 32 .• at Pol.• the mean (EN II07b 8-10) which is liberality.. ytpOUG' The evidence for the separation (6'rie'7Ta.~ •. 900 II as "higb-spiritedness. . However.e.e.80>.] is not to make money... at the most 908 12-IS indicates its presence by a kind of default..6v This would appear more correcdy interpreted in the light of 890 27-29. cpo A 3. "PG~ 'P. 74" 30.g.v ." and at 1312a 19 that "courage possessing power is daring [Beaao." Bd{1ao.." "Passion" unqualified is open to other meanings. .elI .G ck}. 8eaatlv Iiluld mean confidence. . C'audacious. 9. defined at A 9. and Beaao.YJ~ ••• ) Ordinarily there is no distinction made between Bd{1ao.j"se/ldU... 1 where dnl<ii. appropriate to man (-rd dep4TTOV). . Pol.3I.. see. It eonsists in finding the mean between excess and deficiency in emotions and in actions and in deliberatdy cultivating that mean as a habit.29." a use of the absolute in£nitive in place of the more usual participle. Ross alone reads 6'rie'lOTa. and the kinds of character bdonging to each. for example.. e. p. A. 129Sb 3-5. (codd. A. 136). upp. 6aa (TWO tb'l'sJ.onoo. (B) 2.' This is a perfect middle (in eontrast to its use as a passive at b 4-S): "all the useful qualities which youth and old age divide between themsdves are each [TatiTa cJp'l'. here is clearly A.g.g. Hippolytus 253. both somewhat over the age given by Solon.D.. This virtue i..crv i.. 4.4..: "virtue is a habit grounded in choice. does here (e..e.sbows man's excellence or virtue to be that which makes him a good man. West) although he questions the theory at Pol. see S.tfJOJ».. 400) in his commentary on Cicero's Somnium Scipionis 1. 110)..y .1337" 3 -reading either "aAw.. sets man's intellectual prime at 49 as does Solon who places this prime in the seventh week (4349).... as A. makes him perform his fimction as man well.. as also at PoL 133 5b 32-35 and elsewhere. a mean defined by a rational principle in the way that the man of practical reason would define it.. b 13-14 _iwv iJ8iiiY "Let these remarks so/flee [Toaa..) or "a". LS. As the commentatorS note. here. cf. A. moral virtue.). speaks indiscriminatdy of both ages 50 and 30 as man'.. cpo Euripides. which is concerned with man's emotions and actions.. b II ~ci.. lI06b 36ff. 3D-H). appears to acccpt the septenary principle of the stages of life which we find in Solon (£g. b 8-9 &. (eoni." . Der Text.90b 13 COMMBNTARY 211 b 7 8'lIP'I. At BNrlO6a 13 -1IQ7a24A.7. 2. ca. U \m:Ep~cUAou .fre'o. with Richards (p." On the singular form with the two eollective nouns. Rep.. 90b 2) as men. places it at 30.•..3. 46oe.6.6. 966." Men in the prime of life in choosing the mean arc clearly choosing what is proper to them (TO /ie". 1336b 37 . lvo~ &e:iv TrEV~~XOVTCl "fifty save one.. man's life is divided into ten weeks of seven years for a life span of seventy years. Kassel reads dB. and it lies in a mean rdative to oundves. ai."a s/eojaOwj with regard to youth •. Macrobius (II. TO ". Plato.. For Solon man's bodily prime occurs in the fourth week of years (age 22-28). physical and intellectual prime. (cf. As Solon enunciates the principle.1ff: engages in an extended numerological analysis of human life based on the number seven.] possessed by those in the prime of life.. Dionysius of Halicarnassus.. Roman Antiquities 4.'s oj fA"f16nj. . : heap one thing on another) to any good which is theirs. 17). or again deeTi} "al "}. 2.83a 37)... gmerosilas.. wealth (chap.. diff'erence between "well-born" and "noble" C£ 89a 1-2 and II9a 1 : 1. On /Ina. which it can include.~ij~ "Let us speak in tum of all those [i..uy.. b 15-16 5. 90b 22-3 1 2. 60b 30-37 which makes it clear that good birth is not nobility of blood. 15-17.r!JTBeO'.' 3". postAugustan Latin as genuosus..OT.) is the good thing. The argument is that all men are wont to add (O"wee(.o. (12.e. power.2..a (wn. 154-56.. i.". Development: 9Gb 16-31 the character formed by e(. calls good birth deeTi} ywo". b 16 b 17 <po). . S6b 36 : 2.. !lOb 14-15 ".e. pp.. In this case eVyw... Ecnlv This statement is in confirmation of b 1618.. olpl.yw. In what follows in chaps. In the Politics A.OiiTO.".9Gb 16-19 9Gb 19-22 3. C£ 89& 1 : 1..dlc'". see Kerferd...940 21-2.. 16).lX'll by reason of which men acquire certain kinds of character as welL" At II9a I : 1 instances were cited to illustrate how the chance gifts of fortune can aft"ecc character and be instnunental in its development. On this idea of good birth.. I 1that its possessor is more ambitious. it carries a similar meaning.pt .. good fortune (chap.la is characteristic of those who enjoy good birth.pCN C£ B7b 9: 1. Introduction: 90b 14-16 tranSlt10n to the goods of fortWle which aft"ect character II .. (12. IS).}"on. it is predicate here in an articular infinitive..CHAPTER IS I .~ C£ A 5. Td . . all.." b 18-19 i".vd.: "character proper to good birth means [c£ LS. But see also !lOb 22-23. '<p. goods given by T. 'PMon. good birth): more ambitious disdainful 1. liy. When the concept appears in Augustan.. A.~ ...). B.oTT/' ~oyo• .a (well-born. but ancestors marked by distinctions and honors.aT.p. and so to be 'P. any natural impulse to increase it means to be desirous of even more honor. deXa. Consequendy. . will indicate this more specifically with regard to good birth (chap. ." This explanation should be compared with the argoment at 87" II-]2....'. These two character traits (ambitioumess..".z.oo might in fact also be viewed as a form of wX").•.. The translations.""i•••a. A acceptable... and thus unaffected by... amwv. Cope.. contempt) presumably belong to the wellborn as such. Cope. F. e. carry the comparative idea over to .. c£ 78b IS-I7. however. a~TIiiv. ... (true to their birth) as this last is described in the rest of this chapter.. a'. Euripides mentions the problem in connection dying of Polyxena. Spengel.g. Spengei. those of good birth show disdain toward their contemporaries who are as distinguished in their own right (i.. 2 x.jIJ. it presumes action on the part of the individual endowed with good birth. But his choice with the noble (" .ru..-]I. ~xpa..e. This is called '0 While TO " .~alaCo. Such a gift." A certain kind of nature is received by the chance gift of good birth (. .....""."'PP""'II'rtxov On the meaning... ). p. some form of personal responsibility... have won the same or similar honors and distinctions) as the ancestors of those who are disdainful once were. the adjective agrees with an understood TO .o.pOT71' "!I. finds Tama of cod. The reason for both dispositions i. which in fact replaces the preceding .. . Thus the ooly point which emerges in the rest of the chapter as far as the specific intent of the chapter is concerned is that the chance acql1isition of good birth does not automatically ensure for one's the qualities attributed to .&. 2S8..8VTa.11. if the individual preserves it by being true to his birth (TO " •••ai••).wv "even of those who are equal to their own ancestors.. See !lOb 22-]I.T. Something further is required.~cIvEUT" "because the same distinctions [TmlTa] when they are further back in time rather than near at hand are held in greater honor and are easy to boast about.2I4 ARISTOTLB.e... He<.. The break is apparendy occasioned by his awareness of what he mentions at b 2S-]I (IP.. radicated in the i.. breaks off the development at b 22. Spengei.""iv••a in the following sentence. Spengel. A. 90b 22-] I. ... Historically. Four edd. TOr.a). can ." i.ea ..cWTa appears to come from Victorius.ffect >l8. p." Kassel reads TriTa for TmlTd of the other edd... The passage is a rdlection of the nurture-nature discussion of the fifth and fourth centuries..au~ birth affects character.a'.0.') . wbether or not they are also " . b 21-22.. "easier to boast of..d ""'" . This is the clear implication in the specifying phrase (b 2]) "not to degenerate from one's own nature. S9I-OO. .a. 6. as Cope.. Kassel. some falter. anyone who falls from this birthright. IRHETORIC' 11 b 20 : 1 .)yiv . Cope reads with cod. however.. yet as defined by A. the known facts (b 28-30) point to variance in families of good hirth: some continue... ". w. indicates. a quality independent of.. I62. After discussing two ways in which good b 22. This point is usually overlooked in the comment on this chapter.. . read cWTIii.-] I I .. " This is the way in which the Greek scholiast (Anon.8-1I. 1252b 31-34: "qnla. . Gorgw 526a..../es 324-328. b 23-24 b 25-26 rpopek ... Demosthenes. on 'yyl')lPOnQt..." This idea is found in Hist. . c1v.... c£ 90b 28 (1lE1C1TQTQ •. b 2. as it is that of A.lrnQa6a.. and Cope.v.~ is a completion. the English translations.) takes it.5Ui.2-23 I . 108-109.." Spongel.II. for the kind of thing each entity is when its becoming (generation) is completed is that which we call the qnla..taken intransitively: b 28 : I "and then again it falls oK. In our present instance nature.....p . Spengel. 1I. . The well-born have a good beginning but no assurance of a good end. for example of a man.. and Aeschines. a horse. as do Bonitz. Vietorius interprets the word also in its more ordinary meaning.. pp... p..iV...2] excellence of stock whereas 'noble' means not to degenerate from one's nature. On the Crown 61 speaks of a opoeci.The meaning of qnla" here is that found at P"I.. then. 6.&. and this meaning is adopted by Vater. here.....37-42. 5.. in this construction carries the idea of a change to the worse.tock degenerates into more demented kinds of character. Supplices 91I-9I7 is nurture.. Index. Cpo Euripides. calls attention to Plato. • "extraordinary men appear over a certain period of time. The Childr.g. pp. Frobl..ek . The verb is better . "'e066TW' Hal dweodQ"w..I.£vOt. 164: "and then (after an interval of unproductiveness) they begin again to produce them.. 259£.." q{ Hera. 954" 31-34." 2 ":'rpuii y ..." In this sense nature is the same as the essence of .. exercise.H. p..." This is in contrast to C1Tda'I'Q (yiv1)) at b 30: "staid.. y'YV0p." On 6. that nature gives us seminally the wherewithal for virtue but practice... ". The verb UlaTaatla.4. a household. animo 488b 18-20.. at EN 1I03a 23-26): namcly. A. Ctesiphon 234 of a opoeci e'1TOeW' "0"'le"" b 27 Eyyly". see LS. would appear to have in mind what he has said elsewhere about virtue (e. 259. Tfi~ qnlaBW. Plato. <pU . Cpo Pindar.. 8"'e refers to TO I'q '.I. a"... "The tenn 'well-born' refers to [LS..90b 28 COMMBNT AllY 215 at Electra 367-372. B.~ of each. that which makes a thing to be what it i. Nem.'! "Clever . education make virtue a reality for the person.table stock" which deteriorates toward "fatuousness and dullness.. . B."!!. A. and Dufour and Tovar.•• d~). ... Statesman 31oc-o which attributes the same qualities to a decline in lineage owing to a certain self-seeking in marriage which fails to develop the line by an intelligent mix of family stocks. HaTa.. thing. Ag. LS. The close relation between cleverness and madness is mentioned at Poetics I455' 32 . would be that which is given by good hirth. u6 ARISTOTLB. 20). the sons of pericles (Paralus and Xanthippus) are called foolish and stupid. means by clever vs. On Dionys. in Plato's dialogue Laches. Indeed Lys. In Plato's Alcibi..Jes I. Life ofCato the Eltkr (chap. 'RHETORIC· II b ~!r-30 'AAxl~"i6ou mA. staid can be found in plutarch's Jives of Alcibiades and eimon. S7b 30 : " 68a 18 : I.u8e. cf.irnachus (the son of Aristides) and Melesias (the son of Thucydides the elder) are mentioned in the Meno 93'-940 along with the sons of T'hemistocles and Perides as sons who did not achieve the excelIeoce of their father.ius the Elder. and much the same is said of Socrates' sons in Plutarch'. .ons. A good illustration of what A. We cae see this concern for the preservation of the excellence of their stock: in the quest of LysimadlUs and Me1esias (who accept themselves as ordinary men) for the right education for their own . !lla 2 &.. 8]& 3 : 1.P". b 33-34 Ross alone encloses this within parenb 34 ...3S. 15-19 office .. and without any punctuation before. The relative clause with antecedent incorporated (<I ••• ijO~) is an indirect que.tion (S.12 wealth makes men: insolent." The change in attitude.9" • (6l 91 . i.. tation to think themselves lit for public (d) 9" '3-'4 prwperous fool.p . ep.. and that of brmol. character brought about by wealth is actually explained in 90b 34 ..4) attributes the same qualities to wealth...4S.. a constituent of S1lda..CHAPTER 16 I ....• m"raA"~ On wealth.9ra 2: dla".l ..) on the character of the Campanian. effects of old and new wealth on character !lOb 32. 90b 33 . cf. This interpretation is . It is a change which ... All the ... at 76b 14.. the meaning of '''OTa.'./. 2(68) in which the plural (<I 1JO~) is best taken as "what kinds of character" and so as referring to the diH"erent element> in the char.ovLa (A S. clear that A.. 3.ubverts their mental and moral outlook.UntiG "mira Rullum 2. 7Bb 14-15 :).l 90b 33 . •• 91. arrogant (el 9" 12-'3 iDdined to lllXllriousncos aod 05.'PIIVO. Money becomes the standard of value for everything else..<Ie .. 60b 1!r-20)..-oii theses followed by a comma.~ .... 6~p. 83a 1-3..... as an apt illustration of A.cter.. c£ 91a 23.6.. '<ii> .9ta 19 I. Diodorus in the Mytilenian debate (Thuc. 61C. c£ 78b 23-3'.upported by 91a 14 (olOo. Development: 90b 33 . b 33 1CciGJ(""""~""'" nA04.. "lOUTOV) where it i. "insolent and arrogant".9" 14 (.9SIf.. disposition. mlTOV. mentioned at 62a 2.9 : 2. observation. Introductory statement: 90b 32 wealth affects character II . is speaking in the chapter of the character peculiar to the rich.. "seeing that they are somewhat affected by the possession of wealth.. Victorius cites Cicero (De lege ogr'Gria orGtio set. e. applied to manners is apparendy transferred from the original meaning. C'1AoVa . TI.. See also von Hiittenbacb. c£ EE I221a 33-36. .iJei..." as we find it a 4 : 1 a. 77b 27-28. is taken as a kind of criterion of the worth of all other things... Bnt joined as it is to the following clause (C£ following note) it is more clearly restricted to the ricb as a dammant preoccupation of theirs. This is the point of the explanation at 97a 7-8 (ii. SE r6sb 20-21: "To make one aoA. . .... on aald". <:f..3.. . Spengd. Cope place a comma after this.... (the lavish spender who exceeds good Ia." Soli was a town (whether in Cilicia or Cyprus is unclear and uncertain) where according to Diogenes Laerrl. what is stated at a 2-7: HaL -revtpeeo. p.1 The subject of both articular infinitives is the wealthy and so "c!VTa~ means "all of them without exception. "luxury. Bywater. The first part of the clause (dId .. crude.phy 14.. a~Tov..66]..." Some generalize the statement. . Kassel.g.." see 84a I : J.. Geogr.axc. "Aristotelia V. aUTot. 1 sc.:mi>v.28) the Attic dialect was corrupted by' Athenian colonists. IiLC. On Te~'I'''' (Ross alone reads TeO'l''1V)..lielLp. the verb is indicative of an established and set attitude. however. in p. ..pl~ov.te).. that is. Le. Xenophon..~ Ross alone enclose.218 ARISTOTLE.. c£ 6sa 8 : 1. whicb is what is sigoified when one speaks ordinarily of if8o" "for their general disposition is the same as if they possessed every kind of good. Spengd. "wealth". 910 7 this is clearly more acceptable." On ". Solon 51 (and c£ Strabo. .21: aoAoI~"'T8eO~.e.vE~ tiousness.. . liuixE'. 8... awwv) could be read as a general statement and in this respect the rim would be like all others... wealth) is a genitive of price.. 'X6OT""). copulative di (S. i.u. lI1h'oG is the reading of four edd.." Both words are explained at a 3-'7. a 4-'7 Ii.. 2 'roU'fO ca..to"TO~ .. a 7-11. a~Toii (i.... e. Cope.e.~ at 910 14z aOAD'XD' vulgar. Cyrop. ' C£ 68b 4 : 1.arentheses. noAADl .g. Spengd.2. "given to sdf-indulgence and pretena 3 'L'PU<PEpDl xed acz)...II92b s. as it were.. Jebb & Sandys ("all the world is wont"). dl""'e .... This meaning." 1I7. to make the respondent as a result of the argwnent speak ungrammatically. Cope punctuate: TOV ".... on ~ta. 2836) can have the force of vae: "for wealth.. or "good fortune.t!. II. Cope read with a good tradition d vUe ... The edd... a7: 1 iii .. ca.ovl.Io>.. MM 1I92a 37 ... Ross alone punctnates with a period."" c£ LS...... a 6 o""....." lila I a 1-2 I> lil .. 166 ("they [like others] are all").o . 'RHETORIC I II edd. •. lIO. ..-Demosthenes.. he eventually died atAgrigentum in468.~ .. "Ao.. <~80'> "AO~TOV.. In the Republic 4891H: Plato refers to the saying and calls irs author (whom he does not mention) a liar." Cpo Aeschylus. is well explained by Victorius' reference to Cicero's uinsipiente fortunato. Hieron I moved from Gda. which we see in A. Agam.eTa. Dufour.. Cope. is found in Ps. 1 . Ross. p.. to succeed his brother Gelon at Syracuse. a lI-I2 'l:oU~"••• &LCI'l:pl~av'«l~ I would read this without any quotation marks and Roemer's coD. Tovar use the quotation marks and read (save Tovar) Roemer's conjecture." The infinitive in narrative as an indicative is dependent upon the idea of saying in ere1jTa.. when asked by Dionysius (tyrant of Syracuse.jecture of 6<17:. visited Syracuse (one among many distinguished poets to do so). 168. dJ&ClI!£oyo~ ~eo~ nAoUTOU "the character produced by wealth is that of the fortunate fool. TO' "AMov: "of those who have money. On IJex'" (hold public office) see A 8. replied: "The philosophen know what they need. as Vater. in 478 B. Tq. and cf. but this can be questioned. Sicily.. And so the articular infinitive construction should be taken as the subject of a phrase like that at 90b 32: b..C.. points out. A 6. 6sb 32-3S." 1 a I I Mcmenov £in€Lv Ross alone punctuates: ud01JO"O'JI'. Ross. (se. four edd..hl!'. ii~lDY "for they think they have that which gives title to governing power. p.." a 12-13 xctl'l:I." Our reading is that of Spenge!. On the Treaty with Alexander 23. The denotation of eMat"o.." This is the usual interpretation with the scholiast (Anonymus) and later Victorius. Diogenes Laertius.. 87' 23-24. Cope reads: ~80v~ " "AMo. 67b I9-20. Lives of the Philosophers: Aristipp"s 69.lovTO. 8sb I7-18... 63' IS.6n.) why the philosophers frequent the doors of the rich willie the wealthy no longer go to the philosophers. PW.•• iiPXELV another characteristic of the rich.. a I3 £X.LY ydp . z ciYoiJ.ldov ert!1/Ta. Somewhat later (476?) Simonide." z ELfU"Yl&ou See OCD.. 54- a 14 : a IS &lCI<pEPEI ••• "ciAClL Cpo 87' 8-32. l042-I04S. Roemer. 430-367 B. TO I.:.9Ia I6 a8: COMMBNTAlIY 219 €)cOY"'"'" sc. disagrees and mentions the Vetus Translatio as confirmation. attributes it to Aristippus (a friend of Socrates') and gives it a new twist: Aristippus. oeli>) as do Spengd." De amicit. xE<pIlACI!q> C£ 6Gb 6 : 1. 311 instrumental dative (S.C. Is06f[): "in that the a I6 -njJ ••• ExELY newly rich have all the vices in a stronger and baser form. the wealthy do not. scn.. Cope. = "the remark of Simonides was made. ~80. Some sense of the pejorative meaning of V.. Kassd. .. .... a 19 EI~ . On Ml"7Ipa cf.e.'X8'a (adultery).." Cpo A 5. 74b 8. .restraint (dxean. on p. II!Ib 7 : 2. "to be newly rich is in fact like a lack of education with respect to wealth..•1"..eI£. they are not of an insigDificant cbancter..ep ••.. 73a 13 : 2. 90a 18-19.an. on a/"la cf.. obcpII'<IU'L"uc4 i.. fI-OLXEIrtv Cpo 89b 7-8.Ross alone encloses this in parentheses.•.9Ia 19 a 17-18 c.&'). 73b 36 : I.4 ••. For a general idea of the quality of wrong indicated here. see A 13. 73b 23 : 2.. .. a 18 : 1 4Iiuc1\fL'l"'1I 2 x ."ci). 74a 2-17. and occasioned by the absence of all moral .oupy". 61a 12-24.. but rather substantially vicious (1JPe.. . "more manly. on the prepositional phrase with slpl. a Z2 : 1 'PIAOT•.•• 86v"/L'''' concerns their power. a 23 ij81J accusative of respect.91b 4 how good fortune affects t}"9o.. "Arlstotdia V..• 1181J "practieally speaking most of the kinds of character are obvious. a 24 ip"Y"""" 86v"/L'" "all those deeds which they have abundant resources [AEovl7la sc.11 "because of their diligent concem". Ross alone .. it is this concern which makes them "more earnest"...7Da I2 on lsta. e£ LS... C£ 90b 17." i.). Development: 91a Z2-29 how power affects t}"9o. "&uvci/L.rv.CHAPTER 17 I . ']8b 35 : z.ap'.I.pO.Wa. 63a 29. Kassel read at a 21 fiom a good tradition: " which I would read for d.&p ." a 21-Z2 Tc!< /LW.a! C£ 7lI8 20-21.. z 4. Bywater.. 9Ia 29 with 9Ia 18-19) and probably. 1601. straightforward. cp.1 x. Spengel..&Ov •. of the edd. e£ 7lI8 35 : I.. 82a 34.. S. ~ "power".. 60a 1-2.others. C. does not specify which kinds are the same (Td a~Td) as wealth.. V . Development: 9Ia 32 . Conclwion: 91b 5-7 9Ia 20 : 1 6JU1""~ &. C£ A II.sT.po. 68b 20 : 1. self-contained (EN II71b 6-10)... the assumed right to govern (9la 13)." This explains the "since they must look to all that preceding statement." A. Cope..n. 83a 3 : 4. 6.3.Tc!< &i "some kinds .. 'lOb 14." II7." a 2S a. honorable (EN II25b 8-16). as well.. m .B- a 2S-26 4". ""p.Y".. Introduction: 91a 20-22 to power IT . Certainly among the former would be the type of wrong done (cp. Introduction: 91a 30-32 to good fortune rv . 60b 27. which are better (Tel /loAd. &i. among the latter would be tho.e. Jan] to accomplish because of their power.t". for this meaning see its use atA 4. The plural denotes the varied instances signified by the ahstract suhstanti"e... a 20-21 "X.e mentioned at 91a 22-27. olpl.0/LEYo•. etc. .c!<. virile. sernnotes is "a tempered and graceful a 29 ci& . I would take 64/. after fnJ. wealth.xo.oe.. its meaning is insecure enough to shift between correct self-respect and haughtiness.9Ib 4). Nicias j24-2..) better.222 ARISTOTLB J 'RHETORIC' II 91a 30 reads a comma." "in its varied parts". position) are mentioned as things which are fi-equently the objects of indignation (i.e.." a 28 i. c£ lira 28. S4b 19.. Either reading is possible.• good birth... a 2..g..1248b 7.. 60b 19-29 whether he wants a"TVxia among the internal or the extemaI goods of man.. means by 7jO'1 "a~" . not the period.. arrogance.o liF. aVTVxla." A. It is one of the goods of man and is explained in more detail at 61b 39 . Cpo 9Ia 18-19. There is. "rank.ieov' ("more conspicuous").. for the idea see Bgb 7: 2• '" 30 : 1 . ... it constitutes what A..e.. wealth.nux!1l is one of the parts of eudaimonia.. A s.OT7/' u. (88b 32).. 93. As we see in Euripides. a larger view of good fortune (chance) which explains in part the brief comments here (9Ia 30 . 8vCITvxia. pain at the undeserved good fortune of another)." As we find at EE I2. 2... is unsure at A j... 60b 19-29. implies that this reserve and dignity regulate for the most part a temperament which inherently inclines to arrogance....". The EE passage explains why A.o•• dv. On the word . The fortuitous nature of such gifts is underlined indirectly at 87a 8-32 where some of the very goods discussed in B rj-r7 (e..33b 34-38 and MM II92b 30-38. In my view the reading chosen suits the logical progress of the statement in a 26-28 ("al . is the reading of four edd. i.<p.d.. and it refers . u.6pui . (a 32)...odeoVl...tpOUi .to.!w1'1l u. A new aspect of character is introduced in what follows and therefore the need for a complete break. Along with dVC1Wxia. however.••. . and it is found at EE 1246b 37 .a is continued by "al .2Ia 8. and Freese read from a good tradition ip." "position:' 1'cU.e.. Plutarch... a 27 ll''P.. 2 XII.ci&...6"<£po. (dignity) is a mean in personal relations between pride-arrogance and servility.g.. c£ lira 32 : 1. j6a 30.6 ""1'....a: 54'012 : 2.llxiJ.... 103.. IHYcU. 1364.. A...... In what follows at 9Ia 2']-29. sec also A I. I2. good birth... hauteur...vxa.62a 12. this is simply a specification of 89a 2: "al 8J. The. 60b 6. and Spenge!..'s descriptive definition ofit also moves in that direction..• "his reserve was neither severe nor annoying but combined with carefol discretion.... "Aov....C.a as at 86a 26... p.. position (890 1-2).."I'IV.. Hippo/rlUs. T" T". 99." .. "and they are people who are more reserved rather than more overbearing. £ucrxlj""".t1"'X. stresses the good side of •• e.. 60b 20-29.4. Cope. pae6rr/. Kasse!... to stir. "al dvCIT"XI... j. However.T1JX1a. it does make sense to understand "al I . pp.lp1JiLc""". Cope. 9Ib b2 I cixoAou8ei a. it a 32 : 1 _ll. . 1j8f} referring thing as e!1!'/1'1. one could argue with some justification that A.1. ... a 3I to the same If T£ is read at a ]0 (as it is by all).. . eVn". "Aso. whereas "al e-" .. . . sVTVx{at is an explanation of a 30-.6Ia II) is one of these goods of tbc body to which he refers in the phrase Ta "aTa Ta aiiJl'a a"aBd. position.s><Tei.o.. GUV"'C'eLVOUG'LV TaVT4...' "for those kinds of good fortune thought to b.9Ib 223 COMMBNTARY 2 i ..es with no puntuation before and a comma after. Ross includes .3 I. The usual punctuation is a colon after ij6'1/ (save Kassd: a comma).. e6""X(". "namdy. Tovar.Ir..... p. is following his distinction between what h." In other words.• . see Iba 30..£1C\I("" appears that iES coordinate statement is here at a ]2-33 ("aIiTO ....• T. 60b 9.) as good fortune affects them.. has a note on the word. 473. ciAoyLa. Kassd: a comma)...till good fortune provides advantages with ... also 9Ja 14: d'O>1ToveVdail'o.. sl. 3 ':'"eP1J'P""w. 15-17: good birth.. 2 iLlY oW C£ Denniston. . A 5. 3 . el> yellp . C£ 78b7: 1. •~Tvxiao in parenthe.aid at a 31-32 (01. p... 7sa 9 : 2. as a further addition giving other specific efleets of good fortune: "And further ..". good fortune is a distinct asset with respect to dlC acquisition or possession of tbc good. ... po' Cpo gob 33..) and the internal goods (our 9Ia 32-33: "aUn .. there is no discernible logical rcason in what is .I.. c£ 86a 24-25..." The lines in this passage arc variously punctuated.ovu. See Archytas on BllTvX1a in Stobaeus in the Gaisford (ISaz) edition. i.•" S. power. a colon after eVT1JXiuo (sav.79.s"ni.epo. (i. "AOO••* .• in chaps..e. 60b 19-29) tbc cxternaI goods (good birth.... I would punctuate as indicated sine. On awed••w <I.k .•.iu (c£ A 5. a 3 [-32 1I81J. our 91> 30-]2: " d' . a 33 : 1 "". 2577. In fact. . effects. nAeOVSHTBE" gives further elfecES of good fortune.. eVTvxia. p... wealth.. "ae ..e. . s'. internal. n")... on th. that . 170... 45ff. •. calls among tbc parts of eudaimonia (-<'1 5. Vetus Translatio to take our phrase with what precedes. see gIa 32 : 1. d~ e6.. 16). TelU. "thus it is that ." i...regard to the blessing of children and bodily goods.. wealth. external goods see 60b 20-29. Despite the use of which causes both the scholiast (Anonymus) and th.. elI 1I81J 1x..) to add our phrase to it.iv This can be interpreted as it was at 60a 3 : 1. 60b 38 . 4 "contains the kinds of character of those just mentioned. the most significant tend toward thes. "Aoo. of the body.e•• those mentioned in preceding note. . the mature. Kassd. Cope read draM with this from a good tradi- b 5 ".ing the opposites of each (e. CfjAo.pl 1'6'1 • • • Elp. 171) calls "a truer account of this matter.•.a is nO! mentioned). IS-17 the typical traits of these opposites will be discovered (the opposite of '~rlv..91b S ARISTOTLE..v .• poverty. the old. himself at 83b s~ sets down the positive reaction of which he speaks in our passage." A.g.. . calls attention to what is the more common reaction (e.g. ..Ii lvaVTta) of each group."'" This is a general summation for chaps.. "multoque in rebus acerbis acrius advertunt animos ad religionem" (see also Lactantius [ca. see 89a 2. With -WX'1 in its varied aspects.• Ssb 21-22). o b 3 Tok Y'YV0l'£vC> tion. but by no neans what Cope (p... Iz. the relalion is explained by TVX'1'. ""'~ "stand in a certain relation to divinity". However that which immediately follows b 6Jr (Tli rae .S3-S4. (SSb 24-27).. lack of power. A. See me reference to BE at !lla 30 : 1.. however. ·RHBTORIC' II b Z-l lxoua. 3.17. gave us the special topics proper to the /j6o. he follows his procedure with alaxUv'l (Ssa 14-IS). 2S0-3'7] Divina. Institutiones 201. cloIvvdTOV) refen only to chaps. In presenGing these three groups.. The contrary view of Lucretius. In his discussion of the age groups A.) in terms of the topics presented in chaps.. he actually gave the opposites (.S). etc. IS-17. simply stating that by anaiy:>. of the YOWlg... by way of contrast between each group.D. In this respect he follows the method he used to specify the opposites of many of the "d6'1.Von. ".. 91b Z4-29 2. But this is a minor matter in a chapter upon which. thus we have shown [presumably he has B "}'-17 in mind] how to make discourse reBeet moral character II . as well as how to make the discourse reBcet moral character we must now discuss the elements common to each kind: namely. 9Ib 29.92a 4 I. and this is not disputed. A 4 . Studies). 77b 2. the transition at this point is natUral and integral to the structural wriry of the work. a' I do (cf. ii6o~) wherein the .1 -78a 6 2. "d60~.4-'7 to complete OUI task we must consider the proofs (enthymeme. "ol ..'. 9Ib 8-9 from B 1-17 (cf.B 17 is A. I!)-2. The natUIe of the tramition is another xnatter.futuIe fact. cf.:.• "OL'ITI!OV The chapter begins at b 8 as all would agree although the paragraphing in a few editions may be unclear.. and the ways for arguing in each have been discussed.aoyo~.. was discussed in A 8.CHAPTER 18 I . Tramition: 9Ib 8-23 I. There can be little question that the chapter marks a transition and forms a writ with chaps. that A. If one accepts.El 51! .. 9xb 8-23) rhetoric is concerned with ~ta.ao~.3 l . possible-impossible. example) as formal modes of reasoning common to each kind of rhetoric a brief statement on the "".t. ever since Spengd C'Ueber die RhetorikU ) detected an absence of coherence in it. study of the three entechnic proofs (.92a I the ij61/ from A I to B 17 each kind of rhetoric has its own Ti. Conclusion: 92.. 9Ib 10-20 how this is so in each kind of rhetoric 3. centers his stndy of rhetoric on enthymemeexample (dcduction-mduction) as DUldcs of inference.6.. 91b 20-23 TW. a good bit of ink has been spilled without any satisfying results. amplificition-mciosis 3· 92a 1-4 III ....<I by way of introduction to B 19 !lxb 8-2. past tact . Transition: 9Ib Z4 . 24. chap. The general topics of enthymeme in chap. or Jebb & Sandys. remove some of the difficulties occasioned by chap.. chap. Marx (0£ Studies. 20-22 are the common ways to argue an issue without regard to subject matter or audience. Example and enthymeme of chaps.. its type of auditor ("d8. 32). each of them does not enjoy the same universality as typifies the material of B 19-26. I8 as we shall see.') and apodosis b 22-23 (0lf1T•. The problem with chap. A. Vablen ("Krink arist. Fioally.) this is not so. and possibly corrupt. p. 26H3. are dearly common methods to discern false argument and to refute an argument. .. With the conclusion of this section. apparent syllogism.. indeed. For examples of this construction. 2S. Yet it is dear. This has raised a question about the organization of Book " from the time of Spengd (''Ueber die Rhetorik. This interpretation of the devdopment of A." 118.. points out an unconscious irony in an example from Poetics I4sob 3<iK. ". Each is limited by the discourse itself. "38. The " •••d (c£ 59& II-I3." 118.ARISTOTLE. Spengd. that there is no ostensible 10gicaI connection between protasis and apodosis (e. 7sa 8 : :J and see 92a 4-7) which we meet in chap. pp.. 96b 28 . p. Else. Cope..) are also common to rhetoric."'ITS••).. its subject matter (Ady. I9 are necessary preconditions to any kind of discourse. Vahien. "'eOT8e." 483ff.97a 6. if one reads the passage.'s first two books does not. can it stand where and as wefind it? Spengd considers b 8-20 a paraphrasis of 77b 2Iff. narndy. Spengd offers . Victorius... p.g. Cope) that the paragraph consists of the protasi< b 8-22 (en. p. however. and refutation.). IOSn4). see Spengd. sets down as his intention in the programmatic statement ofA 1-3 (0£ 9aB 3-4). However. In one respect they are. or from a study of the particular topics which can provide material for use in each of the three kinds of rhetoric to a study of dements common to all. Schriften") agrees. With regard to the dements A.). If the statement is by A. at B 18 makes a transition to the general aspects common to all the kinds of rhetoric. But it is consonant with what A. 23 are common ways in which to reason on any matter with any audience. 18 is primarily occasioned by the 10gicaI sequence of ideas in b 8-23 caused by the introduction of the idea of "el. calls common (". They are used in all discourse in varying ways. 'RHETORIC' II 9Ib 8 analysis provides matter for statements which can be used for inference by enthymeme-example (or by itself) in the three branches of rhetoric (c£ COMMENTARY I 349-S6). which becomes rather meaningless with the change in the order of the chapters suggested by Spengd.. most have agreed (e.g. it is in complete accord with a statement like that at B 22. We should note here that one could object that the three entechnic pisrds (Ady. Further. does it bdong here or atB I.. does it bdong here but something has been lost and therefore the problem in meaning.).6.! . I7". (a point on which all would essentially agree)... From the time of the scholiast (Anonymus)." "d8. >lOo~ are denoted by this word .e. "o''1do~). and most recently Lossau.ciio) as the apodosis. for example.! in the word would rest on the fact that "O". Of the modem editors Kassel alone adopts this and double brackets the troublesome lines b 8-20. I have reservations about the inclusion.e. pp. looks upon b 8-20 as A. the moral character revealed in discourse) and in a nwnber of instances is explicitly distinguished from naO'1T""'. pp..'s use of in the Ri. one would expect some mention of them.. 2-II).. (b 23. see also Studies. I8 at91b 20 ("eel de ." 4<>-41. . but without confidence. also suspects a lacuna and offers a similar solution.9Ib 8 CCYMMBNTAllY an attractive solution for our text: namdy.. p. the statement is not necessarily out of place in a chapter of transition such as this in which A. would I.~ which . and . the absence of any mention of the "d0'1 (chaps... Roemer agrees in general with Spenge! but would place b 8-23 back in B I (c£ preface to his critical edition. On p." However. but "most probably not written for this place. particularly at the point at which we find . But it. Yet. . Cope. Some do maintain that "dOo. (A 4-14) for "eta.0"'06. and they are occasioned by A. Siiss.>l0o~ we must recall that when he introduced them in B I (c£ outline to B I) he wished to show their importance (77b 21-39) along with Adyo. "o.ome intrude rather boldly on the tradition of the text. pp.etoric where it inevitably refers to >l00~ (i. Turning to the chapter as it is written. One way in which one might possibly include the "dO. but c£ 77b 27-28. Vater. 1~20. pp. fromA 4-B 17 toB I~ 26..ic entails in the last analysis the "d67J. With respect to this particular transition from "dOo~ .e. p. In this chapter of transition..•. join the last sentence of chap. i... it is clear that the immediate problem in the text is the unexpected appearance of the statement on Hela. 17 (9Ib 5-']: "eel pi. p. . and more immediately nom his discussion of "dOo~ and >lOo~ in B 2-17. The solution is not overly satisfying.. though abruptly introduced and lengthy in detail. too.. I65n7. that a sentence or more may have been lost. 147if.0. Cope's note in his commentary and that of Sandys Oebb& Sandys. 18.~. I05n4) set forth the various interpretations. 250 ofhis IntroJudion he supplies the sentence and his interpretation. would include everything in b 8-29 in the protasis and take b 30 (Aomdo . 38-42. is moving from one major division of the work to another.bor under a difIiculty to which all the above are exposed. an admittedly transitional chapter.o~ in the Rhetoric always does imply >lOo" and >lOo~ even in the RiletD. '75. finding little difficulty with it as it is and in its relation to B I since he finds in it confirmation of his interpretation of >lOo~. pp. discusses the chapter at some length. for some other problems connected with chap.&. Is there a solution within the te. None of the above interpretations really resolves the problem in the chapter. "Observations critiques [II). 28). 17I-. i. III-I6."t as handed on to us? Possibly there is. Thurot. he accepts the text as we have it and suggests. Barwick.'s. dcl1wdTou) to chap.]5.Cope. . xcvII-eI).. ddiherative oratory. is not strange (c£ !lIb u).•. Cpo 77b 2I-29 and the notes thereto... "oAAo.ov8. For with the completion of iJBo. as it applies to the 1IB'1 of constitutions has been discussed under deliberative rhetoric . and I find our contrast paralld to that at A 8. of the importance of "e[a. b II "oIeov. see !lIb 12("opl .~ always in the sense stated at A 3. We might.. Theacldition of the reference toA 8 is odd but not unacceptable. use the parentheses. once again here (as wa' remarked at !lIb 8-:-23.. 5ab 1-8) of rhetorical discourse... b 8) a question of xeu".ense might be obtained from b 8-23 by a schematic statement of the lines: "Since the use of persuasive speech has "ela" (for which "dBo. The general condition indicates that in each instance (deliberative. The auditor in all the branches of rhetoric is called upon to make a judgment which is the point A... "P'""'~) All the edd.58b 8 we find A. The reason for the role of "e'a.. 6sh 23 (". is also seen at A 2..• Aclyou) All the edd. There we learn that both reason and appetition play a part in "eta" and that he will now begin the study of the latter. but comparing this passage with 58a 36 . xeta.. C'for one person is no less a judge"). too. So a restatement at the end of the study of "dBa. c£ S7I' 23· b 9 : 1 2 sc. forensic. speaking in the same manner... use the parentheses.o.IB.... SSb 8-14. Further A... (06liw .. c£ comment in 9Ib 8-23.. why not also "ed......iJBo. "pIa......'s view of the role of "eta" in rhetoric and of what is important for its actuation is set down at 77b 21-29.w ..0.. S8b 4 : 1).. c£ 77b 21 : 1 with the references (to which add S'711 II.e..e. ~..0~B& .) or advise.. b 12 "P'""'~ predicate to an understood ia. and . c£ also A 3. 17 this concept would be uppermost in his mind. The scholia..ARISTOTLE. is a "e'nj. b 10 : 1 I.{JooA".. .. Some . c£ S8b 8-29.. 3 "po-rpmn i.{Jo~A.. and iJBo.so it is that the ways by which persuasive speech must be made to rcBeet iJBo. epideictic) there is always (1111:' d'.ov. In fact 91b 8-20 in its content repeats that of 58a 3658b 20.. 3. which seems to me reasonable.. may now be considered established".". is essential) as its telos and this is so in all the kinds of thetoric even if there is a 'ingle auditor for he...iJBo. i. in chap. wishes to make here as earlier.... .. 57" 22--26......k. ask as Spenge! does. c£ SSb 10 : 1. are those who give counsd (~.t says that . and since iJBo. The distinction made later at 91b 16-19 is in the nature of a technical distinction rather than one of actual fact.)... 58b 4-8. Ii' 2 ~ II-13 "pa~ Iv. So it is that in emphasizing "et. "dBo. f RHETORIC t II is the telos (c£ A. I would think that there is a contrast between this word and . auvt.xo~ (C...p . and Kassel alone of the edd..•.... .. further. argues against. judicial and deliberative discourse]. C£ gIb 14-16.BVQ: the points in dispute) the reference could be to both deliberative and furensic oratory (e. LS... lXB. A..~ is the punctuation afRo. see..xov)· of Kasse! (cf. Schrab 13 oll"!""!3"1)TOilv"" der.:.. .. b IS 'Ollt lv"". ~ ('rii> .~ ..... later b 17-18 (dl"".. Cope. (Joulw. of chaps." "aq .. So.. . Dufour but with a comma after """i~" Ross includes b 17-20 in parentheses: . Ro. see gIb 16-23. b 14-16..._... .. and "".. in a trial (S4A 27 : 1) or in any instance.d•• I<oi. All punctuate with a comma after "o.. or Gorgias' Helm. The above punctuation is preferable. and so we have (a) deliberative.I..~~" in one sentence.. cf....gIb 16 COMMBNTAllY see COMMENTARY I 350) A.. reasonably suggests the tetralogies of Antiphon. for example.. A 7.i.. for the matter of inquiry [C~T.. "against a proposed subject".&• .) i... except Roemer. is the punctuation b 16-18 .. Tovar.w. alone conjectures a masculine plural.. since [lnet.~ 'nml~".· (dl""'e . "o ••iT..e. the opposing arguments.. At gIb Ig (Td dP..).. wants the word to refer to judicial rhetoric. 2-17 just completed. 264. too..... Freese. 73b 6...&80. or theses. Roemer.. Spengel.g. still.. gIb 8] a statement was made earlier under ddiberative rhetoric about the 1J~ of the several forms of government... b II-I3. is referring rather directly to the presentation of .~80... (b) judicial.. "against which.. p. ~..e. .TI- b 16-23 ....iTai] is in one instance the status [m».'TaI). in general.. p. similarly in epideictic discourse (for it is composed with a view to the spectator as though he were ajudge). Most of these changes in gIb 8-23 are occasioned by the interpretation of the passage... b 14-16 &I'ol.. (c) epideictic rhetoric named.. containing as it does the three brief explanatory clauses. .ILS. 9Ib 14-16) which I accept. the consequence is that the ways and means to make discourse reflect moral character would noW have been established... b 14 6"68.. 374. cf. as though an actual opponent.. Pala. "O''1flov ". but see gIb 27.a.. Cope read dl"". Spengel.. To this might be added many of the discourses of Isocrates of an instructive or deliberative character. . p. glb 13..] of the disputed issues and in the other [TS . however.eiTa.... only that person is strictly speaking a judge who nukes a judgment on the points at issue in civil issues [i.'P'U{J~TO~P. But I believe that it signifies nothing more than the one who opposes. " ••i . .:. .aN..... 2-nnc). Spenge!. one speaks"...J. of the matters under ddiberation. 9Ib 8-23. mv protasis at b 8-22 and offered a possible explanation for it at 9Ib 8-23. is the reading of the codd.. .Ta.Il' xlll "poTcicr. and all the edd.S does include 1}B. cf. save Kassd 8. b 19 "a)... here and at b .... 56. . 5Sb 20 . 9Ib S-23) ends his double-bracketed passage here.'. "al "I!OTeI. 136.'1..59a 5...ARISTOTLB. I of Book 2 it seems clear that A... (c£ same note). no.e. Kassd.. paralld as it is to A 4-14 (and also IS)..u).. 176. On the meaning of 1}B.e.. If "B. a colon might be preferable. See.. in the Riletor.v••Ta. however. reads "1!'T-q."a. Dufour use a comma.. the words refer to deliberative and forensic rhetoric as the explanatory clause (Td TS ycil! . - C£ A 3..y&\cnv Since our passage apparently has A 2.). 1}. b 20 llouAoUovTcu' I would place a colon after this word as Tovar does. there would appear to be little question that A. ~b 27-29. pav b IS : 1 lIM>~ who conjectures See sBb 2 or Cope.cnIOJ. sBb 8-29. for them. Taking our statement in chap. In 3 after mentioning these ". z xp.... I take this to be the conclusion to the b 22-23 c... p..92a 1).'T'KDi~ ct. and these (cf..orlJ~ tv All read in this way. together with the statement at the end of B I. A S.) would also indicate. following a good tradition.c. Roemer. 19.. see 88b 30-3 I.d necessary to each kind of rhetoric as he does here (9Ib 29 . if not.. 'RHBTORIC' II 23 0 b 17 e. Kassd uses a period. and 1}Bo. p..6 i..... Ross." b 24 lupOll'" TtAO~ quite possibly the philosophical imperfect. From the methodology b 25 6c1.. a period.. ". 78a 28-29. Cope.. He mentioned next the need for "I!OTa . 5sb 2-S in mind..ci Tl• .'.. 18 with its back references to the opening chapterS of the first book (cp.• /I.. 34 . 78a 28-30..eI he said we must also have "1!. transposing the article from b 19 6 Tci ~rrr. Then he turned to the three ". C£ 77b 18: I. also 92a 4-7) he will present in chap.56b 27) and recalling his statement in chap. . The usual punctuation is a comma after the word."" for "dB.. Kassd (cf. is marking the end of one major division and the beginning of another.~ of B 2-17. spoke of the role of "I!/'''' and three kinds of rhetoric with their Til7J as he does in IS. also 92a 1-4 with A 2.. i. then simply to 12-17.." "ci8. In fact "elBo. refer to the study of the particular topics in B 2-17..pov i. then 6. including these iJB17 Teil.. The echoes of A 3 in B 18 are fairly obvious. 63' 9 : 1... Der Text. b 22 np... views his effort ill the second book as one which provides further 8&Ea. = "is... In 3 A. cf. Spengd.s" for each kind of rhetoric and in 18 (9Ib 25-27) he cdls us that we 110W have them.re. 77b 24.. ..7-29 k •. e. I2-I7.The word here may signify the modes of inference (enthymeme. Depending upon how one interprets "8". 64. A and four edd.. As A.• in addition to the kinds of argumentation already outlined in A 4 . while Vahlon ("Kritik arist.• 9Ib 8-23. or 2-17. chaps...e..0 ". c£ Studi. in the light ofb 3I-32 (c£ 9Ib 3 : 1) this is a reasonable conjecture grammatically. past-future fact. 19. example) or the source material suitable to effect conviction (the particular topics).g.. can be called topics. Like possibility or gre. Because of the nature ofb 24-29 as a brief oudine of what was done in the first two books (as well as as a transition to a new division of the work).:.3) the words TOUTO." i.B I7).~ lvr:0X"0o are dod TO.g. future fact.. exarnple-enthymeme. ..crrao. 57" 4--'7.ve. 22-23: the stoicheia or general topics for argument by enthymeme. b 29 xo.. and 55a 4. 24: the nature of fallacious reasoning..ov~ (c£ 9Ib 8-23. Ross reads Teji with Bywater (with whom at b 32 he reads <Td> "oel). Spengel. 25: the ways in which to refute reasoning>.tness. since there is no mention of the "aBot Spenge!.p{ is the reading of cod. 9Ib 22-2.e. follows this up with the general program for the remaining topics of this book. 59a II-I3 (and c£ 7Sa 8 : J): the elements common to the dA'7 of rhetorical discourse which he will discuss in chap. pp. I!)-25. 264.. it is difficult to see how past fact. here will refer either to the material of chaps.• chaps." Apart from the problems mentioned in 59" II-I3. greatsmall as ".. This fact might encounge an extended meaning for "8o"ov~. it is difficult (but not impossible) to believe that A. chap. On the other hand... In our reading TO marks the articular infinitive: "in discoune the use also of the common principle of possibilityimpossibility is necessary for all speakers" ("also.. Cope reads Ta from a good tradition. they are aspects which the subject .. A 2.. Smdies. At b 29 "oO'W' is commonly interpreted as "the common topics.. b:>6 "'{CJ'U'~ On the meaning of this word in the Rhetoric.. The nature of possible-impossible. p. They cover material which is common to rhetorical discoune ." 126-28) would drop . l&yov (A 2.1: the common proofS. pp. chap. would intend to make reference here only to a part of the second book (I2-I7) and not to all that preceded (2-I7). Schriftc:n. 5.. b J 0 .. 26: a few general refiections on points mentioned in chaps. b 2..9Ib 30 COMMBNTARY :>31 and oJ80~ os "Icrr... At 92a I-4 A. 55-07. 60. d"be. no one deliberates about that which is impossible. is inclined to delete lTO ••• "0"'" (b 27-28). 20-2." The logic of this passage to 92a I suggests that this should be interpreted as it was in A J. di. chap. says.. 56a 1-19) which must be by way of expressed opinions or statements.p.wa is that they are necessary preconditions which must be on hand befure one engages in the different kinds of rhetoric. may obviously al. 'RHETORICJ II 23 2 92.'ecioOaL 6. . future fact.e... is clearly speaking about each of the "owel.u~ ". past fact . 2-I7..elves as general forms of argument available and useful to the speaker (or writer) in all the bnnches of rhetoric.future fact. Of the "ow& greatness (and P9ssibility) are used in all three kinds of discourse.o be used in all three... which is what it would have to mean here.Vii "in general terms... e. which i.. 35-39.. c£ 9Ib 29. p... .~ I . The transition in the sentence is clear: after an explanation of possible-impossible. S8b 8--9 (<fV/o'povJ. does not use <fv/o'pov.". Cod.Sa 26-33).. accept the tradition of cod.. . A.poem. .... l m ." This statement is interpreted in different a 3-4 a-~ ways depending upon how the commentator views the unity of the work.ae ..~ "al inaL'''. an analysis of the other constituents common to rhetorical discourse.. c£ .• cbro"e"'~) and cpo 96a 26-32 ("al ).a• . z ." A.. see. In specifying the "o ••el... 264..<Ie .vOVT'~ "al "eOTernOVTS~ "al c!nOTernO.~). notes..> 3 of discourse must have if you are to speak about it at all (possibility).. ."..~ is the reading of four edd... ..ailll... I0-14). Since the edd:.. separating them into three categories: possible-impossible.. also found in the Vetus Transl... T~~ 6d... past-future fact to some kinds. e. the effort will be made to analyze enthymeme and example in them. The reason for the seclusion as Spengel. is an appliance th2t everyone is bound to use. assumes that it refers to "dOo.. ".. ...g.~ is the reading derived from cod. ".. . etc.o~~ /o'd .allness.-pmO\l"'~] x ....d """j3ou~. b ..." i.: "al ""/o'POV..pii.. greatnesssm. c£ Studies.. for neoTeb..... possibl~impossible common to all speech...apse••). example and enthymeme as common modes (93) 23) of rhetorical inference by induction and deduction.... Cope. or convincingly (greatness). Cooper (po I42) is... F gives what is the more usual expression for A.•...B..:.. or in forensic discourse (past fact).uO\l". greatnesssmallness to all. while specific to foreesic. these refer to deliberative and judicial rhetoric (A 4-8...g. l<fn) ".s..d. pp..ii. incorrect in subordinating past-future fact to possibility (even though past-future fact entails possibility. e. Kassel...... A. is that A. for example. p}. b 2~3 r ("doL . b 32 xa .v. "al ""/o'pov}."'..... b 3 [ : 1 x. 92a 2 xa.VT. "The topic of the Possible-Impo"ible . •. b 34 x." o.. some [as forensic speakers] must use it in trying etc.. "al ..'~ [ll Uno.. specificaIly.Ov See comment at 9Ib 31 : 1... e.. Spenge! are a more correct reflection of the text." . yoyovs As he says below at 92.tio.. 4-7. deliberative.. A 3.ARISTOTLE. deliberative (future fact). Past fact. I believe..lj80" ~aps.. u"'u.g. A according to Spengel.oi~ ldyo. Spenge!. Kassel. is nther precise. Understand (doay"ai. . persuasion and apparent persuasion were spoken of). also 5Sa ro-r4) and induction but does not instruct us in any detailed understanding of these criticol instruments... e. an obviously important statement to A . This we are told (s6b 2S-27) will be done later. at . Most assume that A.g. It seems reasonable to seek an understanding of Tel lomd and "ed8B"IV from the programmatic statement ofAx-3 (and cf... and c£ s8b X3. The only analysis in detail 'of the general topics appears atB 22-24. £ip'l. a 5-'1 . a 4-5 1I.COMMENTARY 92. X8-26 (c£ 9Ib 8-23 and the references there). In B X9 this is done for the first time. There is no mention of u.. 68a 26-30.'~. crup. A. Td"~ in the programmatic statement and therefore it does not seem possible to refer Tel lo""d to Book 3 as some have done. In shorr the program set down at A x-3 receives its completion at B x9-26....6.1.• A 9. 2-3S. is now talcing up the final part of his task: the elements common to all rhetoric..(3ou"£u""xo(~ Cpo A 3. and it is done at B 20-23...'v . In the sarne passage (S6o 3S . 9Ib 29).• two kinds of topicol sources for enthymemes are set out. At S9a xx-26 weleam that we must have premisses both universal and particnlar for the three "0.. GSa . S8b 2-20.s6b 27) enthymeme and apparent enthymeme are mentioned (as earlier... Are there any major points there which still need explanation? At 560 35 S6b 27 the discussion of enthymerne and example tells us that they are like syllogism (cp.. ssb X5-X7.a 5 which came after chaps. It is only in B 24 that we have any analysis of apparent enthymeme and apparent persuasion. notes that he will analyze first the particular topics... . At 58. . . His occasional exempli..6eX. and see S9& '3).ono.a 8 .. or. 194) :u:knowledges in his introductory comment to this chapter. Studies.d as things which can exist. The former he calls physical possibility. essentially Wee in nwnber.b IS-13 II . 23 and to parts of his analysis of particular topics (a. 55.4Y a. 126-27). 65a 35 (there is • definition of sorts at 63' 21-23) I believe that the meaning just !)2a 8: 1 "'pii'nov ". 2 &WU'I:'oii The possibles mentioned in this section are discussed primarily as concepts. whereas . logical possibility (a.. an .. 1376 describes them in this way: a 6. pp.. is speaking of clwa. I. While they are not yet in the order of existence.'s method of proceeding in the chapter which is similar to that of chap.9. pp.93a 18 I. 6." We can see this further in the distinction between ~ ••a••• and l. He offers us a series of general.g. these "o ••d (not "owol . Waitz. axiomatic propositions on possibility-impossibility which can be brought into play in formulating particular statements in favor of or against the subject under discussion. a fact which Cope. I046a 8: "we speak of things as possible or impossible because they are or are not in some way or other. it is rather clear that A.CHAPTER 19 I .6BXO.. Studies. 27 : 3).a••• in the first book at A 6.a••• would signify the presence of a positive power to be (capable of being). pp.6ezo. In other words. 36-39) are s'" ..tnlO. 178-'79 (and again p. In the use of 6v.b 14 possible-impossible 3· 93a 1-8 past fact future filct 4· 93a !)-I8 greater-smaller •. 63" 21 and 7.a••• is that which is of itself in such a state of readiness that there is nothing in nature to prevent its "be-ing". It is important to note A. Remarks (b) (c) at 6]b 21-30 are helpful toward understanding the sentence structure in this chapter.. Conclusion: 93a 19-21 As has been said.tnlov (although he sometimes interchanges the words).. is that which possesses in itself no inner cOlltradiction and so can be readily asserted. signifies that which in terms of its inner self could be.. the latter.. Cope.6cations of the general propositions are illustrations of such particular statements. not four (e. The "owd: 9.. as he says at Met. 9'" 8 .evo. 9. as Cope.83.. do the same. along with examples of how they can be used in argument. doubk-half. brief synopsis of A. and..." a 9-II av 6'/t . De oral. 66a 38. and cpo A 6.aTov for deliberative rhetoric. IOI9a 15 . mentions the importance of TO d. in our chapter uses basically the opposition of contraries and correlatives. Part. a truth unseen by others. 63b 29 with 63b 32-33. IIb 15 .t:la. orat..25-26.82. e.I020a 6 Qater I045b 34f[) on eld. However. 3. the subjects of contrary qnalities must belong to same species or genus.. two contrary conditions cannot coexist in the same individual at the same time. (eI) alIirmatives-negatives (or contradictory opposition): a negation of what is affirmed. 63a 22 : 1. can be fuund with some frequency in the first book e.14" 25: if one contrary exists. Met. too for has0. e. at 74b 28. 19 assumes some understanding of A. 55b 26. which is _ summary statement of what is fuund in Cat. there is a short enumeration of the four kinds with a general description of what is meant by ..g. In Top.g. in the use of At A 3..g.g. and Cicero and Quintilian. 57a 24. e. Mwa. (e) privatives-positives: ~e opposition found in the same subject in which the positive is something natural to the subject..k Philosophy. had profuund understanding".. 179. r055a 3 . Iub 27 .. vocrijcrelL Cope's note (pp. mentioned by Cope. p. but his explanation of privatives is in a sense correct but can be misleading. not sitting. IOI8a 20-35 C. A. sitting us. Mw".336 (repeating A 3. a potency to be or to do. The four types as we find them in the Categories are (a) coudatives: terms reciprocal in their relation. and Cicero adds: "the man who taught us this.. aI!d if one . e. VI II9-29. 179. 62b 30-35. 59. good-bad. 'RHRTORIC' II 92a 9 given for the word is operative (eE 63a 2I." a. Guthrie.I057b 34 enters into the question in much detail. at A 2. [mt.. notes. 2). And with regard to contraries he has this to say at Cal.. may afford some hdp.. In Met. the argument here from the possibility of a thing's existing or becoming to the likelihood (6c1~B'sv 4v) of the identical possibility for its contrary is grounded in the nature of contraries as extremes within a genus or species.. (b) contraries (hania): extremes in the same genus not dependent upon but opposite to each other.. is of no direct hdp. Met. What is presented in chap.'s statement on the varieties of clOT". 65a 21. 179-80).g. orat. 47-49 these are the four which Cicero names...'s theory of potency (""va. p.'a aT".. In the light of the above.32-34).). 24. contraries belong to one genus or to contrary genera when they themselves are not genera. 36. 13b 36 .ARISTOTLE.8.II4" 25 is again an extended statement on the four kinds of opposition. and Top.14a 25. As such they are potentially present. 2. 59a 31-33 A. %". so. it is not necessary that the other must. is a good.". finally. the idea in a•• of a positive capabiliry for being."".. the privative is its absence. Gre... sight (positive) is natural to the eye (the subject) for which blindness is the privative.a'.g. e.. 930 16 237 COMMENTARY Ii "de ... fi hmoTia; o£ EN I129a 13-14: "a dynamis of itself appears to deal with opposites"; and we were told in A I that rhetoric and dialectic which ate can argue opposites, 55a 2!r30. can be actualized, so can the other, e.g., a II-IZ: a""a,..,., a II x,d vocrijer"'L here and in the similar instances which follow: Hal (dvvaTov ea'n) 110crijaaL: "so, too, it is possible. .. ," a fi 64h 14 : 1. Wv..Wv sc." ,l.al " " ...aBal (a 9) here and in the repeated instances of a""aT&' between a 12 and b 7. 3 x ..l TO a",OLOV sc. a~Ttii: "so also the one like to it." If two things are alike in every way as fat as the mind can determine, the possibility that one can come into existence offers firm assurance of the same possibility for the other. Such similarity is the ground upon which example often works, e.g., 8polo'''eo,8,..olo., A 2, 57b 27-36, 02b 15-17. The likeness suggests a class (or genus) and so equal possibility for actual or appatent members of the class. The following from Book I are some instances of A.'s use of the word: 56a 31, 59b II, 60a 5, 63a 32 (on the senses of "like," o£ Met. IOI8a 15-19, I054b 3-13). IZ : 1 3 x",1 01 ••• At A 6, 63a 24 the "difficult" is defined, and a 13 : 1 TD X.a..ml>TOPOV in terms of it the "easy" is explained (638 22 : 3), thereby establishing the two as correlatives, in the sense that any greater contains within itself the lesser. The principle is used immediately at a IS. Spenge!. p. 255, refers to Isocrates, To Philip 3!r57 (0£ 6]a 22 : 0) as an illustration and to Alcidamas, On the Sophists 6 (see Radennacher, B.XXII.15, p. 135) who atgues that those able to handle the difficult can rcadily manage the easier but not vice versa. o d TO crnouli",iov is the reading of cod. A and the edd., except Kassel, who reads .f n with Vahien. Reading TO (0£ next note): "if the good and beautiful thing can come into existence." a 13-15 x ..l eI ... yevierS... "And if it is possible for a thing to come into existence as something good and beautiful, then it is possible for it to become in general." The axiom is m.de clear by the explanation at a IS, or at Top. I39b 8 ("it is easier to do something than to do it well"). In the real or the notional order of existence, a thing has first to be able to be before it can submit to further qualifications. It should first be noted that the suba 16-20 06 'II «px'll ... yIYV'T"'L stance of what is stated in this axiom is used implicitly by A. in the axioms which follow in a 20-28 (TO IICIT'eo, ... "'I'IAc,,). The meaning of this statement on possibility (somewhat befuddled as it is by the seeming in- AllISTOTLE, 'RHETOllIC' II 92" 20 congruence of the explanation at a 16-19) is (with that e"'planation incorporated) as follows: any thing, not intrinsically self-contradictory (a 16-19), which can be or become can also end, and any thing which can end can begin. The explanation at a 16-19 simply extends the principle to anything capable of existence in the real or notional world. At 64a 10: J rdevant Aristotelian texts on dex~ axe cited together with references. Its meaning there as the starting point, beginning, originating principle of a thing is the meaning it carries here. i.e., that the diagonal of the square could be or actually is commensurate with its side. Spengd, p. 267, cites many passages where A. uses this example. It is an instance of something intrinsically incapable of an dex~ as far as existence (even notional) is concerned, e.g., a square circle. a 17-19 otov ... y{yve-r.. , 11"........ . .. Y{YVR..' This in the order of physical reality as a 11)-20 A. knew it is secure as a universal proposition of basic significance to investigation in any case of becoming. Cope (as has been remarked dsewhexe, e.g., 6Gb 14 : .), with his emphasis on practical rhetoric for the practical orator, has a tendency to triviaIize statements such as this; see, e.g., his comment here on a 16-19 at p. IS2, or on the following principle, the priority of o1!ala, which is described as "utterly usdess in Rhetoric, from which all nice distinctions and subtleties of all kinds are alien" (p. IS4). C£ 920 16-20; this is but another form of the a 20 EI d GCJ'<8pOV principle enunciated at a r6-19 (and c£ a 2]: "al deX'l ...). Two statements on the principle are found at Cat. 140 26 - 14b 2], and Met. IOIsb 9 ·1019a 14 particularly 1019a 1-14- Met 102sb l3f[ discusses o~"ta at some length, and at 10]20 12 follows it with an analysis of yb18"". I believe that Cope, pp. IS2-S3 (c£ preceding note) and some of the translators misinterpret the explanation at a 21-2]; e.g., Cope: "if a man can be generated, then a child; for that (the child) is prior in generation ... and if a child, then a man; because this (the child ...) is a beginning or origin." But in reality as far as prior-posterior is concerned, this is saying the very same thing: child comes "'eOTBeov. But A.'s argument from the example given by way of illustration is that if something in the order of nature can exist, something whose substantial being or generation naturally demands an antecedent, then the antecedent can exist or come into being. For example, as A. says, if man can exist or become, then a child. The reason (a 22: neaTeeO> ... ytyvna.) is that man (i"e,vo) in substantial being (i> o~al~) is prior: the possible existence or becoming of the substantial being, man, is necessary for the existence or becoming of the child. On the other hand, if the existeoce or becoming of a child is possible, then, too, the man, since in the order of generation (iv yeveael) the child (dem . .. i".IV1j) in the order of nature is prior to ~e adult. 92a 28 COMMENTAllY a 22-23 (TtpOTEpOV ••. yly.......,..) theses here and at a 23. AH."O, i.e., 239 All (except Spengd) read the paren- iI.de" 1'•••rl8 ..,. 'e'" - a 23-25 ..C1l cl)y ••• '<0 Tto).u On the closeness in A.'s mind of hn8u,.!.. see 85a 23; on the nature of bn9v,.ia, A II, 7ll" 17-27. A. continues to speak in terms of the natural order and states that the objects of natural hwnan love or desire are able to exist or come into existence. The ground of the argument is that objects of natural desire represent things which bdong to the nature desiring because they complete, perfect, the nature. In fact, they are draBd proper to the nature (on the dra8••, A 6, 62a .21-29). Since they are such, the nature moves instinctivdy toward them, and since "nature makes nothing in vain" (Pol. I256b 20-21; cf. Bonitz, Index 836b 29-37 for numerous references to this principle), this instinctive natural desire marks the objeclS as bdonging to the nature and potentially existent and attainable. Thus the comment .t a 24: 0~6e1, ... hn8v,..t The added qualification (cb, .•. "OAV: "generally, for the most part") simply faces the fact that man's desiring does not always conform with his real nature. a 25 ....l wv ......qV"L This is one of the opposites mentioned in the Categories and identified as corrdatives; cf. !)2a 9-II. The 6vvaTa here are those things contained in eLl', as he states at a 25-26 (dVV4-rOV ... Y£'IIea8at; see following note). The very nature of science and art (and on the latter see A I, 54a II) is that they are a science and art oj something, a fact upon which Socrates spends some time in the Charmides 1651>-171C. Granted the science and the art, their objects either exist or can exist. se. dVV4TO'V (eUTt); a 205-26 6uvu'C'ov 'C'caU"C'lI KelL e.IvclI. xexl YfNEria.a. this is the reading of a good tradition adopted by Spengel, Cope, Ross, Kassel; the other edd. read with cod. A. I would accept the above reading, consistent as it is with the usage in rhe whole paragraph. a 26 iI cl:pxi) When the principle and starting l1"int of anything (whether the starting point be a thing or person; cf. a 28: T..vTa ••. <piA.,) lies in oUl power (ie., we can compel or persuade), then the possibility that the thing will come into existence is assured if we decide to elCercise the power: "(And those things are possible) whose principle of coming to be resides in elements which we can compel or persuade." a 28 .....u........ cpll.OL "such would be those things regarding which we possess more strength, or power, or are their friends." "estTT:ovr:, in the sense found at 8.zb 15-18. ""e'.t, in the meaning of the word found at S6a I3; C£ 6sa.,. : •• On <pIAo, cf. B 4- a 28-30: xC1l wv . .. TtO).u Again we have the opposition of correlatives, and as one implies the other in the real or notional order, the ARISTOTLE. 'RHETORIC' II 92b 3 principle explains itsel£ The meaning of 8AOV here is: that which has parts; and such an explanation of it is found at Mel. 1023 b 12-36 where A. sets forth the meaning of part and whole. As the text here is commonly understood and punctuated, the phrase cb~ brl TO "oAV qualifies only the second member of the sentence ("al iJJv TO 8Ao• ••• I'Be'!). This is reasonable. For the meaning of "part" is that which belongs to a whole. Thus if the parts are possible, then the whole is. To speak of possible (or real) "parts" otherwise is without meaning. On the other hand, it does not always follow (and so cb, i"l TO "oAV) that if a whole is possible, the parts also are. Any failure of efficient or formal causality in the generation of an organic whole Qike a body) can on occasion give a whole in which a part is missing; or again in any substantial union of matter and form, the aWOAO. is possible but the parts (ilA'!, eldo~) are not possible as independent entities. a 30-32 .1 yup ... KE<pcz).I~. K.xl d This is the reading of four edd., Spengel. Ross, Cope read at a 12 with a good tradition "e'l'aAI~ Hai xmhv. The period is read by Kassel, Spengel, Ross, and Cope (after Xm6v). All four start a new sentence at Hal Bl. Roemer, Dufour, Tovar punctuate with a comma. The problem with interpretation is that we are not sure of the meaning of the words as applied to shoes; Cope, pp. I8S-86, outlines the difficulty and olfers as translation of the three words: the slit down the front of the shoe; the toe cap; the upper leather. Each of these is substantially the accepted dictionary meaning; c£ LS. Furthermore there is some foundation for some of them: e.g., Prob. 9S6b 4 mentions "eO"X"'l'a. in connection with shoes, and Xenophon in the same connection wes 0 "xIC.,v (one who suts out the shoes) and 0 6'; X'Twva~ I'0VOV """Til'v", (another who cuts out only the uppers) in Crrop. 8.2.5. In fact the passage from Xenophon indicates that the shoes were made in parts. The scholiast is not of much help in explaining neOt1x'''l'a, ''''I'a.tl~. a 32 - 92b 3 K.xl d ...0 ... ttAOLOV "and if the whole genus belongs to those thing. which are able to be, then the species belongs...." d""aTw, is a partitive genitive with tUTI understood (S. I3 I9). This axiom is a form of correlative opposition in which each concept or reality entails the other, and so to grant the possibility of one is to grant that of the other. If the genus as a whole (TO 'Y••O,8AO.) is able to exist, obviously by that very fact any of its species is a possible existent. b 3-5 Kai d 8ci...pov . . . 6LttAci,",ov sc. d""aTd. 'Y ...afJa. as the main idea at a 9 (dIWaTo.1j .lva, 11 'Y••• ,,8a.) has been stated from a 14 on. Since .the dependence of one upon the other is grounded in their very nature, the fact that one can be or come into existence entails the other. The example is the one given in theCalegorles passage cited at 92a 9-II. Odneov (lreeo,) = COMMENTARY one of two; Td "'.'P.,,6, = to be that which a thing is by nature. C£ A 4. 60a 22; IS. 76b 22; 60a 5 : 1. 6Ib II : 1. 1Qa 6 : 2; and see 92b 16. Thus 8oneo. TW. . .. ",e'PV,,6T"" = "if one of two things naturally related to each other (can be or become)." b 5-7 Ked e! .•. 6uvCl..ov All the words indicate care. attention. effort. informed skill. e.g.• TBX"'''I (5.... II : 1). "'aeaC11<eV>i (6ob II). ~".",I.}...a (70) 12). Anything which can be realized without careful attention and skill can be done all the more with those qualities. b 7 •Aycie...v, On the case, see S. 1492. Agathon was an Athenian and after Aeschylus. Sophocles. Euripides the most eminent of the tragic poets. His birthdate is not known (perhaps in the 440S B.C.). His death in Macedonia is thought to be ca. 401; he went there possibly at the age of 40 in 407 a year after Euripides i••upposed to have gone to the same place. Plato's Symposium represents a party held at Agathon's house to celebrate his first victory in 416. and from the text he is apparently young (17Se. I98a). A.•peaks of his work a number of times in the Poetics (chaps. 9. IS. 18). C£ OCD. PW Agathon (13). and also (PW) S.9.I895 for more recent bibliography. All thing. considered I would follow b ~ KClI 1''1'' ... npocrylyv..... , the Greek text as printed by Snell (frg. 8. Nauck & Snell. p. 7(5). which is the text read by Cope and. among the edd.. by Kassel: "al ",~. Tei ",.. ,.. xeli T6X"1I "'eo"".... Td M fJ"," d.a,."17 "al -rum "'eoayt"l"Ta•. The major codd. and nwst other. read -rum for TBX"''lI in the first line. "18 Tfi -rum. as do the Vetus Translatio. and very probably the schoHast. TiX"1I first suggested by Grotius (i£ Snell; Kassel. Der Text. pp. 136-37) was also used by R. Porson. who conjectured xe~ TiX"'TI. dropping Tfi of the codd. From our te.'<t (b sf[) it i. clear that TI.%"1I is required, and EN II40a 20 suggests that Agathon apparently wrote it. as does the contrast between "'ed""... (achieve. accomplish. manage) and "I!O""IiYV8Ta. (happen to). All the edd. read the word. e.g .• Tfi dX"''lI: Roemer. Dufour. Tovar. Spengd; T;j, TiV"I': Ross following Richards (p. 177). "I!d""... is read by Cope. Kassel. but also by Spengel (on the grounds that we do not know what was antecedently said) and Ross ("it bdougs to art to do"); all the others read neaaae,b 10 xdpoa, KClI ij....oa' The first is a comparative of "a,,6,; the second i. often in sense a compar.tive of "a,,6, and ",'''eo' (A 2. 58. 14; 4.6oa I; 6. 63' 33;,ab 35: 1). The distinction between the two here would be that of Victorius: e.g.• x,teo",. those morally w~; fjTTo",. those inferior. wesker in physical strength. On ci'PeO""Tieo" 68b 22.. Schrader. p. 380. ARISTOTLE, 'RHETOBIC' ]] suggests as illustrative of the concept Cicero, Tusc. 2.17.39 ("And so will the military veteran be able to do this, the learned and wise man unable? Indeed he will be better and not by a little bit"), and Tacitus, Agricala 3 I ("Under a woman's command the Brigantes fired a colony ... and could have thrown off our yoke: let us, fresh and unconquered, ... show at once from the first assault what kind of men Caledonia has reserved for herself"). C£ 68a 20 : 2; 68a 21 : 1. b 12-13 &••vo" .•• ~pEiv All the edd., Spengel, Cope, read Eil8,,.0,; Kassel with the two scholiasts (Anon., Stephanus) reads E~ov.ov, as the name appears in the speech mentioned below. The comment of Isocrates is not known to us from his works, and this may be the occasion for the variety in the spelling since the person is also called EII8v"a, in some codd., a name also mentioned by Stephanus whose gloss indicates that he knew the speech Against Euthynus. This speech appears in the corpus of Isocrates; it has been dated to ca. 403/402, but it is incomplete and its authenticity has been questioned. Cope's conjecture (p. 188) is possible. b 13-14 ."Ept &•••• "'I<cipX.L As we saw (7Sa 22), A. studied the emotions and character generally as pairs of contraries; but in some instances, as here, he left the opposites to be worked out by the reader, e.g., 8sa 14-15, 87b 15-20. i. the reading of four edd., Spenge!. Kassel, Cope add from. good tradition 11 "'" yiyo••• ; however, Kassel expresses reservations on the addition in his apparatus criticus. This ..a•• is generally spoken of in relation to judicial rhetoric (A 10-14). In judicial rhetoric the initial question calling for resolution is that of fact. It should be noted, however, that by a kind of shorthand (.een earlier and at much greater length in B 12-13) the whole passage from 92b IS to 93a 8 (concerning judicial and deliberative rhetoric) is in effect a unit. The priociples (with the exception of the fint two at b 15-19) proposed as source. for argument for past fact (judicial rhetoric) are repeated briefly for future fact (deliberative): compare 92b 19-20 ("d.TS' ... o~6") with 93a 1-2 (TO •• yde ... lOTa.); 92b 21-24 (In .1 ... •",8v,,0;;a ..) with 93a 2-3 ("at rd ... Bna); 92b 24-26 (..al .! ... "od/aa.) with 93" 3-5 (TaVTa ... "'" "BllaVIa); 92b 26-31 (.. ai ,I ... e:rs4!aa••) with 93a 5-8 (..al s! ... o!..ta). Further, the fint two (b 15-19) are in fact slight variations of those seen in what precedes: e.g., 92b 15-17 is another way of utilizing 92a 13 (el TO xaA,,,wTBeo• ... eq.o.) and 92b '7-19 is a form of the principle at 92a 20-21 (el TO 6areeo• •.• TO b 15 01 &€ YEYOV"" o. "eOTBqa.). b 16 : 1 TO ij....ov ... ".rpux"'~ YErov"" disposed to happen has occurred." "that which is less naturally COMMIlNTAR,Y 243 3 YoEy""O~ liv d'IJ ... I',z).)."" "then that which is more naturally disposed should also have happened." The optative signifies only the possibility of, not the actual occurrence, even though the stronger ""tural disposition to happen is present. This is one of the reasons for the comment at 92b 31-32: lIaTI aol •.. i%O'Ta. b 17 "1:0 il,....pov £l<o>a6~ "that which ordinarily [usually, customarily] happens later"; cpo A 12, 7U 1.6: s/wBoTa (at 79b 4ff. the principle can be seen in use). In such cases it is safe to assume the antecedent (-fd neo....eo.). However, in the example used (ala •. .. T06TO), A present> us with a neces,ary relation between consequent and antecedent in which given the consequen the antecedent has to be. b 19 .MvIl"l:O Kill 01(300).£"1:0 This principle is used at 82a 27 - 82b 4, 82b 8-9 in the chapter on fear; cpo 83a 19-24; the argument applies to action which lies fully and unrestrictedly within the person's power, power joined to the will to act. As the explanation at b 19-20 indicates, the ability to act is complete (l,...odrb•... ovdi.) and in this respect it diJfers from the following principle at b 2I, sl S{JOVASTO ... ',,"'AvB>, where the power is contingent on certain conditions. If such capability to act conjoined with the deliberate intent to act can be shown, then, says A.., the action has been taken. Before considering (e.g., Cope, pp. 189-90) whether A. had an idea of "will" in s{JovASTo we should note two things: (a) that what is said about human action here and at 93a 1-4 re£lects the statement at A la, 68b 32 - 69b 32; and (b) that A. is apparently distinguishing here between the character of s{JovASTo and ' ..sBv,... (b 22), just as he did atA la, 68a 37 - 69a 7 where he says that {JovA"1Ja,~ is the rational wish for the good. c£ 69& 2-3 together with 6gB I : 3, Met. I072a 27-28; and then 64b 32 : 4 together with 68b 326gB 2. In our present palisage l{JovA8To would appear to signify a more deliberate and reasoned action; 1".Bv,. .. (b 22), amore habitual (C£ 69& 8 : 3) and unthinking act, as the example (b 23-24: 01 ,.••... I",Bv,.oiJaw) indicates. A look at some instances of {iovAsaBa, encourages one to interpret the word in the direction followed by Victorius ("cuncti enim, inquit, qui agendi facultatem habent, si volunt, quod volunt, efficiunt"), and Schrader, p. 381, even more emphatically ("voluit praevia deliberatione"); for Schrader l"smeans "concupivit ex affectu." For example, at 80b 35 - 8ra 1 (see Sob 36 : 1), {iovAsaBal in the context implies an act with reason behind it and one more firm than mere desiring (just as 69a 1-4 calls (Jov)."1Ja,~ a rational wish for the good, 69& 2-3). At 82a p - 82b 2 deliberate intent is the implication, and we find in the context that neoate.aBa, is used (on neoate.a,; ,ee 5.". 2 : 1, 63a 20 - 63b 4, 63a 20 : 1). At 84> 27-31, because of the ernotion analyzed (shame), there is more in the word than simple wishing, as there is also at 84b 14-15, 30, 37. {Jov;'.aBa" as a more deliberate act of 6V,.., ~ of A 10. On the idea in lnoO.] no ••i• • • l><o~ yde "d.'s comment at A II.. 70b 13-14..."oSw" ymp "':'Siv fu noted at g2b 19.. Kassel. .d d . One b 23-24 01 p. implies reasoned action (the AoY.A..1 . and to the second nenol"". a quovis intelligente lectore ultra cogitetuI. reads as above and interprets "al . Ross.) and would change the passage as cOIrllpt..lh>p.. sees no difference in meaning between b 19-20 and b 21 (I.i~ C£ 86b JI : 2.. This is by way of distinction from the next principle closely joined to it (iT') where there is no obstacle . i.should note that it is qualified here (w~ . "if something was about to happen. 7Iia .. although the words are found in all the codd. •.".. 83b 32-33. "al wwl{no. read "al ... pp.OOcr.1 d".oaOa."dA. B 2) it is clear that the possibility of an act of retaliation is essential to it. On In..e.... b 19-20 "clv.o.xlernal to the person. Cope.A... "o..•.(J)~ of the parallel passage at 93a 3) in contradistinction to the spontaneous and natural desires. Kassel.ARISTOTLE.su". is the reading of a good tradition and accepted by Ross..t rn".••u6a. l". Arisloleles De arte POttica.. of b 19 is understood.. Kassel. y'y. I :. 183. p.tv .""'..788 13 : " 6Ia "5 : 2. "..•.." Obviously if we complete Vablen above. "lyv.. b 25 : 1 Ip..8 : 2. For the reason see 6ga . Spengel.. I'RHETORIC' II wishing. in d"eau1a."Oa.iv is the punctuation of Tovar.. and [ifsomeone was about] to do something.g.o.I"o~ TO "i}..V C£ PoL 13 ub 3. b 20 lp. the apodosis to the first condition is yiyo. "al.. 2 m. .v The opposition of these two classes has been met before: e. "al [sc.". "ayo'''a. "pcl""OUcr. and interpret it in the same way as Vahlen and Cope (pr. ylynoa. Ross bracketsy.OOcr".U"ijJ "tfa 6v.." He remarks that while only the second part of the statement is explained "aeque verum sit .A". The other odd.. sl ii"s}. After b 21-22 (In . Omitting his exclusions he would read b 21-22: In el TOO' IE". Cope._ 1 rl>py{~. m.. the . desiring the good or what is seen by the individual as good for himself.~ . I accept the reading of the codd. fu reasoned action one would expect some calculation and therefore some choice in the action. ". nothing wilhin the person is an obstacle to the act.. Boa 30 : 1. On the ide. ""a.a. 88a 35-36... " " .... b 21 K.}.o From the definition of anger (cf.!Aoyo. Spengel. 269-70. b 22 : b 23 Wv bplyov.. 191>-91) .. ae'Eo."••) the verb "'''eax. et hoc ." see references above in g2b 19 and also A II... See A. Vahlen.aU".aT&'. hroO.OUp. noAu'). 6ga 4. 70a 16-27 (with the notes thereto)..aBa. II9a 3 : 1. 68b 14: 2. Tovar.. the reading ofRoerner. Cooper.. And if all those things have happened whose nature it is to be consequent upon X or which are the cause of X.lea". then he acted. with strong probability. .. 20-23 (c£ 92b 17-19).COMMBNTAllY do.. "Olij". ". F) at b 28... 57b 4).iJno. for example.." This passage is a unit in which the statement ofb 26-28 is given conversely at b 28-31.. Ross and Kassel read "l'l'v".') "tfpux.ttempt to act. ". S7b 4.~ . ""AU probable argumentation from B!"oTa.6). The principle makes use of the idea of relation grounded in as well as antecedent-consenature seen at 92b 3-5 (c£ 9zb 3-5 on quent. quite unclearly in Freese.vTa qualifies both Ta pl. etc. S7b 1 : 2. lx..vci. . and at b 28 it is the reading of cod.. The phraseology here takes us hack to A 2.. A. 57a 22 . On the question of necessary argumentation see S?a 22 : I.57b 10 and particularly so since much of the form ofargumentation used in 92b 15-3 I is based on sign and probability argument..".e. ellPMk ". it is also applicable to argumentation from <1fIpBia &Vrhvvpa (A 2. 3. b 25-26 Elxo~ ..YX'l~ This conclusion to the ways in which to establish the existence of past fu:t takes into account that in some instances the natural relation between the two events establishes the past fact with certainty.. 2 £lXD~ See S?a 34 : 2. fL£v l~ . S?a 28. A. "s"v" . sc.b 15-31 clearly indicate: e. b 26-31 XCll .If/p. 92. for example if it has lightened." This is the phrase used atA 2.." lu seen above (9Zb 25 : I). in other instances. then he made the attempt to act.'1'"". yCyOl/€V •. explains The "al is intenonly the second part of the statement. then it lightened.. The edd. and Tel de: "some are so related. the statement that one did something because one was about to do it (a sign) (b 25-2... and not at all in Jebb & Sandys..i. For the reason why argumentation from <1fIpBia dvrhPvpa .. and if he acted... Victorius interptets in. in one of its possible meanings: make an attempt to seduce a woman. particularly those involving human action. However. Kassel (as would 1) te2ds it .. This interpretation is found in the Roberts translation.si. b 31 .:.turaI antecedent X and the cause have happened...t a person on the very verge of doing something did it. rnElpCl"€V "And if all those things which .g.. as can be seen from the subsequent passage in A 2.. 5' . as some of the iustances in the argumentation at 92. Cope read it in both places. "for it is probable th. i. Spenge!. is found in Plato and generally corrected to nl'!'v. 57b 10-21. 3. at b 26. c£ S?a 34 : 2.. then the n. if it thundered. sive.. b 26 is the reading found here in all the codd. 57b 10-25.also (with cod..re by nature antecedent to X or the means to X have happened (then X has happened). 570 34 for b 31-32 ... then it has thundered and if one made the .. /Iv.tarting point of action or are about to act will occur since usually that Whicll is on the verge of taking place actually occurs more than that which is not. yIYVEcrOIl' taken place." On ". was understood at 9zb 19 and as A.'" b 32-]3 ".ARISTOTLE... is quite acceptable and its correctness is not diminished by the parallelism noted... united with the power to act. a 1-2 .II XCII Iiv the reading and punctuation of cod. z . or the anger. "eOTSeo..pl . Because of the third sp~cation here (loy.ap<p).6t01l cf. the irrational desire.e things [Tavra] which are at the . this . however.• Sponge!... 92b I5-3 I.. A. which is what he actually calls ". V"ae%") is obvious. uses the word at 69a 9-15 or 70. united with the power to act. A and the edd.eel • ..•• "and those things will be for which there is the desire.b>v i. a 3 Mil . i. see !)2b 19. a 7: ..~ It should be clear.~ C£!)2b I3-I4.ape.i TaVTa "al d tv and offers an explanation for it.g... I would interpret b. Cope.sqnlxe "1.• the means to the end. Spenge! and Cope note that the verb to be supplied in the 8n clause would be Vnae".0 €vEXII . a 2-3 xlll .8vpia as ""dupe...elt . From the language of a 2-4 it is clear that human action is the subject (e. the reading followed by . cRBETOlUC' II is only probable.. 1 dxci~ C£ 9zb 31-32 and the references there. ". II." On dv. Cope (and Victorius) reads with cod. ix is the reading of cod. "then the consequent will happen". read without 8" (from a good tradition).ome English translations.'i at 69a 4.6. I9-25." "And if all the natural antecedents have a 5--<1 XIII d . Kassel is doubtful about the passage. and all tho. ..... c£ 92b 26-27. correction of the accent for this word as ordinarily found in the codd......" !C. "since that will be for which there is both the power and the deliberate intent. . A.. that the reading without 8« of a number of codd.8vpi~ aero... or the deliberate calculation.. lIv ECM:Il.• the principles presented to argue that something has happened..8vpia c£ Ala. and for the difference between the probable argumentation of el. 68b 37 ... 93a I -rWv 116. a 6 CNWi<p. 6..Ta.sa8a •• i. c£ 57b 10-:>1.. The other edd. F: ·S.ap<p c£ 89& 36. If we read with cod. the edd.plw II. povl7ja.6"t£ . 70a 16-27.ou Le. Spenge!. Ross.. Kasse!.• b. The parallelism with 92b 13-14 (". uX'Y}pst01l.• determined by nature to occur first.e....ap<p).. On Ao".69a 7.8vpia and ae. lo". 69b 5 : 2.e. b 33 <pllv. •lp"lJl'"livo.• the passage at a 2-5 might be interpreted: "and those things will be for which there is the desire [c£ note above] . and a'1p. The ICend" is 'tOV'fO at a 7.IIU. is Cobet·.oU . c£ 92b 26-27: be"a lxsl'llotJ. pl . for example. which is explained in more detail at a II-16.lehTo. 22-27 the role of avE.. 64a ]I - 64b II. for aVl"Pieo" c£ 6aa 20. In determining the greater and lesser individual goods in A 7. xal I'I"eOT7JTO. i. d/xalo. does look at ti.yfLci. 61"alO'. 61"alo" respectively. Though Spengd.g..j" (93a 9-13). a 9-10 x .e greater and the lesser "dnlw. c£ 93a 9-11. If we ask then if A... 63 b 7-12. and epideictic). uv"'P1eo" "aU. i... As Til" the UVI''P<eo" "aU. and ddiberative rhetoric).o.. 66a 33-34.. partially challenges the statement (i. is ina-oduced.... for 61"alo. makes a similar statement. fLd~ovo~ . in thernsdves are relative terms and determined only by reference to another. Thus in his analysis he has followed his remark at 59a 24 ("al "aBoAov xai "eel '"elenov) and those here at 93a 13 (ww.. a '4 "<0 "'poxdp. set down general principles on greatness and smallness (c£ 591l 24) whereby the greatness and Smalhless of individual things could be determined.ci"<"<ovo~ a 13 xue" bClO'''fov . a glance at A 7 (c£ outline at COMMENTARY I 143) shows that A. a 12-13 ". "ala. indicates both at 93a 9-10 and at 59a 23 by his use of the full phrase "sel 6~ I'srlBov.. pp. 64a 12-23... etc.-" (in itself)..6" Tela. 14 (61"a.e.] of great and small things .) and at 93a 10 ("aIHAw. virtues. . one of the indisputable draB&.. c£ 63 b 12-17 (1". great-small.. The discussion there is constantly of the greater (e. 14. ce..oywv c£ A 3 for the e. 271J-'71. 4yo:8w C£ A 3.. 65a 8-J3. are draB•• . The remark here and at A 3 is seemingly challenged at 93a 16-17: "to examine greatness and superiority in the abstract is idle discussion. Ta IDa). a II "'PO ••P'lfLev.COMMENTARY 93' 14 247 a !HI "'. Individually. "ai "stCo. and about the greater and lesser in itself[dnAw.." The criticism is correct not only for the reason given at 93a 17-18 but also because both tenns. At 68. in A 14less formally for "aM. <b!:lw. a 9 ". l. D. 58b 6Jf. D.e.1 . 59a 22-26 A. "in each of the kinds of discourse".e.o. are clear instances and readily recognized. Io-II.). has spoken about "the greatness and smallness of things and of the greater and lesser and in general [HAW.. as be says here. A. and S8b 8-29..ci. in A 7..... in A 9.v At A 3. the answer musr be yes.evov •. .ovo~ 21-35. 9 ("aU. specifically A 7. He does this formally for uv"'Pieo. at a 12-13... is borne out by a re-reading of A 7 ((1I)"'P1eo. a fact which A. T8 "ai '.. .pl . honorable.. 'PI1VOPW The truth of this statement.pl"<oU •.. as well as the greater-lesser good. A 7. does not receive the attention it should...) and the comparative degree is a common occurrence. 62b 28...• ..•. As already noted.. however. and judicial). A 9.. "'P .o.. .. ." HaO' haaTa see 5gb 2. so.. "PIIYp. .. 93' 18 i.. TaVTa.yp." On ...ARISTOTLE.. •.. an h"anjf. for ordinary needs individual f.. A range of experiential knowledge joined to the theoretical knowledge of the art (0£ Met. the honorable. a 18 "pll~ -djv Xpel.'1/ "e"'"<>ni concerned primarily with the elfort to enable men to make correct judgments on open problems. "p ." C£ 93a 9. a 16-18 '1:11 lit .cts (carry more weight) than large theoretical statements.. a 16.«..e.. rhetoric will be mosdy concerned with the particular knowledge of experience. too.'s study. 'RHBTORIC' II a IS bcol""". &. the advantageous... the just.b 3) makes the good rhetorician and is the objective of A.«"""" " .. 981a 12 .. I9S) by excluding chap. .. "dBo" 7fBo. but the dnxvo.. see 5sa 4.. example I ..ce of this chapter in the development... C£ lloyd. Victorius has no comment on • 23-2-7. Conclusion: 94a 16-19 20 16 the kinds and the use of =ple the kinds three kinds of onmple: IWtoric:al..•... S6a 3 : 2. fable historical (i..1.CHAPTER the common proofs. citing put fact) illustrated parable (parallcl) iIlwtratcd fable iUusttat<d the uses fables suit<d to dch1Jcrativc !hctoric but IWtorical examples more valuable use of ClClmple with reference to enthymcmc (Roemer 16-19 = Ross 17-18. n6-2 7. MBXVO. For a brief statement on them in A... as met in A IS would also be included. 4. Clearly Schrader. Aristotle pp. C£ S6a I : 1... Primarily these are the three "tan. 19 as part of the discussion of the element> common to all rhetoric do not accept the division of the work as given in 9Ib 8-23.. On the "'TOXVO.) of A 2. Cope (p. . Introduction: 93' 23 -27 II . On the dnxvo •• SSb ]5: 2.... "'<6XVo..9lb 4 (C)9lb4-9lb 9 (d) 9lb 9-940' 2. 2. Development: 93a 28 -!)4a r. 19 is a part of all that follows to drap.. Spengel... These "t. is given in COMMENTARY I 3SC>S4. S6a IJf. anod""TO"al in A 2.. sees that drap. 7sa 22 : z.. 55...) rhetorical discourse are called the "I. 271.... specifically.... On "t.. . 56b 7. a 24 : 1 t6""" sc.94' 2 (a) 9Ja 28-3' (b) 93a J' . ].. 7sa 23... C£ 5Sa I.. Their dilference (as I view it) from the "t..vtirJ m. s6b 6-8.. !)4a 2-16 (a) 940 >-8 (b) 940 9-16 III .{JJ1I. (Uyo. Kassel I6-r8) 93a 23 lCo. parable (parallel).. On their common use in all demonstration: A 2.y ci""CIlV C£ 9Ib 8-23 (with references) for the pl... p.. common to all (&naa . 93' 28 .... 26 but considers the introductory sentence here (93a 23) poorly written.... pp..!!. Pro 2.ARISTOTLE. 11. C (Artaxerxes III Ochus).e intdlect can reacll the universal is through the particular. D is B. there are two kinds (1'i1n7) . it is clear with respect to example that one cannot use example. Ifin the example at 93a 32 . faple). However. 57b 27 : 2. S6b 5 : 2· a 27 dPX1\ As was said. orat. EN II39b 25-31 .of the larger 1'&0' demonstration. as A. 57b 21'>-36. 140-41.. The reason for this is that while the mind cannot know the individual but only the universal the only way d. tries to show in An. B (take Egypt). The more familiar is used to establish the less familiar. and the notes thereto in COMMBNTARY l. the point to be noted is that the ground for each must be likeness.g. a. a 21'>-27 3!'-OlDY .Y!'-1I ""I EvOU!.e.-. 57b 27: 2. Post. D" 2 (Darius. c£ 56b 5 : 1. Arguments from example (or indeed parable.. But we also know that D has the attribute A. for example. Then: B is A. b c""'llp!e.lctual and historical. These kinds have their own species (. "em i. A 4. C (as we already know) is B.. 2 yvc:.!. two species or kinds of the genus example. 'RHETORIC' II Z yEv. Therefore D is A.r~~): e. the use of example becomes clear: A (cross over to Greece). so C is A.-. as is its relation to enthymeroe. induction and deduction . 35 .. and will see it again at 94b 7. the major term (A) is shown to be applicable to the middle term (B) by means of a term similar to the minor term (C). 99b 15 . In all three instances of example. 78b 14. explains it (An. 57b 29-30) with one more familiar and accepted as true. as he says. On the role of each in the Rhetoric. De an. 43Da ro"17. 56.! seen this use of the word at.namely. from A.e. Xerxes). 57b 21'>-36. On this problem see Owens.40 mentions each kind). roob 3-5. i. see s8a 36 : 1 and 68a 26. "'''Y'''Yii C£ A 2..it is also the with respect to syllogism.g.93b 4 we identify the terms. 167-68. or.. we have two sta=ts of the same order (A 2.g. ¢b 24.-1I Cpo A 2.24).-Eo. Iv!.8Ib 9.'s remarks elsewhere . at An. However. c£ 93' 28-30.! This concept is studied in B 21. We have a 28 &IS.. In this sense induction is the "beginning" as far as example is concerned. 60a 21. a 25 : 1 "'lIpcili. for syllogism.. we can do so through the example D which is like C since both have the attribute B. De part. 8Ib 33. or similitude. 8ra 38 . without explicidy or implicidy making a real induction to apprehend the general class under which the example faIls. e. based 'a 28-3 I . Thus if we wish to show that C is A. and so B is A (thus the m'!ior term bdongs to the middle which is shown by way of D). 578 I5-I6.e.56b 27. 57' 7- 33. or Harnlyn. Post.roob 17... the other is fictive in which one either invents a comparable instance or utilizes suitable paraIlds already at hand (Cicero. the citation of past events. A. Al(aU"ol One kind is basically f. I-6). This explain.ortaIity of the soul.A.. 3. and its effectiveness depends upon his acuteness of mind in seeing analogies suitable to his argument (cp..D..2. De o. Inst.al. Fabl. Ordinarily the comparison is invented by the speaker (writer). or as Cicero denotes it col/ationem..at. S-II. in part both their suasive power and their use by speakers (writers). 4. c£ Plato.. . 15 B. i. c£ Spengd.75. Phaec/rus 275b.C.aea II.C. 50) and Babrius (latter half of first century A.).59. ed.). Inst. is confumed by the later formal collections of fables by Phaedrus (ca. They rellect the fund of common sense of the race."" again a fO[IIl of argument by analogy grounded in • '''''p<>/301. a 30 : 1 aN. However. and indeed our knowledge of the man is meager despite the fact that in Greece . The sole exception to this identification is the fables of Aphtbonius (latter half of fourth century A.C. the speaker (writer). Rhet. of Hesiod (? 750 B.ks and Days 202-212. In itsdf the parable in its stricter form is an extended metaphor or simile in brief narrative form usually for the purpose of teaching. for example.. The fable found in Classical literature is apparently independent of the other main stream of fable which is Oriental (India). It involves comparison as the word and the examples (93 b 5-9) indicate. Jabu/a: a thing said).27.D. we do have instanc. I I . Inst.. says that the place names were given by those who discovered the fables. Wasps I2. points to here as Aesopic or Libyan..D.).II. 2. c£ Quintilian.. the fable is not invented by the speaker (writer) but ddiberatdy sdected from material at his disposal which A.3.). a 3<>-31 l. Wo.e. The identification which was made by the Greeks in the fifth century B. 5. Furthermore no collection of fables from the hand of Aesop has come down to us. will yidd only probability. 5. 720 B. Aristoph.Oya •. (Uyo~. The fable of Classical literature is identified with the name of Aesop (c£ Quintilian. frag. G.>'1 similitude. 13 :241f. or ca. An example of it can be found in the objection ofCebes in Phaedo 87b 4-88b 8 to Socrates' argument for the imm. There is a passing mention of Libya (Aeschylus.C. The word means: a juxtaposition for comparison.66. o. We know. Archilochus (? 68<>-640.. Quintilian. they can move only from particular to particular in the same class and one particular must be better known and accepted. Cicero. 139. proverbs. p. orat. it is mostly instructional. AL{3uxa( In contrast to the parable. Progymnaslllala "Be! . employed to offer a clear illustrative example: ''The kingdom of heaven may be compared to a man who sowed good seed in his field .".265. Of the latter we know rdativdy little. gnomic sayings possess in common the quality of wisdom literature. parables.al.-600v. Defin. Nauck & Snell) as well as Egypt and Sybaris as sources of fable.).. But Hermogenes.I9-21).·93' 30 COMMENTARY 25I as they are on analogy. of fable prior to its identification with Aesop. In testameotalliterature where the parable is a more readily identifiable form. o." (Mt. It is not until the time ofPhaedrus and Babrius that the fable appears -as a £onn ofliterature to be read for itsel£ The popularity of the genre has continued. Hausrath.).. Rhet.).11£. Ajax II42-II58. . Aesop himsdf was most probably a Thracian from Messembria who was a slave in Samos and a contemporary of Sappho's (ca. 197. very probably the source for the work of phaedrus and Babrius.. "the statement of facts is something such as a 31 I . 717-'736. Plato. as Olmstead (pp. The rdevant passages are found at Anax. E.C. This work is known to us only through a copy made in the tenth century A. 1411£. 384-420..) were made mosdy for practical reasons: for use by writers and speakers. C.. c£ S. Cambyses.1439a 7. Cod. ". c£ Herodotus 2.C. pp.. Perry .? 550 B... 2440.. Monac..134-135.C.. and Cope.- "p. king of Persia (529-522 B. Aesopica 1. G..) was at the time a member of the king's bodyguard (Herodotus ]. 1 would agree with Cope.D. 'RHETORIC' II from the fifth century onward fable and Aesop became one.. on the use of the second nedneov..)..C.'v . especially 403-14. although it i.139).. Darius who later became king (521-486 B.) ". Darius "won baek his r~calcitrant 93b I "p6.e. of these Greek fables in prose such as that of Demetrius (or later the sO<alled Augustana [i.g. Phaedo 61b. orwell's Animal Farm.brius and Ph. His discussion of ". 612 ..drus.edd•• apart from the question of similitude is not of much hdp in opening up A.pov . any real situation here.D.) and son of Cyrus the Great (559-529 B. p.. 1429a 21 . fictitious story pictoring • truth" (c£ Spengd. e. Introd..e.D.. Graeei II. an attack by Persia on Greece seems far from likdy even though Artaxerxes Ill. on the accession of Darius and whether.141. Ochus was engaged in subduing Egypt. See "Fabd" in PW. 350 B. • "plv "for in the past Darius did not cross over [to Greece] until". Given the situation of Persia and Greece in mid-fourth century B. c. Agam. Wasps 1446-1448. conquered Egypt for the empire in 5261525 (c£ Herodotus 3. any of the works of B.sider. that it is the possibility of an attack on Greece." Basically this is the only kind of example An2ximenes con.ARISTOTLB. The first collection of fables under his name was made by Demetrius of Phalerum (b... Aesch. as can be seen in the aninral fables ofWalt Disney. &: Hunger. 254-56. see Lloyd. a 32 .most of which are mentioned in the thorough introduction to his Loeb aassical Library edition of B. 1438b 39 . or even Soph. 72-)... ca.p ... pp.• "'0'''''&. On the argument from analogy. such as we find in Herodotus I.pov .g.. Aapoio~ eN "po"..iya' If there i..14300 13. Aristoph. p.) maintains. Polarity. >. 564J which probably goes back to a collection formed in the second lfirst century A. Collection. the following. c£ 93b 3. What these Greeks meant most likely by Aesopic fable is that defined by Theon (second century A. whether Egypt revolted from Persian rule in the general uprising. Haas..'s statements.).. hold a governing office.). In 357/ 356 he followed up a previous attempt made as crown prince in 359 B.c. to return Egypt to its tributary position. 24!r51. Le. until he himself had settled a revolt in Egypt in 485 B.. i.). 2478-2480..' "should appoint by lot as atblctes not those who are able to contend fur the prize but whosoever win the lot. Eldest son of Dariw. for people more quickly accept a proposition made for some other purpose and of no use for itse!£ Further don't put forward that proposition which has to be established but rather one from which it [the proposition to be establishcd] necessarily follows. is the reading of Spenge! accepted by the edd.". For people more readily concede that kind of proposition since the result from it is not as clear. c£ Cope.. Ochus (358-338 a... pp.. VI 14!rI54. b 5~ IljLOLOV . Gorgias 4!)Od II . b 6 l'iJ 01 6Uv .op Iv C£ S.ath. b 4 .C.. Mem. xA'IP. 1. shoemakers." Symp." Anyone acquainted with the early Socratic dialogues knows the frequency of such apparendy unrelated comparisons (''he talks about pack-asses.. our 11.253 COMMBNTARY subjects" in 519/518 before moving on Greece in the first Persim War of 490 B.. For the structure of the argument c£ 93a 2831. c£ 87a 20. bronze smithies. he came to the throne in 486/ 93b 2 Sep~'1~ 485 B.49Ia 3. e. and when this proposition is won then the former is also. he did not move against Greece in the second Persim War (480/479 B. 221e) and the frwcration of his respondents when caught out." .e. He ruled until 465... Thebes alone responded... or Critias at Xenophon. 198-99..C. b 3 cN"'o~ This would be Artaxerxes III. and always seems to be speaking about the same things in the same terms.g.<k Ew"p"""XIi C£ 93a 30 : 2. In 357 and again in 343 both Persia and Egypt were employing Greek: mercenaries and in 343 prior to his attack on Egypt Ochus sent an embassy to the major Greek: city-states to seek an alliance against Egypt. C£ CAR.37-38. Callicles. 156b 25-30 in fact rellects Socrates' own as seen in the dialogues: "Put forward your proposition by way of comparison.fa 25. He failed again but in 343/342 he returned to the task and was successful.'s description of the we of comparison at Top.. ':'...2.'ov "or if one should assign by lot some one or other of the sailors as the one who must be hebnsman. A.C. Pa. is questioned. represents the suppressed apodosis ("as it would be"). hide-tanners. as Herodottu 7.7-20 tells us.." b 7-8 i\. for other examples. 159..C. S......C. !socrates. . Ss6. 1.. Plato. OGD. As can be seen at 57b 30 : z dlC relation between a bodyguard and tyranny is fairly common. sec Diehl & Beuder.. I"st••ral.mAciPllio~ tyrant of Acragas (Agrigento) in Sicily ca. 61lHBTOIUC' II b 8 .. . referring to different unexpressed subjects. Phaedrus 2. 2. read with Spengel. o£ Pindar. c£ PW. oV d~.~ . AciXav. C£ Ci9b 12 : 1.. he lived at Himera in Sicily until his death ca. 1·1. A..g. b9 : IV S03-S04... ~ 14. sec also Quintilian. 1i'l1""Y"'yau Ross alone reads <6> before the name.<lTa.440.. Vahlell (eli. as Bendey showed.. Ross reads O'V'O.. 631. He is well known for his Helm and its recantation. the reading given above best represents the text tradition. sophist.. b 13-23 "~ .940 2. sec. also S."ov Cope and Kassel read Tdv from a good tradition. 2..o TOO '".62. E"''''''ciI''EVOV This is the reading of Cope. the Palil/ode.0. IV 3S4-SS. For eli. S70-SS4 One of the more notorious of the cruel tyrants who seized power with the aid of a mercenary force. On Phalaris see PW.O. the reading of all the cadd.<aX'OTa). Pythians 1. he removed all opposition through the use of t=or tactics. From what can be learned of the readings from the critical apparatus...".. CAH.. As far as the time period for Stesichorus and pha!aris is concerned. . IV 37001.. See. p.94-98..u-e very .aS4 ARISTOTLE..086 and 2. probably throughout here in the meaning of punish . His use of a brazen bull to roast his enemies alive is thought to be historically correct. 10. Mem.. with Richards... B.1.oAoy'ljera.". and four of the b 17 CNVOl"oAOy>j . We have the same story told of Gelon (0£ 73a n : z) of Syracuse." Comparisons of this very kind presumably made by Socrates are among the charges leveled against hin1 in his trial: see Xenophon.~. "::""'p>\. c.'s story is historically possible. who says that "two participial genitives. Aesopica I. 2.g. civOp.3 . Quintilian also mentions there the story of Phalaris (C£ next note).. Kassel..rtXopou one of the distinguished poets of the Western Greeks whose work is highly spoken of in antiquity but survives only in fragments. not the man with professional skill.076: "on the grounds that the one who wins the lot. CAB. 178..43ab. the Letters of Phalans (148 in number) are forgeries of a second century A..o~ edd. ofoe&Acip'&' This is 2690 in the collection of Aesop's fables in the Perry corpus.o o£ S.. dll..·9· 1 E""I.. But the place is not terrain. Epp.> d. GAli. the other edd.ou •. C£ Horace.10. must be helmsman. ciAUt l"iJ . e.. On the other hand.. b 15 .0.ud TOO .... e.D. 2 .34-38. Ross. b 10 Alac:. The fable is given at 93b 1. aGO. Born at Metaurus in southern Italy most probably ca. XI. ~ lit... read dT/P71"OeW."ov d71pa"OYyo."'''''CI.8.n." xa. discusses it. b 29-32 a... 201. for the d'P. ". The other edd. 93b 39-32 where Tovar. Ross use quotation marks also. which is a reading based in part on cod. +<zAeip.vei "your [llp...• she said. 274. Ross.. so. quite clear from the context: (lnnov) allVopoADl"ia""To• ••• (d. CI[I'CI liT' is causal. Kassd. 06.. C£ Kassd. . too. was also unhappy with the double genitive.Aristotelia Ill. has an explanation of the word. 8E ••.6ea". Spengd.94& I ." Spengd.. is suggested by Bywater. pp. the explanation of the fable (and here its application to the situation)." b 28-29 rljv 8i . oW XCll6I'i~. "pleading in defense of a b 23-24 GUV'lyap"'" xp. Dufour... see." Cope. However. Tovar (but he reads l<pTJ) and Cope (.~ ••.apO'. The given reading found in some later codd. In both places the edd.. Kassd..-eading 1<pTJ eli)..j public funds. Cope. av8p. Kassel. of cod.. "p b 32 "ci. of Roemer.. b 3I cirpa. Cope use quotationIlllllks. b 25 rpeipClyYCI "crevice of the bank. <i9>iA71T8." Thi.. the latest."OV"'~ This is fable 427 in Perry's collection.ov) a. Ross alone punctuate with quotation marks. is the epimythion. Roemer.•••av The indirect statement beginning at 93a 24 (6'P71) determines a number of the inJinitives." This is the reading of all the codd. see again at 93b 32-94a 2. because these . Cope...94'l COMMENTARY I 255 clumsy.. Tovar. Tovar.. The parentheses are used by four of the edd. Kassd..:. b 24 . A. however.u. Spengd omit them.. " The problem of deciding here between codd. xAt".. . Morali. "ewop'.. b 33 (. is more acceptable.~ ••• . 79oc-<l." This is the reading of Spengd.v) Cope.r.. Spengd and the other edd. Der Text.. Ross read with A omitting oJ. Kassd. 137-38. AesopiaJ 1. reads basically with F. p. "but the fox did not allow him to do so. read 10"'0.. A and F (neither differs in meaning) is found in the critical editions. the unexpressed noun which goes with each participle i.val'iv'l' 8'l~Y"'Y<i> demagogue on trial for his life. Der Text. and it is found in Spengd.A1I as does Freese. 94& I .ll~ "if you remove them.. p. Dufour reads d'P... Tovar. p.'P71 eli.oUa . It is also found in brief form in Plutarch.To••••• b 19-23 .A71Ta. !38. with Roemer for the Latin reliqua found in the translation of de Moer- beke. . A and the Vecas Translatio." irp'l." This is the reading of a good tradition accepted by Cope. and it is the reading I have accepted." 72. <w We are told that fables were collected precisely for the practical purpose of their being used by writers and speakers and for no other.>l" rprJ.ol1o'l'La: "metaphors should be drawn from things proper to the object but not obvious. the speaker must "make" the comparison. which relates them somewhat loosely to the subject under discussion..ARISTOTLE.ol1orpLa.. and refers to Pol." " meaning more akin to the extended meaning !socrates gives to the word. I am not sure that A. likeness. 54b 2Z--29.. This repeats wkt was said of fables at 93a 29-30. .o Cpo S6b 19-20 where dra8. At I2a 10-12 there is a comment relevant to the matter here on the sort of thing A.. Apart from their more general and fictive character. For A. ""/T'ipa" the philosophic sciences (Top.e." a 5: 1 pqw . edd. "Obserntions critiques [II] . But there is an olmous diiference between the "making" of a fable and that of a comparison or parable. : 1. Kassel secludes it. In each instance the "making" is different. seeA I. Certainly the few times it appears in the Riletoric it means "philosophy" . 2 7<O.I63b 12.read by the cadd. I34Ib 28.~ oG. a 4 : 1 >'oyou~ Sl p/j. c£ 93a 30 : 2. . an ability which comes from skill in philosophy.g. Their appearance as an independent fonn of literature intended to be read solely for their own sake only begins with the work of Phaedrus and Babrius.'s thoughts on the pre-eminence of deliberative rhetoric. 06b II. and there seems no need for any change although Thuror. believes goes on in 'l'rJ..rho text of the codd." 4Z would rearrange the line for wkt he considers a more logical statement.ofJorpLa. JUSt a~ in phi- . With his reading (c£ note above) I assume that he would interpret: "which is the task: of those engaged in philosophy. in parable one "invents" the relevant comparison. 1282b 14-23. Top. Cope.. Aside from the fact that it is not immediately clear how this ability to think: analogically would be formally developed by training in literature.>j . makes sense." Some translators interpret the word as "literary training.y . On the other hand.. From the evidence of A: s words. 2 ci. at 79" 35-36. it is cleal that fables exist as independent entities ready to be used elfectively by a discerning speaker (writer). cpo Pol. Spengel. 'RHETORIC' II 94a 5 a:z : 1 S'IfL'IYOP'Xo[ "suitable to speeches in the assembly". in the material already at one's disposal. c£ 59b J2. With fable it is a matter ordinarily of "finding" the relevant similitude. there seems to be no intrinsic reason why fable as fable should be more fitted to one kind of speech than to another. ("advantage" here) is in one interpretation used substantivally as it is here. c£ 93a 30-31.. lOla 27). uses the word for anything other than the different aspects of intellectual investigation or what he calls a[ "aTa rprJ. This would be the point of his adding with respect to fable "if one is able to see the likeness.. . z 'X cp"'ocro<p(l~ Kassel alone writes this as <Tw.8. I63a 36 . .oyo~ again at 94b 8ff.. 8£ This is the more satisfYing punctuation. Ant also appears in corrected cod.ble examples lpar.08E.. Ross..).v C£ 7& 8 : J. With one exception (0£ 94ll II : . (historical .... 5!r6Q.. y..... all read the same Greek text. cites Problomata 916b 25f[ where we read: "Why are men more happy with examples and fables in speeches than with enthymemes? Is it because they rejoice both in learning and in learning quickly? People in fu:t do learn more quickly through examples and fables. 275-'76....~. For these are things which they know and which are particular.p..~ C£ 82b 5-6. • "(.. again.. proofs by means of witnesses are more easy to come by. pp. like xe'1rJcpwnea. and it is found in Tovar.~ C£ 55a 4 meaning (b).08o1~.-oU'ftdV)... pp.... the others read liq:o•• It... Cope. 138£).. who does not read it implies it in M"p~parJe. A. is predicate to an understood lCITt.10 "oAU • ~. In the present instance it would confirm by way of addition that which has already been demonstrated. Furthermore we place more trust in that for which there are several witnesses... Kassel." We meet AnU. whose subject is the substantival expressions Ta dea Tal.. o£ Studies.." a 6 p. • tnt .oi~ ~8u">\""".o~ . 203.. Ross. too. The translations interpret explaining the common reading: as Cope does and are essentially the same as the translation given in 94& srI! where the preposition is accepted. Cope.. but Kassd alone reads it and comments on it (Der Text. (f.nv Cpo A 9. 88-91.bles) and Ta dea Tal. "eaypriTw.).. Kassd. men perceive likeness with pleasure and examples and fables show forth likeness. ~8u">\"". lJ. . p. t"t .. a II : J .v (iJ yelp .. Studies. .tEerJIV. Roemer.ov...... the reading of a good tradition.!j4aIl COMMENTARY 257 losophy also it bdongs to the adept individual to see likeness even in objects that are far apart. Spengd place a colon after 63<od. a srIl lJ.. this same principle of pri91Jac~ T"X"" plays a part in his urging the use of a condensed furm fur the enthymeme in the third book." Interestingly enough. "The person without enthymemes must use examples as demonstrations [for the way of demonstrating is by means of these two modes of inference].1IV'rII . Further. Uyw. But enthymemes are demonstrations from universals which we know less than the particular.. but the person possessing enthymemes must use examples as witnesses employing them as evidence subjoined to the enthymemes... and with a minor change in Dufour. TO'.. and examples and fables are like wimesses. By way of illustrating !j4a 9-II Spengel. a 8: 1 t"t .. plo'~ pp. The reading of a good tradition and Dufour.. and its nature as a confirming reason is explained there. ..yevo.. 68a 29-31. pp.. el. Cope.~ ""p.:.V a 10 : 1 el. rIB. Spengel read instead dndxe'1 ("is sufficient'').in the presence of a small audience" ("nisi cum verba fiunt ad pauces"). "Rhetoric".. init. S7" '-4. There is.lypaTa is undera 12 : 1 "'pOTlO. 2.'Ct it is quite attractive.a (a 13). another interpretation offered by Victorius..." "except in a few instances. P. AD this works against the pri9'1'J1' Taxs.. and lateratB22. I am not certain that in the light of the codd. and so nltj." If one reHects upon A:s concern for the audience and their ready apprehension of what is said which is round as early asA 2.23) by establishing a relation between a major term (A. the individuals X. Z ToiS Si ~lIToP'xoiS i. Argument by induction goes from the less universal to the more universal. b dlLyo" he would accept. y.g. is the reading of all the codd. The diiference between induction and syllogism is that the C which is used to relate A to B is not a truly universal term but a collection of singulars. However. mortal) by means of a minor term (C. 9sb 22-9604. We have seen the nature of argument by example at 93a 28-3 I." so (cf. and 7sa 8 : 3. cpo 02a 3-9 where dialectic. but hesitandy.a of the auditors which A.". 7-21... is the reading of cod.oi. ""P-rUS .os purpose. I would want to change since xefja. a I] IKLAq6".!"""" . C£ 94a u : . In terms of the conte.. y. is taken to mean '·save rarely. (serviceable) also yields a meaning which satisfies the conteXt. . p. attractive.•• lO'XEV oln"ywyij stood with "'eo . F and read by Kassel.9Ip••a. rhetoric are compared. 'RHETORIC' II 94" 16 Tn "'CJf!a6.IS xp"l\o. says of rhetorical merhodology. as it is with b"lsyops. TO.po. eristic. This is the interpretation commonly given to the word. 7Sb 26-76_]2 about the clfectiveness of the testimony by witnesses. lnay"'l'ii see 93a 26-27.. xe-qa. as "those skill~d in speaking. intends by this statement and that at 943 Is-r6 (PrieTv. xe>l<"po. A is read by four odd. DeT Text. it is possible to see why induction is not 01><••0> to rhetoric. however. On lo. as above.. men are mortal. 37].po. "for just one reliable witness serves the a 16 "'LOTOS xul . ." '''aTO.. 94" 13." nltj. but xe'1aTO' of cod. S7" 7-17.ARISTOTLB.139).) in which he likens example to the evidence of a witness. I9a I"l-I9. Victorius interprets e'1Toe". 94a IS) and labors therefOre under the same problem as syllogism.). x. It do. Cope. individuals): e.e. it is helpful to read what he has to say atA IS. Spengel. Pr.. z are mortal. The comment ofProblemDla notwithstanding (see 94a II : . z are men. b dliyo. and in accord with what A. An.. any strong inductive argument (as can be seen in many of the early Socratic dialogues) requires an extensive presentation (nolAd Mys . men) and a middle term (B... which is valid. Kassel (cf.~.". a 14 6 . he believes that it is more righdy interpreted as "save . favors.•• K'OUVOS To understand what A.. appears to make maxim and enthymeme equal or at least mutually supportive in argument. in all other reference to (when he means by it "maxim") he coordinates it with what he calis enthymeme... says here. how. PhaeJr..9Sb 18 the subject matter of maxim: given by way of defining maxim. yv""'''' . at 1430b 1-30. and why maxims are to be 3· 95a 7-95b 18 used when and bow why (a) 9sa 1-34 (h) 9sb 1-18 III . in particular the rhetoricians in their Progymnasmata.1"TB'~. who arc: to use maxims 95a 2-7 when..o>'oyl. For Anaximenes the maxim is primarily an instrument for argument... Apart from Anaximenes we have here.. But Anaximenes. however.CHAPTER 21 I . as far as can be known. unlike A.. !)4a yv""''''.'s discussion of yo"." although in Plato.~ probably "the uses of maxims".. enthymeme and sign. In his mst mention of it (1<\28a 20-25) he includes it among his .I431b 2 he speaks of its clliference from two of the proofs.. His formal discussion of the concept i.". the only effort up to this moment to define and specify It is more complete and (despite Spengel's preference for just two kinds of 1'• .1!}-22 with threefold division: subject matter of maxims. is the name of Polus' book) gathered from poet> such as Hesiod. possibly "the theory of maxims. Oddly enough. along with the kinds of maxim and how they are to be used I. 94a2z-9sa2 2.. 267c the word refers to what would apparently be a collection of maxims (if Ta Mou". who are to use them II· Development: 94" 22 . as we have in Anaximenes. Conclusion: 9sb 18-20 19 Y""'p. are grounded in what A... c£ 94b 7) more specific than that found in Ana:ximenes. Theognis. when maxims are to be used. All future efforts made by later writers. This joining of the two because of their effectiveness preswnably with the auditors reflects a basic relation between the two which we find in part in A. Introduction: 943.. At 143Ia 25 .ia My". directed exclusivdy toward the human person and the quality of his actinn... Maxim.... At 9.. is for A. Rhet.6cpllV"U.'v This is A.1#4" 2.. c£ S9b 16 : 1. (h) specifically: objects to be chosen or avoided in these action. In this o.ssb 8 and Bonitz.~ i. and the persons best fitted to use them. and in formal refutation one must refute the maxims and enthymemes used by the opponent (1443b 42 . Kassel appropriates "'1 &om Spengd's conjecture ian" "'1 (c£ Spengd's note on . '434" 33-40). Freese. The definition of Anaximenes is not adequate.pt """"""" olav is the reading of cod. F. therefore. Without • 22-26 E""" •. gives us a ddinition offering both genus and species: (a) a general statement on the objects of human actions. they are of assistance in deliberative (I44oa 20-25) and epideictic (l44Ia 18-26. and c£ 94b 7. Aphthoniw Frog. 19-24. Spengd. A. :1 1l.>v .. "eel with cod. '439" 32 .d a(. are controversial or paradoxical and so in need of a short supplementary explanation. Cope reads at with cod. and at 9. On 001 plnoo oJ. sf..e. Cope. "in discourses".. Theon. it reappears together with dements of Anaximenes' explanation of maxim in the efforts of later rhetoricians to explain the concept: e.sb 25). 12a 18-23.. In counter argwnent both are effective in handling opposition (I432b 25-32. a 22 : 1 Aclyo. F. Dufour read 0.). a 23-24 x... 1442b 38 . ".discourse..s.) or interruptions (1433a 19-29) &om the floor. Ross.. He explain.1441b IO). ARISTOTLE.1439b 2.. The kind of subject is covered mainly between 94a 26 and 9. 4.1' 7-34 the occasions or times. or. .sa 2. IU) .'s ddinition of Y"wp7J. Progymnasmata 4.. Cope. but not by Spengd.. gives us the persous. In- . C£ 6Sb 27 : 2.... on gcneraI matters and leaves it at that.dex 5460 2Off. A and four edd. 2 lcs"" 5' 'Ii a' oj is the reading of cod. A and three edd... "p. cpo r II.I (all in Spengd. Frog.a 39 . darpaTo.sa 1r-'7 A. The threefold division is renIiniscent of the analysis of the emotions at 78a 23-25. . ("not. 16(00). Tbere we learn that in subject matter maxims are assertions about the moral character ofhuman living. assertions whose brief statements are either well-known and accepted or readily grasped when heard. . 'RHETORIC' II Thus we are told that in presenting one's argument both confer a certain degance and attractiveness (1431b 23-26. and are to be used in thefonnal confirmation of one's argument (I439a 1-4. Further.. however" read by the edd. c£ 7Sa 23.. maxim as the setting forth of a personal view ("'1A. '44. Grata II). a 20-21 nolc.g. on the other hand. which is rejected by Kassd (Der Tex~ p. see ..'443" 6).L'rlV The kind of subject and the times suitable for maxims.. will become clear with the ddinition of maxim. any significandy new contributions... Hermogenes. pithy statement of a general truth on the moral character of human living." : J 2 (c£ Sga 24): a 25-26 "Epl S""'" . iO"<lV S6b 4.es G..C. In fact Quintilian. tt a 26-27 e. V 422) is a good example. for example). 544-541)..86l.'s remark at 95a 20).. pp."".). 8.5. a 23 'IcplXP. With two possible exceptions (94b 13." the Greeks dismiss them so that even "if someone were to make a selection from the prominent poets of those sayings called maxims" they would be set aside for the pleasures of vulgar comedy. of the poets mentioned that while they are recognized by all as "the hest counselors for human living.aed. 67b 18-19. for example. we gather that the source ofmaxims for the Greeks was Hesiod (7750 B. discussing senlenlia says: "The oldest forms which are most correcdy called senlentia are those which the Greeks named "'"'I'a< although the same name [St"l<IIlia) is given to all the types.. we know of an edition of the maxims of the comic poet Epicharmus (fifth century B.ium 4-17-24 (ca. S6a 36 : 2.g. The Audo.COMMENTARY definition A.. o. OCD. »-27.. reHects the general nature of "'''1'71 as found in the antecedent literature. To Meacle." From Isocrates.at. with respect to such action. 390-330). Theognis (fl. VI. e.o.'s idea: "A maxim is a statement drawo from life which sets forth in a few words what either occurs or should occur in human living... among which the comment of Maximus Planudes (Rheta.C. see below) all the examples in chap..C. Ctesiphon 135). "p<inElv It is rather clear here that A. such ao explanation covers an area large enough to be transected by other popular modes of expression such as proverb (cp.). i. Studies. 42-44.. G. AJ far as such collections are concerned. has in mind not simply human actions but those which have to do with desirable and undesirable human conduct: "but about all those matters which involve human action and which. 9sa 25-26. In fact. are things to be chosen or avoided. There is a fascinating collection of maxims in Volume One of Boissonade's Anealola GraeC4 which offers some sease of their compelling effectiveness. we have reason to believe that they were on hand by 400 B. A. chri.) later translated into Latin by Ennius (239-169 B. epigram. 57& 16.aed. ssa 8. apothegm (c£ 9Ia II-I2." This idea is echoed for the most part in the comments on "'''1'71 found in Rhelo. 76a 32 On enthymeme c£ ssa 4-'7. xa.• Aesclrines [ca.e. a terse. With the mention of enthy- . 95a 21. pp. 21 illustrate the definition.~ 'sa 28.C. Ins/.. 141-44.. Ag.ou in contrast to the individual instances "of a general character. Obviously.) competendy describes A. 86-82 B. See PW S.. c£ Studies. Phocylides (same).3.. Isocrates remarks. (possibly as a result of the use of maxims in the schools.. ad Heren.C. From the general commeots on gnome it is clear that the Greeks used maxims in the way testamental or religious literature was used by othet peoples: as guides to moral living. Some of the codd. 99a 13-16. p. or. Kassel.. whereby qualifies what follows.g.1 .6 S. Victorius writes screw "xBdo. after deliberation. 43b 35-36. says. "eel TOloVrWV (94a 2..e. implicates the actions of men.60. a judgment in this area (57" 2 : 1. 2.. pp. a 3I Clt. a 33-34 X. either the major or the minor premiss can be a maxim." I do so because if this is correct. a 2.6'Po. .e. Mede. 87-91. with tho. 296-297. Studies. : 1.aTa . A. a 27 l . The object of the practical intellect is reality insofar as it i.. An. of some importance.e thing..~ Euripides. there is no difference between the two here.) on the conclusions and the premisses follows as a more correct comment on enthymemes.. pp. that the enthymeme in form is "an assumed syllogism. <1x. Freese. c£ Studies..<oil au.. COMMBNTAlIY I 355.AltlSTOTLB.. . and Spenge! writjO B"TI'. and Anaximenes on the relation of maxim-enthymeme. Studies.. A glance at chap..e.. p. 94b 1 " . As the instrument for deductive argumentation.294-295. c£ 57" 16. 94a 19. 9192) indicate that the reasoning of rhetoric can speak .09. . "". Further this passage clearly indicates that he thinks of the enthymeme as an ordinary syllogism in form.. On the difference between A. two premisses and a conclusion. 23 will frequently substantiate thi•.do.e.. Further. . as A. the enthymeme for the mo.. say.94b 30-31. Its telos is to enable the auditor to maire. I am inclined to puncruate as Victorius does: i.'v ax. for "ae' dcrr:ow read "eo' dC1Tlii. to be effected by human action.is a syllogism about such matters. as found in the codd. Rhetorical discourse coucerns itself primarily with contingent reality and the probable.he is fOllowed by Cope..t part addresses itself to this intellect and so. e. 80.." "at links alternatives. which the auditor can do.. Pr.1 i. the statement (27-29: Tel ""p"<qu". II53g. Consequently I cannot accept Cope's statement. not aU enthymemes are general statements (as maxims must be) about man's moral activity. The question of punctuation here i.. . For. pl~ . ICI~ " . makes the lines into an enthymeme at. as Victorius remarks. of the play.!so to the speculative intellect. the statements inA 2 (ef: 57a 22... The other edd. S7b 4. i.8 mpx. S'Ja 1-7) which is to issue in action by the auditor (S'Ja 22-28). From what A." a 29-30 XpIJ··.1 . c£ 94b 18.6).. 30-31.aolv. The argumentation of such discourse is directed primarily to the practical not the specul2tive intellect..<I "the cause or the reason. "since the enthymeme generally speaking. in our ca. the premisses of the syllogism. &Ua"evij Mede. 'RHETORIC' 11 meme we have further confirmation that maxim fOr A. b II "pOEy. frg. but further refines each.. with Meineke..cpo 77b 2J : 2. Cope.. p.. and "": a maxim stating sonlething already accepted by a majority (c£ b 14). 80xEi Spengel. on the second.de'. 'xw. examples... A. some kind of logical proof. This is the reading of the codd. 60"e..-'crOClt known beforehand. KaibcI.. i..'. 94b 5).. are accepted at once as intrinsically self-evident. . and so. D-E68EPO<.'. As they stand in Euripides-Aristophanes they contain the reason and form an enthymeme: "There is no one fully happy for he is either well born and without a livelihood or base born and farming a rich estate. the second group of this class (b I4-r6) consists of maxims which... Rheto"" Graeci.'Cimenes divides maxim into two kinds: (a) l. and four edd. for A.g.''oulUVov On the fint c£ r II.g.. E6811l1""'EL Frg. b 7 ttT'<"PII Ana.." c£ LS. or support. We find the four lines with a partial omission of the fourth spoken by Euripides in Aristophanes. 94b 8)..•• cI:!''1"cr13.. Those calling for the addition (c£ 94b 8-10) of a reason (b) are either (3) part of an endlymeme (94b 17"-r8) or (4) not part of an enthymeme bur possessing characteristics of the enthymeme. I2a 25-27: contrary to COlllmon opinion and so to one's expectation. 262. 207· As Victorius says. but A... 91b 19: that on which there is strong diversity of opinion. Hecuba 864 where the codd. 54Il 27 : .94b IJ COMMENTARY b 2 06x . accepts this division without the terminology (e.. VII IIS4-IISS) gives a summary of the above which follows Anaximenes' division and . On the other hand.. Kassel reads ipl. assigos it to Epicharmus (also Dids 8£ . or (2) are obvious upon hearing (94b 14-16). .e. gives us the next verse (865) which gives the reason.. MaJCims without an added reason (0) are dlOse which (I) are familiar to all (94b Il-14).. of Euripides read 6"'/T. b 5 "pil~ . as he observes.orne of A. This and the preceding citation (01l.~ sarily . b IJ .. Euripides. "..vda'po>e') from Euripides are maxims (e.8pl ••. C. "Confirmatione a1iqua egent... Cope.." b 9-IO "lIpci8oliov ..J. Frogs 1217"-I2I9...tfnJ.trict demonstration.iv'l' and cpo 68b 2 : 2. while not known before being pronounced." b 4 06x.l. it becomes an enthymcme. Gregory of Corinth (On Hmnogenes.'s . (b) naeddoEo" which is not in accord with current opinion and so demands a reason.sa 8 : 3. The scholiasc Stephanus says the line is variously attributed to Epicltarmus (65a 16 : 2) and Simonides (63a IS). not necesb 8 cI:"o8d..doEo" which is a maxim in accord with current opinion and as such has no need for an appended explanation. ixo!. .. 66r in Naud: 8£ Snell from Euripides' lost Stheneboea. "along with the llext line. .~AbjI""V "to those who attend to thenr with =e". The individuals are presumably hearing. "there is no man who is altogether happy" that the reason fo< their truth is present within the maxim as stated. The general acceptance of the maxim as we have it in our text might be inferred from A 7. fell on deaf ears... they have this dilference from an ordinary maxim such a. Here we have those which are not part of the enthymerne but are still called enthymemanc. is doubtful. discusses the matter further. gives by way of explanation are self-su£licient as maxims and are not a part of an enthymerne (ov" . 63b 30-3I and 65b 6-u. The maxims whim A. 95b I3-I7 (~8. and their truth was revealed in the subsequent course at evenlS.. pp.. (2) as maxims they are statements on the moral ch":... GOOTgUzS we 3-5 cites the line in a fuller form as a song sung at banquetS: "w-ealth is bcs~ second is beauty.it affirms some kind of capability for enthymeIne. In Euripides the reading is: ov" laT' . BE I2I40 5-6 A... or "'the esse~tial character of. . 55" II. which is to say that they have the characteristics of the enthymeme. Corgi"'. U . At EN 1099 a 27-28..acter of . (as Victorius nores).. Cope.e. They stand independently but possess their validation within themselves. 207-208..." "the nature of. /Jieo~). Her word. . As "8u/J~/Ja.. Olivieri. pp. On this rdation between enthymeme and maxim accepted by A. I9). pp."'k has been used . b I6 GUIiEU. cited again at EE U35b 20-21. and its implicit affirmation of the coexistence of Mro~. .. Plato..ARISTOTLE... ap'd<pp"". they possess the capability to be stated as an enthymeme (s9b 32 : 1). 56b 2I-25 .q8o~ in rhetorical argument. b I7-I8 . b I5 E11: . On these lines c£ 94" 29 .. tum the eye of the mind (mentisque adem) on them. i. 200-201. 26-27 on entbymeme. And so I see their "capability for enthymeme" in two ways: (r) they can readily become an enthymeme if one places the reason formally in a premiss. at 54b 22.. In other words. Hecuba speaks the "Words to Menelaus in an eifort to discourage him from the folly of taking Helen hODl.1 Those maxims with the reason added which are part of an enthymerne are dearly enough presented to be understandable. 233.e. see SluJies. . I4I-44. Trojan Women I05I.g. the maxim." an enthymerne.18o~. as the word has been tnmlated.94b 6. not reading. ''1"AEi Euripides. C£ 94b 7 on fourfold division. ~tro"-ra). However. see Dodds.. cpo also 95a 2I-34. "... and the references at 9. b I9 lv&uflo7Jf'CI~LX. Page places it with Simonides (frg. I46) but questionably. third is wealth honesdy come by".e to Sparta for punishment rather than punishing her at once.ov~ .. mentions an inscription at Delos where healrb again is ci1l:d as best but only to disagree with the sentiment and state that eudairnonia alone is best.. 'RHETORIC' II Kranz 23 B. .dl'''~ .Is! rp. and it is sinillarly modified in Horace. I am not at all certain that this refers exactly to b 27 : I "oLav at 94" 20 which indicates the "subjects" of maxim. 239. 209.COMMENTARY 265 human action and this is the content frequently found (e. c£ 94b 29.. as Cope. for Attic 6''7Ta. and so the Doric 6. 1'"" .Qm is suitable.~ 6. e. b 25 "BvCl"<clt . as A. I would keep it as the main verb.. Cpo Studies.II-I:>: "Quid aeternisminorem I consillisanimumfatigas?" "01.. S. What follows here to 9sa 2 is a further explanation of 94b 7-16.~ TaX"a. ~. 94b 32. pp. Kaibel." At 9sa 2 it is used with the infinitive. what would oIllinarily be the added reason (afTIO. readily Wlderstood.6vp.w.1V is the reading of the edd. 94a 25-29) in the enthymeme. are not to cherish immortal anger. Dids & Kranz. it would mean "for what type of statement" each kind of ma.g.. . p.•• <pPOVEtV" 263. except Kassel. Euripides. you who are man.OJes 2. c£ EN II77b 31-34 where the maxim is challenged in a way sinillar to the procedure at 9sa 21-34. . d. 799 in Nauck & Snell. d. In this kind of maxim. 210. .u&OX1I'oUalV be gathered from rIO..dTW').ceo! ••• deT1rpe""). philoctetes frg. 23 B 20.t codd. and with the accusative and infinitive as subject at 95a 8 as at 94b 29 and b 32-33 where with Cope. and so mortal. p. . frg. uses them.g.aTd .. Quotation marks are used by the edd. on p. z cltPI'O""'El here used intransitively as it is at b 34: "is suitable..• . .II. Rather from what follow.""s 32.d T0 is implicit in the very enwlciation of the maxim: e. b 24 Ol'o""~ lii XCll Cpo 79a 2(}-2I. c£ above..8livCI"<ov •. Spengel with cod. t"v.. IIS3E b 23 : 1 '1:1> ••• <pavCll 2 l'iJ Ii.. A. rpeo.s.... See. Cpo 73b 2r..LV "". pp. and this seems likely from the abbreviated statenlent just preceding at b 18 (. Ailespota 79. c£ Nauck & Snell.. also mentions.. lob 2(}-27 (d. To Demon. appropriate.d6o~. Cope (and Freese) read: p. Spenge! suggests that ~. if80~).. 88-91. 141-44. Olivieri lists it. where a somewhat ..oyou This is a specification of part of the b 27-28 ". The idea is seen again at 94b 25. uses the sentiment in a modified form.pl content of "0'0'. conversdy at b 25 (8. !socrates.inillar line is cited from Menander.a. ". 4..) where none of die edd. A further specification is found at 94b 32 . c£ Studies. b 22.read in mo.g.e reason for their popularity might b 20 . a fusion of the entechnic proofs (Ml'o~.'v source unknown. too. Kassel does. ~ del"1v from a good tradition.d6~. attributed to Epicharmus. says at 94b 2(}-22 togetl1er with an example. Oel"1' i.Mn. in both instances he is correct.9sa 2. meoaOev we have the reason (i. alone encloses this i... tersely as possible".. fin.272.. b 32 £'JtELK'EL'V sc. b 30-3 I: 'nB.. or". p..de. 10"9.otpO.g.. C£ also Grube.a.e. rounded.like the preceding.. or unclear in their statement are used.. when maxims which are controversial. .is: On Literary Composition. Some (Roberts. b 31 TOU"'C'O C£ 94> 29-34... Here the maxin! (95a 1-2) and others like it would be accepted but are not in themselves immediately self-evident in a given situation. " ....266 ARlSTOTLB. 2 li".. 323..V (terseness of language).. periodic style.. In later literary terminology the . tiel' a. 342e).1<1 within parentheses. In Tel l..• "a.e.. b 33 : I &. or to append the reason after first presenting the maxim. b 35 . (for U.. not the comma of the edd. rounded off so that nothing is missing or unnecessary (e... Roo.ecrlJa•. Cope. Kassel reads a colon after ll"'eoa9sv. parab 34 : I 'rO'aUTO'~ doxical. e.. c1epOTT.d~ . he gives us further examples. 2 a'rpoyyuAc:lTCl'rCl . Dion}'sius ofHalicarnasst. 234e: UTeO"". Cicero.or the paradox of Socrates in the Gorgias 469C: it is better to suffer wrong than to do it. Ftom Socrates' remark this manner of speaking was typical of the Spartans: "Indeed if anyone is willing to associate with the most ordinary Spartan he will find that he appears by and large undistinguished in conversation.. Horace. 4-3. are not always obvious and call for a brief word of explanation. they.Ii-lj"""' .7.a TW' . i. 208bJ[ In his life of Lycurgus 19-20.. See the references in Roberts..) and gives it as the reading of all the codd.terse and compressed such that the one speaking with him seems to be no more than a child" (Protag...)}. of the discussion like a skilled marksman he throws in a notable remark . sc. one should not be insolent. e. i. Kassel alone reads U..e. Plato. Spartan apothegms or enigmatic sayings are also appropriate.l. 2n) find its meaning (compact... Cope. 94b 32.. .9sa 1 olav. a maxim setting out the reason (epilogue) first . and then somewhere in the cour. At". "poa'r'04v'rCl sc.6"'000. The difference between this kind of statement and that at b 27-28 is that the latter either contradicts or seriously challenges commonly accepted opinion .. too. terse) in Latin rotundus." See 94b 31. AP 323)..g.. 'RHETORIC' U b 29 xpija6. Spengel. Phaedr.VOpaT. For... cf..e.g. D. dre maxim: oil 'P'1P' . children should not be educated . p. . of the edd...Yfl""'Cl Plutarch has a collection of those in Book III of his MornUa called Apophthegmata Laconica. But this meaning is questioned by Douglas at Bruoo 68.e..).. aepone". b 29-32: "it is appropriate either to use the conclusion ... b 30-]1 orav . p...g. On Stesichorus 1'3b 9 : J.Greek word was used of d".". dnoq>at.{JinseO' should speak sententiously on these matters.39ZC.. the aun. 4i". 04b 4." ••po~ "matters in which one is experienced.C.tordv (a 5) which in its ordinary meaning signifies the telling of legends or tales such as the Homeric poems which convey some larger signi£cance for man. These are the Tl". here (rusIict) in contrast to the cultivated understanding of its opposite. i. c£ a 3 .:. .. Rhetores Graea. c£ Quintilian. to say that while the young can be good mathematicians and geometricians and attain theoretical expertise in such matters.aA<>y£i. c£ 78a 33.. as well as what is fitting to extemaI circumstances. he would have appeared quite angry and undignified. Demetrius giving the ordinary explanation of the saying (for a more confused interpretation. i.~ . IZa ZI-Z3. "'pEa(3u«p"'" 948 ZO-ZI. Its use as a quality of language can be seen in Demetrius.) to exemplify the fact tl12t such action on the part of anyone is foolish and vulgarian. Z43 and says that the comment was made to the locrians by Dienysius.. but the young are without experience since length of time produces experience" (EN lI4Za u-I6). of 94a ZI. as a moral person. Drat. VI z85. a 5 ". 16. The reason for this precept is given at a 6-7 (01 r<le . which became the term for appropriateness of language (cp. East Locris running along the Euboean straits and West loeris which lies along the Corinthian Gul£ Cpo r II. Hidden meaning in all instances is more frightening .r.g. it could be Dionysius II. 104 (b).. On a. or Dionysius of Halicarnassus (on the latter see Pritchett... This is the tenor of dreo. a 2... (urbani).pt . On Language.. 8.) ruling rather cruelly. pp.5. e. not those of mainland Gre=.ovTa.e.nerni. Demetrius On Style cites the saying in less full form at 99.. I4a Z5) among the literary critics signifies what is fittiug to man. If correct. The fragment can be 95a l-Z 06 .. In this area experiential knowledge is critieal enough for A. see Gregory of Corinth. .o. But he used allegory as a veil as it were for his meaning..pE1<i~ Ross alone readstll"'B for cL...e. Plato. they do not. who spent the ten years of his exile at Loen in Italy (356-347 B..xo. Rep. lp. VII 1155) says: "If Dionysius had spoken directly and said that he would level the territory of the Locrians.. a point not clear in some English translations. ri"'E'PO~ Not even the "eB. attain practical wisdom "because practieal wisdom is concerned with particulars as well as uuiversals.-3 Y""'p. ~&"":JL" found in Page. as far as can be seen. and particulars become known through experience. " (100). xxvi-xxvii). 39IC . 100. a4 <0 .. "emo.COMMENTARY The loenans are most likely the inhabitants of loen in southern Italy (c£ 9Sa I-Z). c£ CAR... The same reason prevails for <0 !'v80..8." The comment seems obvious from the very nature of maxim (94a Z2r-z6) whose subject is the moral character of human living. ['lSI. " e. harsh.otpal. De inv..••011 9sa 8 8Sb7.VO)lTa' <Ha8oAo. vigorous..2S (use themrardy) andQointilian 8. hate:fol. "they readily make general statements". The meaning of astvOJ'''.ou . c:£ CiG." "in expressing bitter complaint and a 8-9 "ltE'<).&" and it signifies "vehement.!. 6e". two edd..g. Spenge!. not randomly used. Saturn. 10-1 I (envy-emulation).) goes with what pr=des. is taken to mean "intensification. forceful.e." but it can denote "exaggeration. "al dBt.•brE'v e. appellatur.7 (not many.. I read with the codd." In Quintilian there appears to be a fusion of "indignation. c£ "Kritik arist.. Here I would take it to mean "indignation" (although "exaggeration"· is possible). It later designated a technical part of the speech devoted to winning sympathy by setting forth the wrongs.OJ"'. 2 and 4.6 it is commonly taken to mean "indignation. alb 3 the word is again interpreted to mean "indignation. inter alia because a f>.6u. 173 13. quae a Graecis ol"To. 19b 24-.J7.S." The first sigoifies passionate or indignant complaint . mention. At r 17a 13. e. and then tp9&vo. Tovar read Vablen's conjecrure: w. "al 6BtOOJ"'. and in the second citation the corrdation of the emotions mentioned is suggestive (but no more than that): A. injustice...•• language which imparts added force to things which are shameful.'ov . vehemence. 8-9 (pity-indignation)." or conversely 6+143: "nunc iam nulla viro iuranti femina credat. both the Auctor ad Herenn. a 7 p. "al C. YVOJI'OMO'. •. etc.~ . Catullus 70." In each instance it is joined to the word for pity.ARISTOTLE." Among the Greek literary aitics the more common word is iJswoT1J'. another idea is introduced at a 7J£ ("a80Aov de! ••.. recalling the sequence of chap•." 68..g. which echoes chap•. . suJfered by the speaker or the subject of the speech.88: "dsll1OJU" in "". exaggeration. not put in the mouth of anyone) oifer words of advice.g. On the overuse of maxims. Cope..>.uch as we £nd in the two citations above from eatullus.o-l"i>..b. At B 24. altitudo quaedam".lo6fE (conquestio)... of chaps.•. Roemer Dufour.jAo.aggeranda indignitate . i.. It occurs in three other places in the Rhetoric (alb 3.) which has no connection at all with a f>. a 7-8 xu8Q).J7 (C11/I'.SS. I nulla viri spcret sermones esse fideles. oeylj "al 1""0.. indignation. 'P7.2.z(vav'<.. c!notpalvovTa. Schriften." .a'P.". I.4-S: "mulier cupido quod dicit amanti" in vento et rapida scrihere oportet aqua. 'RHBTORIC' II a 6 '"1"... This is the reading of the codd. 8. seven emotions which (le" excepred) he discussed in Book 2 and does so in this order: lABO.24: "6BtOOJ"'." The one appearance of aBtOOJ"'" in Demetrius.1 brings us back again to the idea of indignation: "Opomt enim ut oratio pathetica aut ad indignationem aut ad misericordiam dingatur. 6." But Maaobius.. indignant language. 19b 26) and not at all in Anaximenes. is not quite clear.]. 402. e'J61OJ' dnotp. . 6••v':'0-. On Style '30. ....~ 19.o~... On the word..l.Ev". encouraging" rather than "summoning.9sa 20 COMMBNTARY r as he says specifically at a 10 TE9puA'IP.CilAoiivT.. see Cope.vOJv. bd Td (" ... and Cope read with cod. 1Iv. " .7. see.. 1973a). the danger though outnumbered. In its ordinary meaning our word in the active and middle voices denotes simply "to sacrifice" or "to consult the gods.u.. IS. "ei. a II : J S'" TO .." I would explain the dative by an understood dePOTTB' which has been the verb carrying the main idea of this section &om 94b 26. In his reply Hector just prior to our line says that he will stand fast and :find whether he or Achilles will win out. 6.o.243. Epaminondas the Theban general before the battle of Leuctra (371 D. "'aea"aAoVvT' (a 12). "Zur Kritik. Diodorus Siculus...p..4. 215) suggests that our word means not simply to sacrifice to the gods but also to win their favor..at (on the nominative see S.~ sc.19. 38 in Diehl '" Beucler." Again the words of Hector to Polydamas who had just counsded the Trojans to withdraw to the walls of Troy now that Achilles has returoed to the war.. 2086d. Kassd alone Krs[..p'l~ to Polydamas prior to the attack on the defense wall of the Achaeans.o oiv.. More likdy here "exhorting.o~ Iliad 18.. oiS"'oiiv. 2 cd~ . C£ 19S-229.. 19b 19-28.lpEl" intensive H:al: ~Ieven though they.... a 17 : a 19 reads sc.II.. XCl"l'ddftEl C£ 760 7. In the light of that . the words are spoken by Hector a 14 et~...•. ?6a 4-7 the maxim just cited is given as a proverh. C£ also Archilochus (~d.po. " . p.Ta.. VI 80-83) is said to have rallied his men with the same.. .... p. P. C£ Roemer. c£ Livy 40.... 4.. appeal. viJ'K. Cope. De senea. p. c£ CAH.p.EvOU~ Victorius (not Schrader as Cope says." "to face ~uvo~ ·EwciA. 215. ~ ..-26.vei Ross alone of the edd..: a IS ml ." • .. a 13 9ucr. P: ~"I rae Td ... J '"l.." Iliad 12. See also Cic..v At A IS. "Ae'1')' &g..11: Mars a 16 communis.C. an attack Polydamas wished to call olf because of the sign of the eagle and the snake...) lITTov. Livy 28.. however....." 506.... a 12 " .S2.309: "the god of war is impartial and he kills the killer. 214. a 20 iv. ncivTCaJv s. C£ the comment made at 94'l22.v.3. Schrader by way ofinterptetation offers the Latin 1m which expresses both ideas. everything in the Rhetoric points in that direction. . CharmiJes 1641' .cipo'xo~ The mixed feelings of the Greeks toward Athens can be seen in Isocrates. a ::I(}-::n olav ". about which he spoke directly at 7Sa 7-20. Spenge!. at 6sa 28... . a 23 ij8o~ On the meaning of the word 6ga IS : 3. 17. Cope read Bekker's conjecture: ele1Jpiv1J !}. a 22 5e5'1l'o.EUI'EvU "sayings which have become public property. 1. In fact there is evidence of a defense in 355 I 3S4 against Chares and an Aristop'hon (see . 217. to Iphicrates mentioned at A 7.". 77b 24. and the references at 63a 2 : Z. or earlier centuries who would qualify. in general as used in the Rhetoric cf. p. The general. 88b 30-31. Ci']b 18-19.g. 67b IS.. I would read with Ross. However.. iJ~lc. for .>. 94a 23. ely.fUu . 'llHBTORIC' II comment only those proverbs which touch on the moral character of human living qualify as maxims. ".."OaL" The other edd. a 24 ". gSa s).AlllSTOTLB.tlln 'l'a . and Cf.. had a reputation of being a speaker of some distinction (see 97b 27 : 3.. But Cope.upo.16Sb. 178: "na81J"''''''.. 1'''16& cIya•. p.6 .d>.. a 25-.27 seq. . disagrees. 7. fle is mentioned many times as someone presumably well known to the readers (e. as in the examples given...... Thucyd. Spengd. On the two sayings and their assumed origin with the Seven Wise Men see Plato. osa 19. 66b 13. Thne.. Cope (but not Spengd) use the parentheses....le1Jpi>1J 1i "''''1'''1... A.. who appears frequently in Xenophon and Demosthenes." This is the reading of cod. 299-300." They can well be other maxims (as here). proverbs. IIa II. Tovar. IIb I. 97b '7.>".. on the meaning of >TOo." As noted (650 28) we are not certain that this Iphicrates is the famed strategos of the fourth century. Cope without the quotation marks employed by the other edd...s.e. 9. Kassd.. 160 10).. Since the tinre of the scholiasts this proverb has been interpreted in a negative manner to mean that with Athens as a neighbor one needs no enemies. Kassd brackets naeo'pia.68-71. 99a 34.) The edd.. Kassd.8~.. Here A... and suggests a reference to "Cleon. c£ 78a 9 : 1. Victorius quite perceptivdy refen OifTO.. Protag.x&I~ etp'lI'iv'J.. However. 65a 28 : I. Antit!. Dufour.0. Iphicrates. 342d . Ross.343b.o~ . IV. i. and there is the flavor of the spoken word whenever a citation from him is given in the above references. Certainly there is no other Iphicrates of the fourth. is talking of the speaker's >TOo. "or the maxim is likely to appear to be one stated with strong feeling. 98a 5. as well known in fact as the fourth-<entury general Iphicrates. a 22-23 (AEyto> •. I would also punctuate 9sb 9-10 without the quotation marks used by Roenrer. Richards.. etc. Z." The previous phrases are understood since they are clearly implied by the statement. idea of 79" 24) which was introduced at 9Sa 21.oil" "to make the moral choice completely clear. e.271 COMMBNTAlIY 98a 3-8).. 67b 21-26.llIn is not unusual in the fourth century. the first example exemplifies nt." a 33 9sb Krd u cN8E .. "'0/) . at 9sb 13-18 he will discuss the relation between ~Oo~ and ". 67b 21 : I. However. If one's moral choice is not fully clear in the statement of the maxim.... Cope's reasons for rejecting Iphicrates as the referent are not convincing. A 9. a 26-34 -n. 2... ai-riav 1". or that mentioned at 97b 27 : J. "Observations critiques [11].. .w: "for example. II39"]I1f. 67a 34.6w.g. reason subject of .~cNAou. 66a 2S-28..) {JiAT'" (sr T'~ <pa/TI) Un ou dei": "One's character appears superior if one should say that one must not ." . discusses the relation between the ~Oo~ of the speaker and this special use of "vrh!'7J in a paradoxical way (the "oea M~a. The comment could easily have been made by Iphicrates himsdf or an opponent in Victorius' instanee. discourse.. see also EN IIub 4If." 42 that the thzee examples illustrate the two precepts in a reverse order." On the relation of ~Oo~ to "eoa/esa" c£ A 8. a! " • ..rh!'7J in general. TO d. one must make it so by giving one's reason.. The examples at a 30-34 fully illustrate the point. a 30 El"... 'P7J!.c." .t~• . In both places ~Oo~. aU 5. lIb IIf. . notes. Thurot. 2 ... latel at 8. the second has been seen a number of times as a form of crasis: "for the other is the act of a traitor.!'a•• AOyOU~ i. c£ A 3. ~Oo~ (<pal. on which see r la. C£ 8gb 24-2S. U ~eo~ . The relation between ~Oo~ and U~.. is contingent upon moral choice. however. S8b 7. CAB.." a 3I ". CAR.. 74& II : 2. avVd1/AOJ•• "''''ty. OCD.U." cruv5Yjl.. See PW.. VI 2II). I'oU'£lV" Io this passage A. a 29 : 1 ". and Aristophon.hI. H(d "ovde (deeax£1. ""aBiv. 9... C£ 94b !rIO (a"od.i sc.~ was announced ... 74" II-I3.. 66a 10-12. 9sa 28-29 and 9Sb 14-18..c\vor..". as should be expected... 660 14-16. while examples two and three illustrate rfl U~•• . S60 4-10. On the ~OO~-'l"'rh!. sc.l. just as one must do with unclear maxims. or again at 90a 27-28. 1 : 1 2 l)(oua.). VI passim. 66a IS : I.pocdpc. a 26-27 TG U ~eo~ .1/ connection see 9Sb IS-16.lo/.'" .na.. or that at 98a 17-22 (his defense against Chare. one must add the by saying.. 7:0 I'Tld.e. A 13. . 8ciTEPOV On the first c£ A 9.early on atA 2. Thucyd.. The estimate of the auditors seen here is similar to that expressed at A 2. Ag.e. "upon which with respect to a particular instance they happen to entertain an established opinion. Kassel. also. C£ S. Plato..qeB6 ." .2. De orat... "etTovla.. Cope. 'RHETORIC t II b 2 cpo!""x0'n)'ra "because of the uncultivated minds. The metaphor in fi. Pr.. b 5-6 c::. he also refers to BE 12I5a 29-30 which is somewhat to the idea.. "happens to have.£vo~ i. i.. Spenge! read (with cod.e. On "a9&). . The same three along with Spengel read the text without the quotation marks. but c£ 7J 6n immediately following. sc. ixou. partial.0v-"ieo.. b 9 : 1 eI"ltOY'rO~ aT' is the reading of Ross. ). ~ "at what kinds of preconceptions they happen to have and how ilis that they came upon them"." The individual who is distressed by such particular instances will generally respond sympathetically to a statement which universalizes (even wrongly) the misfortune.. c£ 95b 7. 'r"'YO"lto..ebans as neighbors. b 4-5 /iILII . 94a 22-23. is found at AI.m cpo 54>9: 2.1I3. Ii"a de "al (Mj).. Cope.....8'0" 6.....•• 8lJP~E'Y sc. oIi. Plalai".0. 3. and prejudiced owmg to their 'I'0e .. • 06&lv •.la~ 418.OYOIL£vou 3 11..ARISTOTLE.•..0..Y "if someone speaking in universal terms hits upon ideas which they entertain about a particular instance.) .. Isocrates. This is even truer of those with a Iimiled and undiscriminating outlook. Demosthenes." In general the word signifies a view of life which is confined 10 its obvious and superficial meanings. 46a II-P2. "ltoia .o.s 17-19 on the n..•• tcr'r'Y b 6 ). pOy Cpo Hesiod. 218. looks upon the word (correctly so it seems) as a unique imtance.. I would say that Victorius has captured it in part: "the kind of person captivated by the empty semblance of wisdom". Cpo Menander 166 in Edmonds: or b I I ""'~ .. Kassel reads "etTOVBla!. b 10 : 1 o6&lv •.ux0' b 8 XEXP'lp. Schrader suggests Cicero.. cpo S4b 5. (TOtirO) ).. A) without an. Works and Days 346 ("a bad neighbor is a disaster'').cr"op .." This is to say that their grasp of the general truth is limited.."0". 57a 1I-12. .Laws 843c.. everyone else.. .• XCIIA.'cn:a.. p."oT71'. on b"TV. The other edd. 2072..6 (Cope). c£ 9sa 22-23. c£ 9sb 2. Callicles I ("there is nothing worse than having a bad and greedy neighbor").. . Ross..... Kassel alone reads b 7 & ••• 'rUYl(ciyoucr..44-186 as an illustration of the comment.:.. b 3-4 xa80Aou. S4b 6. see Denniston.. Sponge!.oU~ This is a natural consequence of the definition of maxim at 94" 25-26 (aAAa ••• ned. basically a summary of the divisions followed in the chapter .~ . Ii. 100. from a good tradition. Poetics 14sob S-II. """ n:po .... b 13 ij8.j"'" b u. 263-73.w.. r b 15-16 .c£ 94& 2cr. 'Y'''. cpo 17. Kassel... 139. This is obviously the correct word here since this statement is nothing more than • summary of the definition of maxim given at the beginning of this chapter (b 22-26). 16... which is omitted on a good tradition." All the edd. pp. 143..d•••a.Y is Bekker's reading adopted by all the odd. Studies.. 23 S45. b 5-u there is an indication of a close relation among ~Oo~ in A. Spenge!. Lucas. Sij •.. p.'ei..g. Spenge! read neoa.... e. lpe... . c£ 94& 22-26. A. b 111-20 ". of cod.. Cope. The statement refers back: to 9sb I and forward to what follows to xe... Cope..p"". Det' T..I S~ . a. for a further observation. which r would take to be its meaning here. At Poetics 14Soa 5-7. p... ISa 17-1S.. as exegesis ofthese passages tends to show....and..'1Y'" xpija..95b 19 273 COMMBNTARY Kassel read noo" for "w~ and do not read "w~.I both . 108.I.. pp...). see.• Else pp..'s mind.. 17a 16-33." b 12 ".e".pl p.... oil.1/ - b 18 XP'l""o>j9'1 C£ 86b 12-13.21 . b U-13 ".with two exceptions: the persons best suited to use maxims are dropped out and rep1tced by the advantages of maxim. See Kassel. C£72a2:Z. 26~1.. Cope) refers to the manner of stating a maxim about such established views as he himself has just offered: "and then to speak in general terms on these opinions in the manner described. ..'I!e. " . b 14-15 ~90~ .."'~ (read as o/lT'" by Tovar.u.. See the references at 9sa 29 : I....'" "All maxims do this owing to the fact that the one who states a maxim makes a general declaration about his moral preferences. "po. and Freese read neoa. . i.e.e.CHAPTER •• I .960 3 (0) 9sh 22-24 (6) 9sh 24-31 (e) 9sh 31 .960 34 to. chaps. Devdopmcnt: 9Sb I.g6b 21 (0) 96a 34 .. 24-34 3.. only stated for juclidal rhetoric (e) 960 12-22 (t!) 96a . 96b 21-2] 31 - 974 4 the Fecol sources of cnthymemes (i. ro discwsion of enthymemes as forms of argument 20-22 22 - 96b 21 enthyuwne as syllogism 9sb •• .ubject the relevant 6cts are ncc:cssary sources of this rdCVllllt subject matter 34 . '3-24) to 96b ..911b ] (6) 96h 4-II (e) 96h II-19 (t!) 96h :1. Introduction: 9Sb II .bove arc exemplificd the mctbcd by which this selection is made is that of the particular topics (c£ 96b .: there are two necessary prelim- inaries to be noted .24 (e) 96.peak directly to the subject at hand (0) and (6) .31. (0) 96a 4-'1 (6) 96a entbymeme is • syllogism its dilICrona: &om dialectical syllogism 7-12 ric this exemplificd for cpidcictic: rhetoric thi. Transition and General Introduction: g6b I.960 3 entbymcmc argues &om definite and acc:epted opinions and infen ttom premisses both necessary and probable subject matter of these opinions and premisses material be specific to subject under dDamion this acmpli6cd for dclibcrative rheto- •• 96• 4 ..8-34) III . 960 summation: on any .• Ta di: aTO.xsia ...he relevant &cIS so there must be a selection of pro~ sitions which .0-21 demonstration of one"s subject comes only &om .".1. s8a 6-7. and cpo 7sa 22 . and ofKassd.!entation of premisses bas. !lsb 20 iv8ul''11'cl"<tdV b .. and then the ~o kinds of enthyrnernes Jdemonstrative. pp. (e. and "dOo.. will speak of the enthymerne as syllogism..g. It is this chapter. cpo jI2a 3-4. the method for the refutation of enthymemes will be discussed (i. A. 23-24).B (7) we will now study me memod of general topics for enthymemes IV· Conclusion: 97a 4-6 when the above is done. Freese. SBa II. From what follows at b 221f.e. Our reading docs not change the meaning. with the pre.• A 4 . 2. of the two general kinds of enthymerne.d on particular topics for each of the kinds of rhetoric and for ~Oo.Mo. 47£. SBa 35. (i.}. 25-26). in which we are told (96b 28-34) that.. 3242. 25) In this chapter we have the final section of those transition. or the sources for forms of inference by enthymemo.• Spengel read "'dneDl'.2I x0t861. 49.• chap.e. will now study the general topics. of the scholiast b 22 €XIZ. too. of Victorius. H. II5-35. mentions this last once again at the end of this chapter. ']6a 32 : 1.." If there is any question in the mind of anyone who has come this far in the work that the topical method is twofold in A. (c£ chapter outlin. of the particular topics as generating source material for its premisses which must b.ARISTOTLB. 68..0) as sources for forms of inference by enthyrneme (chaps.. specific and rdevant to the subject of discourse. z. The other edd. and (b) that he will introduce the idea of the common topics.he particular topia for cnthymemes have been disalsscd. will make some genernl observations on the proper way to look for enthymernes and their topics... Anonymus.. On the rdation between particular and general topics. In a number of ways chap. Cope..) this means (a) that h.•.• A4. pau This is the reading of a good tradition. . who makes reference to EN II3Ib 24-2. 'RHBTORIC' II (0) 96b 23-28 (6) 96b 28-34 95b 22 there are two kinds of en'hymeme the method of . C( above. together with some other observations of a general character on enthymemes (chaps. for it is best translated: "for each of these is different in kind. s8a I7 : 1. h. see Studies.B I7) to a study of the general topics ("0'"01 ••". the use of 4AAo . refutative) etc.6"ou~ i. c£ Stlldies.. c£ 9']ll2-4..'s mind and that the object of the particular topics is not that of the general topics.l chapterS (I8-22) which move us from the study of the particular topics (Bi'<l1j) as sources for the statements of enthymerne and =pl. pp.7.ou . 22 is a recapitulation and fuller explanation of ideas seen at 58a 2-35 and 57" 7-2I. one might ask the meaning of r 18. On <la • . . 19a 19 where we are told to make them "as condensed (compressed. 571l 8 : 1.MENTAllY '"aTieov should remove it.... as he remarks at 57'l 3-4.. b 24 . CN>'>'QYLa!"i~ ."..ta. '"'po.1 ".Oev ••• cruvciYE. The same references are valid for the phrase following: " . and the most that can be drawn from A.I" 1E"~. Cope. b 25 . pp.. 'ee Studies..Ta•. 87-9I.'s statements is that the enthymeme as syllogism favors a shortened. condensed statement.ii~).. Further. I have discussed the question (Studies.. if enthymeme as syllogism is in itself a two-statement form.COM.pov See references in previow note. Kassel read . compact) as possible.AA ...ucl~ T'~ from a good tradition. 571l 3-4 where the auditors are given as the reason for this injunction.v" .... The import of oiiTe "moTa ..AAoy.t.. for further references see notes following. c£ 57" 7-12 (10611. a". 56b 5 : 1..56b 4. 53-I03. 157'l 18-20 (cp..lp"l)."". see comment at !J4& 28.97'l I) words of chap.. brief resum6 of 56b 32 .t...1 Ii'Clcptp~. 22 obviously in mind.). a. The Drst kind of inference leaves the hearer confused because ofits length. see also 571l r6 and the very end of 57b ID-2I). C£ 96a 3S . .. "'l'ro~): namely. 164a 12-14) he indicates that the use of syllogism is for the more dialectically skilled.. '""'eli. At Top... pp. but with the opening (95b :ro1E) and closing (96b 20 .. This .u. for an interpretation of that phrase as met in A r see 55. What he has in mind by this cOIIUllCllt is a line of reasoning movin~ though a series of arguments (our 1EoeewOev).. AtYE'V and they make the same points offered in the preceding note.. See the next note.is not easy for an untrained mind to grasp.u~ .96b 2. b 23 ..57'l2I. In fact.: "and so he rightly mentions that he had to handle each kind separately. The difference such as it is does not (paa Cope.8mo"Ta~ is the same as that of 57'l 17-21 (la•. 56a 36 ..". cpo r 17. My. Victorius says of A. Victorius. Here the faults of both procedures are noted. 55a 8.8. 221-22.LV On the enthymeme as syllogism. that the object of rhetorical inference is to convey to the auditor an immediate and ready understanding of the argument..""la C£ . 55a 4--7. pp. C£ 57a 7-17. and passim) reside formally in the fact that an enthymeme is a shortened fonn of syllogism.opp. This is explained in what follows at b 24-3 I which is partly.namely. Therefore the inference should not be burdened with facts possibly important but not directly necessary to the argument. The second at the very least annoys him since he is told the obvious. 18a 9-1:> ("al." Such a twO-statement form could not be rednced further and remain a syllogism. b 25-26 "'0 •.... In a passing comment on this phrase. Freese.." b 22-23 Mlu""1) . On '""dy ...V Cpo A 2. a premiss or the conclusion may be omitted if it is already known. for a trained mind able both to investigate and to reason to and from absolute terms and universal propositions. in fact. lOla 25 . ). which is specific and concrete. Kassd. ~E &. Iosa 34 . cbral~'VT. ).&.• Spengd use a colon.. On the plural ("O''1Ta/) c£ Cope. nor any thoughtful petSon would take issue.iyoucrtv i.TO ••• 6%.." Cpo 95' 3~ ("se! . POV<1'''WT. "(speak) on matters within their experience.e. 59b '7.ARISTOTLE. s. very close to sense knowledge. Cope. At Top. Hipp.. He argues from the An.. dialectical reasoning which would cause problems with the JX. (9sb 25) correct. Index p.br'.w): one must not infer from general and universal principles. 988-989.. While I consider the interpretation of "oeewO. Moralia 6b-<1... the eatly Socratic dialogues of Plato).lylies passage th.eOV" i. 72.. 24a 4-5. says this in the very next sentence..."oGTO ymp . the "ma. b 3I TUyyU~. apparently has in mind with Tel ". It should be clear that dialectical inference. p. far removed from sellS. <1vvciy.. faa. although some have thought that the reference is to the clna. difficulties present in the mind of his auditors concerning the subject. b 3I-32 eN" E~ . on these cpo An. 223.. b 28 ..57a I ("ai .lov.uneducated and the relative power of persuasion of each method is to alert the student of rhetoric that in making hi.ttend to the questions. Post. concerned as it is with detemrining or challenging tenns as well as establishing or rejecting propositions used in reasoning (e. c£ Cope. i.10") reveals that A. because it would be the educated who would argue from the detailed knowledge of the disciplines at their command.e. judgments. 222.2... This is a task which call.e.•• &0"""". The other edd . Thus he would interpret b 24-25 (OVTB rae ..iYEtV e. problems.8 (TO. For it i.devTov.b 4) a method to examine the philosophical sciences and the ultimate principles of science. Freese." 43) has an interesting comment on 95b 24 .. i. p.dwp••wv.." I would punctuate with a period as do Tovar. views.d The "de is e.g. .anEp". b 30 01 f'tv • . 06a 33-34.• "more accomplished"..tes a more lengthy and involved reasoning. C£ LS.u'<OU~ b 28-30 C.• not all opinions.t "oee"'Osv (9sb 25) means that which is abstract. identifies the use of dialectical infetence with the educated. .96a 3 in which he refers to An.•• ". 66) and the "at adverbial: "this.. 399b 181[ Thurot ("Observations critiques [II). b 27-2." Cpo S6b 35 .V).. 11..v.wel "a! "a06. 'RHETORIC' II 95b 31 90a 9. A. knowledge. The point of the observation on the manner of speaking by the educated .~ 37 princi- .e.. which is what A.g. Bonit2. 1-5. is indeed the reason that . argument he must .00T"")." Thurot (see previous note) interprets this as "concrete. Pro 29> 17..". b 27 .a position with which neither A. However. . toler."<planatory (Denniston.lo" since (among other things) dialectics is (Top. p.. . c£ Plutarch. his comment is relevant here. Eur. """ay.) is still necessary. Kassel... I understand it to mean: "And in fact it must be clear that the opinion offered [ToiiTO] is the view held [06TC"~ <pat.••i'e~Ta. I am inclined to think that d.). A 2. 1tAe. &ij:Aov E1vllL . a 1-2 a 2.. Dufour. They also punctoate with a period for the comma of the edd.a. c£ 77b 21 : 1. Kassel.ocuov The impersonal verbal adjective is practically equivalent to 6" with the accusative and infinitive. Ross reads his own conjecture and punctoates differendy. Once again we are engaged with the selection of particular topics for argument. The translators interpret the reading given (the variant punctoation does not affect th" meaning as far as I can see) in various ways.. A..96a 4 COMMBNTARY pies for the selection of propositions are given which are valid for rhetorical discourse.S'Ja T. in our passage here is speaking of opinions. .. 11:prdTOV A.eTa.o"..• :><o'<6). Tovar. clause with commas and read oUr.1. . cpo 57a !}-13 where that which is not probable is not masive since it is something which is not admitted by men. Spengel use a comma after this word. b 32 : 1 ':'purp. Spengel Cope.• <pal."v i.i.o. set down for themselves by the auditors. Tovar. anCXGLv . S'Ja 7-17. Cope. 96a r : 1 xptvouc. the auditors. tion offered by the edd.. draws a series of conclusions (96a 4 . a period. '9cdVE'fml. Cope. a 3 : 1 """mYE'v C£ 9Sb 32 : z for mood.>1 C£ COMMENTARY 2 (cllUT' . on this see S6b 35 .w is the reading of the codd.~ .. 77b 18 : 1. Three of the edd. 2 ci11:o8qOVTCI'. in which we are told what the spealcer must do...] by all or most people". xed ~oU~O aij a.£vc. therefore. S'Ja 34 : 3. established. This is the reading a"d punctuation of Roemer. • l.lG'TOI.96a 4: cllUT' •. (96a 2. Freese.a. Freese also read ToiiTO 6').I.• 11:0)..t.. the idea of necessity is operating throughout this passage (b 31 . Since. With either punctuation (as can be seen from Cope or Freese) the comment at 9Sb 32 : 2 (on etc. Cope. must be understood with . or readily accepted by them on the authority of others. S'Ja 15. A colon migbt be preferable to the period.96b 21) on the subject matter of enthymernatic inference which follow upon his opening a 4 . Kassel. . . Freese mark off the aT' •.e. 3). . ciVClYX"""" .~L oG'RIJt. S'Ja 22 : 2 58a S7b 4· I 355. Spenge!. views which have been determined. Kassel conjectures a dative and refers to 56b 36£ and his reading there of d.eTa. Even with the variety of punctuais difficult to understand without it. and Spenge!.a. (Cope.. Freese read ~ xaa". the edd. 57' T3I. S'Ja 28.I. c£ 77b r6 : 1 with the references there. for /inat"'. S9b 25-]2.can be and in fact mostly are formulated not simply in terms of the evidence but also with a view to the attitudes and disposition of the auditors (their !f9o~) and in a manner which reflects the speaker's concern and good will (his !f90..). TO'Clil.. c£ S6a 2.what he means and does so first for deliberative rhetoric.e. omitted in cod.'P Tel ~ndeXoVTa. 'RHETORIC' II 6. etc. c£ ssb ro : 1.: 1). secondly because of the material with which it work:s (matters for deliberation). c£ S9b 2. . 142. a 9 : 1 li!'-iI "oh"!..material strength."!'-<i> The reading of all the codd.l a 5: a 6 xlZL 'flk TO\i~ . c£ 96b 4-II. In one respect these ~"c!~xooTa are the ~xov Tit a of SSb rO-II. 46a 3-10 is a clear indication of what is meant by the term...&'. 6nancial resources. - statement. See sSa 6-7.]. ". The ~. Cope .> ••. the Sophists 9 [292. !f90~ and working in these areas precisely because deliberation is involved (S7& 2.5-32. you must have the facts relevant to the subject. moves directly into an explanation of .. a 7-I2. "'crT••.2.2. argument by enthymeme and example first of all by the nature of its articulation in linguistic statements. questions open to deliberation. hEye. "Zur Kritik:."a'oo stress the importance of the conclusions: "First of all. c£ Roemer." 507. Spengel. Ag.. 57& 1-2) this matc:rial will be determined by the methodology of the particular topics working in three areas of entechnic proof: Ml'o~. A. except Kassel who conjectures <h> "oAm"<ii uvA. Ag." On the idea in "oAm"<ii C£ S4b 24 : 1. repeating some of the particular topics mentioned at A 4. A.60a II.1 as he begins to set the background for the Peace of Philocrates..1 b 7-8. Pr.9. whether the subject of the reasoning be political or anything else. An. To Buriris 44 [229] where they are called Ta &vona. For with nothing at hand you would have nothing from which to infer.) and strikes an emotional response in the auditor ("dBo.. you must understand that on whatever subject you have to speak or reason. In rhetoric by the very nature of its subject matter (i.. Kassel. Ross. !socrates.. the Sophists 9 [292. as I have said in the commentary on the first book: and in Studies. It should not be necessary to repeat that propositions on purely factual matterS such .. are bracketed by three edd... either all or some.•• 6Kci..7 : C£ Anax.pXOV~Cl The *rapxop-r:a represent the material present in the subject matter or topic of discourse which offers the ground for reasonable di"""sion about the subject. and the edd.. cpo !socrates.. On the Embassy r7-2. "dBo~.. 59b 33 . In short. : •• • "oh''''xiii croA}.oy..80 96a 9 A1USTOTLB.]. and finally because of its objective (to facilitate a judgment on the part of others) necessarily incorporates the three entechnic See Demosthenes.-'1"'''''' These words. Ross alone reads (from a good tradition): HaTe! TOVTOV IXtt. 1 CNlloyl~"cr8 . S6a 2. those proposed . . ct."... by the auditor. The formality within which epideictic works a 15-16 o!x ••• "civ-rE... and its proximate TiAo~ is TO "aAel. F and a good tradition accepted by Kassel.C. .4px"" Cpo An.. A.C. Ross. Demosthenes in previous note. Cpo A 4. the lalld battle vs. c£ CAR. or as a reasonable misjudgment on the part of the speaker. has reference. [cannot accept the interpretation of dO"O ••TC•• as "imaginary deeds of honor. Tovar omits TW.Iv. Spengel read . the reading of cod. &~ . and cpo A 4. As Spengel remarks: war or not war is the subject that must be resolved in the deliberation. 59b 33. 2 Map . Such deeds would be accepted by an audience either as possible. "pciXO.. for the infinitive c£ 900 8: dVllai. a 13 : I Eotl." To attribute such to anyone i. read simply the BTl of Susemihl for the ern of cod. The traditional tale is the story of the courage of the Athenian.on Athen•• are cited often in the literature.e". to interpret dO"oUnQ)' as "imaginary" would make a farce of deliberative and judicial rhetoric at a 26-32 where at a 28 we would be speaking of "imaginary evidence. 2 &Uv.tory is told in part by Euripides ill the Children of Heracles.p. 6. rThought to belong" is more correct here and at a 18..".. On the Crown 208.. Ross for ." a 17-18 GXO"oUYrE. 60a I. l . Pr. which reSect praise . On the honorable see A 9. 5. and their king Demophon (son of Theseus). CAR. By way of exception from the codd. p. and Cope. 6.67a 32..e (or blame which is mentioned next. see. 238.ITa.. Isocrates. In fact. 18. Cpo A 4. is prai. son of Heracles. 66a 33-34. The time would be shortly before the Trojan War. They alone of all the Greeks faced down the Argives on behalf of Hyllus. a II : 1 2 a 12 4".. 59b 24. s9b 36. The other edd. which was the beginning of the end of Persian naval power and the campaign against Greece. ..... "pooo5o. even ISO years later.lv.ei.p. . and his followers who had taken refuge in the Temple of Zeus at Marathon. The Athenians played a major role in the victory which remained fresh in their memories ever afterward..."~e conjectures .• Dernosthenes.Oa. ...COMMBNTAIlY 281 read them. Demosthenes. to Lysias.•.. a waste of breath since it is readily recognized for what it i. the Persians in 490 B. 226. N 239-52. These three topics. e..vEiv a further illustration (c£ 900 7-U) for epideictic. . the battle in 480 B... Plato.g. N 304-16.alaXed•• S8b 8-29.. Cope (Freese).v. b 16-22). The . and edd. 66b 23 . a 14 . 43 b 1-38 for the process. (Freese). C£ Thucyd." "after examination they prosecute or defend from a 25 A"".. as a member of Athens' Oelian Confederacy. although at the battle of Salamis the conspicuous bravery of the islanders was acknowledged by all. With a strong naval arm and a commanding position in the Saronic Gulf. Founded as a colony of Corinth ca.C. Cope who read with a good tradition 'A6'1" 11 A . 600 B.. Since this same tradition reads the genitive singular (not the accusative plural of cod. 58b 36-37a 19-20 auILIL"X..u. A) in the following two nouns.. 'RHBTORIC' II a 18 en •...~ There was a long-standing conffict between Athens and this island.1""'1wv 1I •A8'1""1wv is the reading of cod. and war was the result.On the verb cpo A 3. S. except Ross.at.. it would not comply with the Athenian demand to drop its annual officials from Corinth.". .wTO~ Ross alone secludes ""l. cpo rIO.. 284. iJv8p . Just prior to 490 Aegina was forced by Sparta to cooperate with Athens. C. Kassel.. that they .~ a 23 CJX011:oUf1&VOL the facts on hand. . 2 a 2Z ....~ Q. C£ 'I11ucyd. cIeoaTSv...V1\'<.:. a dependent statement which explains 1piyotJaw (a 16). The coercion was only partly successful. IIa 15-16.. . "... 2..IL""au~ ""I IIp. just prior to the Peloponnesian War. "al avppax.. this reading from a good tradition is a=pted by Ross. a 20 : 1 2 a 21 : I " . it was a threat to Athens.. In 433. In 457/456 the Aeginetans were made subjeer allies of Athens' Oelian Confederacy.8""kT"~ In 480/479 it successfully refused to medize and withstood the scige of the Persian land force under the general command of Mardonius. The war ended in 430 with the expulsion of the citizens and their replacement by AthClliam.a. 2577.. A and the edd. _'rEiouAc:J..""o On word c£ A 12..... 'A. and finally in 43 I they were expelled from their island (restored in 404 by the Spartan Lysander) which was occupied by Athenians and annexed to Athens.. 3 na.o8Icr. The reference is again to the Persian Wars of 491)--479 B. ei .27. Cope.• sf): "this is very obviously a duplication. who says (referring to a 31: (Jaa • ... it may be a better wit- ness.. 2. c£ 86b 30: "so.ILIlP'"!IL" &·cdl... Kassel." 741> 7.96a 25 ARISTOTLB." and suggests the possibility of dropping the ""I ""I second ..Ir'<.<.'<o "namely. on which c£ Spengel....y. p. in this very same way.8.. 73a 23.~ "who had fought by their side with distinguished valor".70... Spenge! is favorable to it but reads with cod. A and the other edd.. .... pTj araB•• is VndeX".e..).. a 28 6"..>... at"alo•.. b 2 ('"'' . 6"oipXE' sc.q..1 ...dno . Vndex . This point is made a number of times..d ToJTO is that which he has been insisting on from 96a 6f(: obtain the /lndeX""Ta. Cope. I would read the words with Ross..0" ....e. For epideictic and judicial he does not usc the words signifying the kind of rhetoric but those denoting the fonnaliry under which each operates. ... a 23 (il< .....a).. In a 29-32 (r.. araBq.""TIl This together with the following accusatives (a 26-27) include all three kinds of rhetoric. i. This usage continues through a 29-32.1 ~TO"). c£ 91b 34..: "It is immaterial whether the subject be the Athenians ... VndeX").e.p cNToij Til 6"lipX"'TIl i.. Vndex."'" [a 28]. the need to have on hand propositions directly rdevant to the subject if one is to present the subject effectivdy.. is understood at a 31-]2 with 8f . Similarly vndex.• one must do the very same thing. av.... I take the phrase as an articular infinitive: ''Doing this very thing differs in no way whether the subject be the Athenians or the Spartans.. gave such an extended analysis (A 4 B 17) to the methodology of the particnlar topics.... tlnaex6vT"'). and the fonnality of deliberative rhetoric (neOTe"'''''''"'~ . In avpfJovAeilo>Ta (for the accusative subjects of ). .. Understood with the clause sI ... At 96b 4-2I A.). .. cf.. cpo 79& 21)-21 where the phrase could be interpreted as here..~) is omitted...... a 33 (I" . av....". just as )...g. The consequence is at 96b 4f£: e...." alaxed..). mE. ""'A. tlnaex ." a 26 ""f'o~OU).""'. dya8q..' ...q. •. a man or a god. a 33 II f'o-IJ liYll801v C£ 96a 9 : J." It also seems possible to take aeiiv as an imperative or with an understood as. Kill "in the same way as the instances given". a~. fJAafJ8e ••• a 32 6f'oO""~ •. Ilnaex .. a I5-16 (i" . Spengd.. a I7-18 (. S8b 8-29. e.1)="" (a 28) is understood with what follows: II..g.. all the rdevant material on him (Ross alone puncruates in a way which would give a different meaning).. a 29-30 d T. ."o.S"..... a 34 " .'1/ of each kind of rhetoric.). Kassel.96a 34 COMMBNTARY a :>5-26 TO ciuTI> ToijTO Spa. i. a 22 (Vndex. I find the construction awkward.. A moment's rellection on this should reveal why A.)... "Conscquendy since all indeed clearly demonstrate in this manner whether they reason stricdy or loosdy (for they do not t~e their premisses from any and every .. fJAafJse6v) we learn that only by seeking the /lndexo ••a can we 1lI2ke intelligent statements about the proximate .. a 29 (il< TOVT. 21520) we have the word denoting the kind of rhetoric. "ald. S. a 29-30 (81 ••.. Vndexo . a 6 (Tli .). the adverb and dative..e.. draws the conclusion from this: namely.. schema... See comment at end of preceding note. .uaoUv'<EI."".g. Roemer. 229. In 9 cases it clearly denotes "argument" (e. the meanings I offer are those interpretations of the word found in most instances in the commentaries or the translations. b3 >.&'Ta was explained at 9Sb 25. in 4 instances either "argument" or "discourse" (e." c'rational explanation. so. SSb .Gyou C£ 960 34. idoJrij..oS. a lS . (eN ••• ~". ~".. "." Certainly what follows at 96b I-9 as the expl. clause questionable. and in 3 either "rational explanation" or "discourse" (e.• 55a 28. in his comment." by Vater (Animadversion . If by (b) is meant "logical exposi- tion. AB"T£O'). 228: "whether his reasoning takes the exact or rigorous form of the syllogism (as in scientific demonstration..ARISTOTLB. "b 2. This word has been understood in two ways here: (4) "speech. 58b 7.e. p. or employs the Iaxcr mode (of the rhetorical enthymeme) . I can see the possibility for either interpretation and would accept either although I have given preference to (4) at 96a 34. 'RHETORIC' 11 thing but from the fact'! relevant to the subject). I24-25) and others.g. In 40 instances [m all word cases and in the singular and plural) it means "discourse" (e. p. I (see 96a 34) find Cope's interpretation of the U.i7." by Cope and others: (b) "reason. OIa 27)." ureasoned. d"el{JsaTBeO.96b 2 Uv . Spengd but he does not use the parentheses. ratiocinandi..l. In the remaining examples it signifies: (i) "words. . pp. e. 9Ib 9).g. 80a 2).g. From a study of 66 instances of the word (exclusive of the present passage) in the first two books. and in all the cases of the singular and plural (which I do not intend to list) the following emerges. (96b 5. I would understand the phrase o~ rae IE dnanow as olin . 66a9. In 2 instances in the genitive singular it means "reason" (e. 230." "discourse.2S). and since it is clear that it is otherwise impossible to present anything by. and Cope use the parentheses. too.. C£ S6a 3 : 2. p. on ~E''''B'Ypi... and has been said from 960 6/f. 82a I7-I8...• 70a I9. and see his interpretation of the words at p.ccutaey. are ordinarily used by A. ".." or something similar.• S604.a.• 55a 26. 1tuiex..g" 80» I9.• 55' 33. is speaking of the content of the syllogisms. way of discourse [or: it is clear from reason that it is otherwise impossible to explain anythlngJ.. In fact. C£ 96b 3. to refer to the content of the argument. 444" 4I-45: "de neglecta dxel{JBlq. Tovar punctuate with " colon befOre the parentheses. aul. "b 23 : 2. its precision and ." "argument. IO). and probably also in dialectical argument). i..nation refers to the content of the propositions. discourse.g. In thls kind of context. 96b I-2 all that (w .•. a 35 ." four times (e.'<co.copxOv"""') Cpo 95b 3 I-32 (d1aT' .paAa"wTBflo. it is manifestly necessary . 20) Cope recognizes that A. c£ Bonitz. Since in particular instances one can argue interpretations of a word. and the colon makes more sense.copxOv"""') All the edd.oyl1. not to the form of the argument.g. ssa 9). Mention of the sdection of one's material from what is olfered in the analysis of particular topics is common in A 4-IS (0£ COMMENTAlIY I 354 [s. sldw. UYOV ..• A6yo~ "one must search out [''ITS''] premisses by looking not at indefinite gencralities but at the facts rdevant to the subject of discussion. new problems. on life."tvCl "sdeaed statements.. The two meanings olfered above for our passage can be seen at s6a I : z. give the general method for seeking propositions on a subject. particularly the comment at 96b 5r-II (8aq> ••• "0"&) where the use of d..o". cpo 96b 30-31."discourse. see note. The first book of the Topics.vci This is a specification of what was explained in a more gcneral manner at 96a 6. setting them down in separate lists..."". nedy". s6a 19 : 2.. especially those intimately related to the subject..s '"oraAII".. and then lyYVTaTa TO.vci These two comparative clauses explain in tum first "l. chaps. (iii) either "word" or "reason....vva..iUTa. sSa '7-23 (rd..o~ "and by specifying as many of these facts as possible. At Top.g.. b 6 b ." On ly"vTaTa cpo 6sa 34 : z.tv . for example.• xo. Either of those meanings .g. S6a 3 : 2... 29 : 1).. p. kinds of possible propositions and ways they should be sdected.o)... 58a 26-35." "reasoned discourse" . questions. . b. ]... uncertainties. in the clause points to what he means at 96b 3 by d.. sum- ].. it reviews the varied meanings of terms. 6 ~_YIIIGU C£ 54].. 3 : 1.9 (see s6b 13. possible points of discussion relevant to the subject.xoi~ Cpo s8a 2.. e.. 80b 30 : 2."Cl..el TO. on the word 57" 27 : ].e..a .. (iv) "esteem.e. 4 ming up the process in part at IOsb 12-1S (on which see 96b 6)."" ..".. 2 w8exo"""""..-Cl . by what follows in b S-I9. ..ci." once (74b 19).. 9-II 6"'1' p." once (S4a 27). on good.a. o£ A 2.'Y.. It does so by suggesting ways in which to look at any thing to discover its essential and non-essential aspects." On dOelUTa cpo 740 34: 1. (ii) "account.po.a•.v. i.. 4-IS. matters most suitable to the subject.. IOsb I2f[ he says: "We should also sdect from written handbooks and compose for oursdves outlines on each kind of subject. i.355) and also in B I-17 (0£ 77b I6 : 1. and on every kind of good beginning with the nature of good itsel£" ].Cl .yp4<pov..).e.. xo.. 23I. These are the unexpected aspects of a subject which suddenly arise.. b 5 : 1 ~... premisses".COMMBNTAlIY 3)..o~ ofb 9.£]. I believe. on ". on the word o£ 65a 20 : 1. b S-9 ". ]. OIa 23)." twice (e.yea'!'... 88]. o£ Cope. pciY.p......XCl..•• d. As he will say (b 7fI:) they are to be handled with the same care for rdevant information as the subjects for which one is ptepared..is strengthened. 4-II "p. woTOea to Achilles. 0. Metam.-13 a. b 20 d~ ... of the specific discipline itsd£ As he says at A I. IV/Ta" "the more closdy they are b II 6LX£'o. 97a I on TeO"OV. 59b 2. in praising Achilles gives a passing mention to Cycnus (and also Hector as here). The edd.'lj6'1)v Tovar alone of the edd.ep" The root idea in the word is given at A 5. read 1%1/ from uncorrected A... There are a number of references in the AAeto.4-207. In discussing the last. 96a 206-320. is known to us in some detail from Ovid.. 6Ia 201-2020." sc. p. ' is the reading of both cod..... But in the earlier passages a cautionary word of advice is given concerning the llndexoVTa: narndy. 49-6S there is an account of the oath (Cope). 01.4.. 5sa 26: "Discourse grounded in specialized knowledge is proper to formal instruction.. Alii." b II-IS ij.... the son of Poseidon..39-4I.9. S. 3... F and corrected A ("more of the rdevant facts are in hand") and of Cope. This topical method of sdeering the pertinent evidence on the subject is the method of the particular topics.. and Freese punctuate with • period after Diomedes.o. Diomedes plays a prominent role in the mad as warrior and man of counsd... The story of Cycnus...g.. In Euripides. Schriften. Kassel..... b IS-19 is.. suitable to. Pindar.2.. Vablen. I2. Iphig. :01-208.8twv b 068~ 14 These are causal clauses. I8a 33-38. partitive genitive with an understood 'rn~ S. b 12. to praising Achilles: e..2..op. conformable to.. at S9a 3-S.iiUov Sec SBa 14 : 2.. makes quite clear in this passage what he intends by "common. it yields material in the arca of the three "T'~VO' "la- . 1319...64-168. Correctly used. the nature o£ Here it modifies an understood TG\ ~"deX07ITa. the difiCrence between facts rdevant to the subject as a topic for ddiberation and those rdevant to the subject itsdf as a discipline. 4. A. . b Ie-II 0<ret' 6' ~'<Epov connected to the subject. k. Each of the instances are truly ol." The point to be kept in mind is that facts about a subject can be rdevant (~dexo>Ta) but so general (HO'Va) as to be of no particular hdp in presenting it. Pausanias. and Freese.. 16b 206-2. sec also Isthm.. questions the existence or influence of a Gorgian encomium on Achilles and bravery.. J) 13 ilp. 'RHETORIC' II b 10 Ix'l). I 32.286 AllISTOTLB.-18 in which nothing is said that contradicts 96b!}-II and what follows...x6~ C£ 9Sh 21.. With this passage at b !}-II one should compare A 20. 96b II-19. It is from this idea that we obtain the more common meanings: proper to.II tells us that Achilles came to Troy bound by no oaths but as a favor to the sons of Atreus.ov XO'Vtl ••• 4.. the second.. 58.81-83. The first is the concern of rhetoric. 410.u. b 26 n"YX0~'" ""Uoy'''p. b 28-34) of what bas been done from A 4 to B 17. for stoicheion and topos is a class into which [.s'..l. or a syllogism refutiog what is asserted or denied (LIsy"". 17Gb 1-3.COMMBNTARY n" for use in either enthymeme or example.. 23-24 shows them to be forms of inference which can be used on a wide variety of subject material in any area of discourse. summaries: 60b 1-1.g..." b 21 "TO'X_"'" . The meaning of "common topic" is fiUrly well explained at 58a 12-17 (omo • . It is announeed at A 2.g. b 24-25 et5'1 &Qo.. As a syllogism enthymeme can function in rhetorical discourse in the same way as syllogism and refutation do in dialectics.'o.". I75a 36if. see Studies. 132n76. 129-35.. repeats the statement made at 58a 29-33.. SE I65a 2-3. and 58a 35. and apart from indirect references to the method in the two books (e. 78a 2710.a). Up to this point A. and is the subject of study in A 4 . a logical interruption since the analysis is about to turn to an entirely new matter: namely.. c£ O]a 25.e. oNTO C£ 01' 17-18.a . a study nf the general ways of iDference and reasoning which apply to all three kinds of rhetoric and their subject matters.g. .dv). d~ . . It seems clear that in b 20-22. has not spoken of kinds of enthymeme. b 22-28) and a recapitulation (e.eo. a . i. 23-26 (e.. Since the particular topics are Jinished..x. From the first two books we know that the enthymeme is the syllogism of rhetorical discourse."dv).. 66b II-I7.). It can be a syllogism proving that something is or is not (d ..U-22. pp. The meaning of aTo'XBia is given in the next sentence. A.1.."". . is • syllogism (SE I7I. believes to be the object of study in these books. d. 8] many enthymemes fall". p.B 17. " .o'Xdov . and what he puts before us here is relatively simple.. a syllogism which reasons to the conclusion ." TW. C£ Studies. On syllogism C£ 55' 8 with references. 58a 29-33.. 91b 24-29 which directly refer to what A..O~ A refutation as explained by A. The explanation of <71'o. the common topics alone remain (c£ 58a 10-26). 77h 16-20. The statement here is picked up at 96b 34lE (IT.. we have passages such as 76a 29-32.at 03' 17£ states: "I call stoicheion and topic the same thing.. concludes to that which contradicts • given conclusion. 5gb 25-32). b 21-22. 2-3) which proves the contradictory of a given thesis. A glance at the common topics in chaps. the many. C£ An. "''"'0. Finally in our own chapter at 96b 28-34 we have what is really a conclusion to the proposal of 58a 32-33 to "speak first of the particular topics. Thus if one had reasoned to the conclusion: it is not most expedient to stop the Persians at Thermopylae. Pr. '. It i.a"ses. ("".Eyto>I'OV I would begin (c£ chapter outline) theJinal section of the chapter here.) afrer an interruption (b 22-34) which serves a double purpose: it is an introduction to what follows in chaps. . ~8. loa 2.0 . tRHETOR. in which .' by A." However.'s treatment of topics in the text. and epideictic.. the honorable or dishonorable. which.)...Q" is to conclude to that which is not admitted by the opponent... And I would say that Cope confuses one more with his interpretation (pp. This..... As A.. Since A." We have here a summation of what has been done in the treatise from A 4 to B 17 (see 96b 20): namdy. 01 . Cope's interpretation. SSb 9..0. p.1 lt29 1""a'rOY"ii>v El6ii>v C£ Studies. as Cope has him doing here. 411145.wol) topics can be and are called TO". of discourse..r~1J) and the general (". that of the general topics (the TOn••).(.~.. 23-26.IV..0... ••..~. civ"y".• e... At ooa 15-22 A. pp.g. was done by the methodology of the particular topics (the er~1J). C£ SBa 36: 1.. is an iA..8•• (the l . On 578 8 : 1."xo~. and so the usefulness of the three ways in which it can be exercised. InA 4 -B 17 we were given ways to devdop statements ("e. the contradictory of what he admits.." •• "eoTaae.. "."B1Jp. ". or in our case an . avo"". j~dicial. . at oob 27-34.d". On A.. p. Kassd.oAoyovl't).. strictly speaking.288 AllISTOTLE.2-23.. The usefulness of rhetoric.1nI .~..... "33. pa U. lap"". d. b 2. with the result that the particular topics from which enthymemes must be drawn on good or evil. A."" .'1. is primarily concerned with the forms of inference.r"'1" b 6) three kind. says at A 3. the study of the particular topics.. "To infer -rei d'J'o. he makes a summation here and thus brings to a conclusion the proposal atA 2.. moral habits which were earlier sdected by us in the same way." i.. Both the particular (. where the reasons arc presented for interpreting this phrase to mean "each of the kinds of rhetoric. is about to turn to the study of another methodology.IC' 11 that it is most expedient to stop etc. when the constituent elements of discourse are taken into account.. s8a 32-35: "eOTBe.. if it is refutation. the just or unjust are on hand. as we will see in chaps. 18b 2-5 he speaks in praise of the refutative enthymeme. are mentioned at 55a zIfE.e.exv•• "ian••) in each of the kinds of rhetoric. .". I know of no comparable instance in which he would speak of TOn•• TOO' Bldw. or. referring to deliberative.rd1J means "specific topics" and TOn•• means "general heads or classes" I find difficult to understand in the light of A. as are the particular topics on types of character.""" C£ Studies..T"aBl~) for M". The other edd. b 29-30 Xp'l.. 96b 34 where we find TO". not the content. and cp. 39-42.. "well then to all intents and purposes the topics on each of the kinds of rhetoric which are useful and necessary are in our possession. """"Y"v Ross. partly exemplifies the idea... The second TO is read by b 28 TO 6l D. Spengd.. r 9. emotions. For propositions concerning each kind have been sdected. Cope... omit it with cod.. 58a 37if.6. b 28-34 "Xclilnl •.r~..'s use of ...' for "particular topics.. there are necessarily (d.... 235-36) of b 34£ (e.Ey><. . has some doubts. p.. "universal topics for enthymemes..0... ••• PlaP8eO' C£ 5!11l 2..arily the larger proposals on general subjects from which one would develop more specific propositions mevant to the particular subject of the discourse.e. b 34 cl>"cN. "A friend is one who is able and inclined to do for the other whatever he thinks to be the other's good. c£ Bonitz.. See 88b 31 : Z. For example.TaW for "dB_ is not unusual for A. p. We find them exemplified from the first chapter of the process (A 4) on to the end at B 17. 554a 56/[ Cope. On Uo.ol. 66a 31 : 4. Certainly there is a sequence in this passage (the concluding section of the chapter)..~. the explanation of Cope. 88b 34 : 1. In general all agree that A. e. Cope (a good tradition has BE dl..pl .£. These "eo~dl1o" would be prim. ~ I.9vl"7Jd~. Z35. and specifically what he calls ~a l1~o. or ~&"o. at A 4 A." Some also give no indication of any difference between "a90lov and "oel cind. On the Use of ciya90ii 11 Ha"o. an analysis by particular topics was done in tho same way as it was done for lOYD. However. This is a confirmation on A.. Cpo the observation at 96a 26.£v This statement is interpreted in varied ways by the commentators and trans1ators.. The sequence ofideas is given in the chapter oudine at III (96b :01- . b 34 . in B I:Ir-17 and "d90.g. lv9vl"f/l"d~_ (96b 21-2:0). Spengel.ia TWv l.. is changing his perspective and is now about to approach the subject from a general viewpoint.. 234 and note.. imports and exports. which is quite reasonable). A 5. l. declares unmistakably what he has done and will do.oy".ul3"'". in the three genres. for I1VfMP1eo.'s part of what has been said in both volumes of this commentary on A. b 33-34 xlll ". some leave this "subject" undefined.poTli.. 66. The use of "a9111"a. national defense. legislation.6"'0' A. in B 2... in their interpretation.£VIIl . The dominant idea in the passage is that of the topics of enthymemes..96b 34 COMMBNTARY b 30 tIl.-II. mentions as relevant subject matter for premisses in argument: ways and means. can say: "consequendy the particular topics from which enthymemes must be drawn on the good or bad. completes the summary by mention of the study of the particular topics for >J90. etc ••• have already been selected and are on hand for our use" (b 31-33).g. It is because he has discussed the question of particular topics in each of the three genres that A. for >JBo" "dBo..w read by all the edd. . however.97ll 1 H. is aeeeptable. These larger proposals are frequendy added to and supplemented with specific propositions... At 7Ba 2B-30 A. ".. inter alia 77b 16 : 1. Lucas on Poetics 1449b 27 agrees with Bonitz.. p. these are well exemplified in the next chapter. Some call it "commonplaces for enthymemes". 23... and it begins at 96b 21. some. war and peace.'s methodology up to B 17. Index. e.. b 31 "'Il<nov C£ 96b 29.~ 96b 30-34 should be compared with 9Ib Zo4-zB." On neo~dl1'" C£ 5Sa IB. Cope's interpretation. comtnuniter atquc in universultl: cuncta scilicet simul genera complectentes: n."'. universally. 58..'). pollicetur enim se communes omnium locos...• wlloy". upon... intends to speak of topics here in a dilferent way.. Therefore I would translate our clause: "But now let us consider topics in another way.. The 'topics of apparent enthymemes are given in chap 24. see Spengel at 98a 3-4. 9'78 2 1tIlPIlCl'llU"VO""". This would imply that the object of Up. considers this word an odd choice for the discussion of chaps. that is.u""T. Cope. 236.. 236..g.""". et qui sine discrimine tribus dicendi generibus accommodentur. T"".." I note that Victorius makes a comment on the passage which I have not seen mentioned anywhere: ""a6cU.d enthymemes (96b 25)..607 .. What..e. nunc traditurum".o. or refutative (1l. "since they ....6.... i. as they are applicable to all three kinds of rhetoric... then. 941£. stamp. Tonov" and clearly the comnJon topics that may be used for all subject matter (e..." •..." If a 2-4 ..CI""". 'RHETORIC' II 9?a 5 9?a 4). 10-17..V. "put one's seal... a 4 066£ crulloy.. p. is TO".. a 5-6 _pI"'.. rpEP€'V discussed in chap 25. p..ou~ .... Mosdy the probative are presented in chap 23.ci ill8v... I would consider the reference to be to b 28-34 and so the reference in ""d7TW7 to be to the three kinds of rhetoric. 31-32)."TO". is strange. it also means to "counterseal..ov... on apparent enthymemes.') or in the sentence immediately preceding (b 28-34: "X.. the function of the topical method (particular or general) is to facilitate rhetorical discourse. Indeed.? It must refer to what is mentioned in the previous sentences (b 23-34: irnw .re not even syllogisms"..ARISTOTLE. is the denotation of "Be! ""d. C£ Studies." Thus we could say: "pointing out definitively. understood.) and useful for the i. 23-24 since it sipes a kind of marginal comment on the material. . pp. They are probative (""06 .. However.. TO".. From there it is clear that A... ....) and therefure useful for the d..el ""d7TW7 .. TO~' sc.aTa (96b 24).. A 2. ". pp.8 IX . the one most subjected to variant readings by the editors. pp. It is a move from a collection of particulars produced by topical analysis (c£ Studks. The Greek text of this chzpter is. c£ oob 38. of all the chzpters in the first two books.!'7b I~ V . 148).. refers it to Ton••. as many think. 96b 23-28...pics are logical principles.!'7b 27 VI-'}8a3 VII . If. meant by "topics" must be derived from his use of them in the Topics and Rhetori& and from what he says about them.B 17.rna ~o III . SEl.'}8a. p.".. are the same. then from the evidence on hand I would be constrained to say that the ".i.rna ~3 IV .. 212. or laws. The change from the particular to the general topics can be viewed in a way as a change from a static to a dynamic phase of topical analysis.".CHAPTER ~3 The only reasonable ourline to which this wpter submits is to locate each of the 28 topics by the note in which each first appears in the following pages.. upon which arguments can be built.98a IS VIII .99& 18 XV XVI XVII XVIII XIX - XXI XXII XXIII XXIV XXV XXVI XXVII XXVIII - xx - 99>:09 99& 33 99b S 99b '4-'S 99b I!r'O 99b 3'-3' ooa6-7 ooa IS ooa 23-27 00& 30-3 I ooa37-bI oob 4-S oob!rIO oob 17 !'7& 7 : I . I . . In fact Roemer's comment appears to reflect their attitude: "there are many things which occasion uneasiness in this most diflicuit discussion of the ".. The subject has been prepared for since chzp. IIS-Jj..99& 10 XIV .l TO"'" of the Rhet.. 2 of the first book. I8b 24). what A.<v.99&6 XIII .l TO""" (p.. II6-20). s8a 1-30.rna7 II .. the topics found in A. c£ Studies.'s T...lV. pp.. l""'" We come now to the general or formal topics in contradistinction to the particular or material topics of A 4 .'}8bw XII .98a30 X . Kassel. is correctly understood to refer to enthymemes which is the way it is used in the treatise (e.g. 126-27) to forms of inference which can employ the particular facts to demonstrate reasonably the validity or invalidity of the subject (c£ Studies.98&33 XI .O"O~. Comments of the last sort are found primarily in the a. it is removed from the dejinitum. which he calls their differentia: (i) contraries. could we assume did Themistius (ca. arguments such as the following can be devdoped from definition (topic 7): whatever is predicated of the definition can be predicated of the definitum. Green-Pederson. too. would be: if something is removed from. and they contain in their very meaning a basic rule which can be formulated in dilferent ways. (v) adjuncts. Theaphrastus (a student of A. e. By way of example. cf. meant by "topic" is not as sure as we might wish. 132). & Brown). then. those argwnents which can be shifted to many situations common topics. this hypothetical form is the way medieval logicians viewed the topics (eE Bird. They also appear in most subsequent works which study the topics and can commonly be found in books concerned with rhetoric.D.t De inv. Interestingly enough. enthymematic in form.'s first 10 topics in the order of their occurrence in our chapter but with their class identification as given by Boethius. p. Mullally. (viii) conjugates. of demonstration) A. So.ARISTOTLE. as we find thern in A. sI!ows the . For example.> well what we find in the common topics in the present chapter. definition.'s Rhetoric. here are A..t A. (ix) division. At SE 170" 20 .'s Topics and Rhetaric and Cicero's Topics..48: "we call. too. and perhaps what Cicero had in mind.. These classifications. while Apsines and Minucianus give us lists of common topics (Rheto. (iii) antecedent-<:onsequent. most of which are consonant with those of our chapter. A number of these classifications are fanUliar from A. (ii) conjugates.I70b I I in speaking of refotation (and so. pp. Admitting that our knowledge of wh.g.. !I8a IS. then B . 320390) whose analysis of the topics (also 28 in number) is found in Book 2 of Boethius' De topicis diffemrtiis. and Boehner.) offers 21 topics. I30-35). 2. From what Alexander of Aphrodisias says. The rule possesses the advantage of being self-evident and therefore offers a potentialIy strOng argument for most people. (iv) comparison. we must still acknowledge that a study of the 28 general topics in the Rhetoric reveals for each of thern an explicit or implicit self-authenticating principle or rule often in the form of antecedent-<:onsequent . IX 522--27. (x) enumeration of parts. Studies. In fact the list of Themistian and Ciceronian topics given by Boethius in Books 2-3 reflects in a somewhat striking manner the general topics as we find them in our present chapter. (vii) definition. Another. A. IRHETORIC' II 9. In fact the ciosest we come to • statement of what a topic is can be found at Rhetoric 03' I7-I9: "1 call • topic and a stoicheion the same thing. Stump. are "sources to go to for arguments" (the accepted meaning of "topic"). using the antecedent-consequent form. Gratei. V 4041f." They are presented in a way which yields • form of inference that is a self-evident general principle. Gal.. 7 Rhetoric.) also appears to subscribe to this understanding of topic (Studies." 'Ihis describe.as in the topic of definition just given (cf. Maximus Planudes (Rhetores Graeci. (vi) similars. for a stoicheion and a topic is • class into which many enthymemcs fall. 604-13). which can be used in an argument..I5.if A. . illustrated time and again in A. 6v"".. Spengd (pp.. Thus if one of the sets ("bad'1 belongs to (. a 9 li.7 does mention a number of ordinarily accepted common topics which are in accord with his explanation of the term at De in. in refuting. namdy. e. S9b 14.:.. See the argoment offered at 87a II-I3. general principles which apply to every art and faculty.a 8 6vllv. moderation..0 l.d~X") dissipation. e. We can thus see how a topic (here contraries) by its very nature contains a principle which make.. 2.. and general logical categories which enable one to refute or demonstrate effectivdy and to do so with strong probability.. See Socrates' refutation of Polus specifically at 475 (Plato. Contrary species have contrary genera. :>.. C£ 87a II-I:>" The point i.. then Y (moderation) is n (good). This fact enables one to use them for a valid refutation or demonstration without the speciali2ed knowledge of the discipline required if one were to do the same within the structure of the particular disciplines.VOpO..39. Cicero. cites Quintilian 5.39.162-40. then Y (moderation) is a species of virtue. On xaTaaxsvdC.'s Topics or by Cicero for various topics at De orat." "TA. (prove).. 289-90) is not overly confident that Cicero's understand- .14. z c£ 93a 9-II on the four kinds of opposites. selfevident. speaks of contraries.. dBi ava&(?oiivTa tnlonai. XClTClcnceuciJ. ~".g...73 uses the same example. In the example at a 10 "moderation" is the Tcpl. if X (dissipation) is a species of vice.""" .2Q-94 as a discussion of these common topics. De part. and they are illustrated at b 10 (olov .ov"E'CI SC.drp ~~"••) of dissipation. it a repository for discovering premisses useful for demonstration or refutation. a II-12 d . (J).a. e. then one denies that moderation is good. and the rule involved is: opposites have opposite qualities. Here A.g. He insists on their importance as self-evident. others.g.a{J. e.16240.IO.. II4b 6-15.. then Y (John does not run) is false.anlrp. To this example (as far as opposites in general go) we could add: to assert one of two rdatives is to assert the other.crllcrOCIt Quintilian 5. Gorgi/U).~&.g. then its opposite C'good") belongs to the opposite (.173 • "'CIV. a II MccrcrlJV'"Kiii C£ 73b 18 : 1. if one finds that "bad" does not bdong to dissipation.anlo.cp iva.47 and which he illustrates at De orat.. exemplifies each kind. then Y (child): To asserr one contradictory as true is to assert the other as false. moderation-dissipation which are signified by ivanlrp.COMMENTARY 293 nature of the topics. orat. 238. p..I'I'.173..g..VCltpo\ivo.. See Top.10.g. 2.. 2. Cope.•••. if X (dissipation) is m (bad). ifx (parent). The reference there to the Topics is the passage in which A.. and good-bad by iva. e.lov Here two sets are in play. if X (John runs) is true. C£ also II9a 32-II9b 4.): e.... Some of the topics therein are obviously common topics. less clearly so. In brief the topics are seen by him as varied.. . reads a suggestion of Nauck's 'PsvM. The author of &: Snell. Polarity. Cicero.85. On the Mysteries 24.II9b 9. nga 36 .30. Thucyd.40..sumes that the essential meaning of the inflected term remains unchanged (e.. 64b 35-37 also illustrates what he means by these inflections.g....y 214. Aeschines. Adespoto 80. O.. 396. ~pa".vd07yoe. 1.. De inv.:.. The rule contained in this topic is: If X inrplies Y.u"" ""'. see also p.. 6..at. Cpo Cicero. A .. On the Embassy 6. on which see 97b 27 : 1). then whatever inrplies X inrplies Y. then just man. c£ Top.6' . 139. yieov. On the Estate oj'Ciron 32. the Confiscation oj the Property 24 (this is Or. "for it is necessary that the inflecta 20-21 oILau. inrplies a man of virtue. Top. Andocides.. XciPlV this passage is unknown. but dlis is an excerpt and so possibly part of a larger whole which influenced the construction.~ •.. . 1240 10-14. 3. 2. Spenge!. a 20 o"". Radermacher. which make good sense. Arguments from contraries he sees as common in the fifth/fourth cennlrie. 1309" 37-39.10... On the Emb..au.•. a 17-19 iUA' .ciPX.rv (tell lies) K.AllISTOTLl!. cpo Pol. 29<l-92. and he cites Aristophanes. . pp.'V ed forms be present or not present in the same way (in the subject)". both of which are forms of argument from contraries. He exemplifies this at once in the example. p.g..48. II6nI8. 6po[0)~) in its varied fonus..lval.. C. Cicero. c£ Nauck &: Snell.. Frogs 1443-1450.." The opposition (c£ 9']a 8) is between untruthful statements (which are believable) and truthful ones (which are not believable). frg. Attributed to the Thyestts of Euripides by the scholiast Anonymus.92. Antiphon. considers the idea of opposition in Greek thought. 15-171. e. Isocrates.'. see Der Text. with olpal . D . if justice (X) inrplies virtue (Y). He sees a Stoic influence. Prosecutionfor Pown- a 13-16 d .• ILiJ 6". I'm not at all as certain of the difference in understanding and would take a stronger stand in favor of Cicero than I took in Studies.sel alone of the edd..46. Lloyd. a 15-16 .167. p. To these can be added Dem. jusdy done. xviii. In D~{ense oj Malltitheus 11.. cpo cob 17 : 2.v C£ 64b 34-37 where there is also mention of coordinates (atlaTolxa). as is clear from A. mentions a number of other instances from Lysias. for the reasons. 29:> on the second topic at 9']a 20. notes that some of the common topics were in use prior to A.. an act of virtue.s a conjecture for . cieation at times of the authors of his examples. For 'P. The infinitive is • problem.p .. 'RHETORIC' II ing of the topics comes from A.12 and cpo Quintilian 5. It is cited in Nauck ing II-I:>. pp. Isaeus.. XciPlV "Neither need one be grateful to anyone if under duress he does a good deed... 0/1 the Peace 19. see 88b 7.. ~~a C£ Radermacher.dlOv "to say that the just is not good in every respect.ua. so. father/son. The te.g. At a 27 . if X entails Y.·" On c!yaBcII. i. to act/to be acted upon. pp. he brackets b 7-II ["al oj ••• cbroBdvoVTa] while reading at b 7 "a! oCo. with these exceptions: at a 25 Ross conjectures el <TO> "sA'." 43£) by the fact that Dionysiu... on the rdation between draB&.. dl""l). In corrdative terms one term necessarily includes (cf. . at b 3 'AAHfJi.. The changes are occasioned in part (e.• Thurot. however. Cope. goes on to make some valid distinctions on uses of the corrdatives (act/be acted upon) which are paralogism..: "fur 'jusdy' would in fact be 'beneficially.. previous examples) or excludes (e.• what "good" signifies cannot be predicated of all the in8. 92a \rIl). nb 24-31 (and cf. 297.licam. to be put to death jusdy i.g. !/2ob 3-5. then B (B~ietp 2) experiences an honorable or just action from A.. for which see 661> 29. But it is far better (and so more desirable) to be put to death 1lI1iusdy for it shows that one is innocent since only criminals are put to death jusdy. • r"l TO ayaBo.5I... the statement is beyond cavil.8lv.." is being used. second paragraph.97b I I bdow. term. and 97'l 29 . IS.97" 23 COMMENTARY a 21 a .u..." There are two points calling for comment here. B... = that which is good (here: an act which is beneficial). Thus in the text here: if it is a fact that (1l"dex". .. that aleoTa."emplifying fJ~ tlndex..al.dy happens bene6cially and should always be desired.. a 23 0. A 6.." Here A. of H.ius' alterations as W1fortunate.b I I. call." ie. lessor/lessee. as A. The .. an instance in which "good" cannot be predicated of an inHection of 'Just. a 23-24 E\ ••• ". as was remarked in 66b 29. and a/eSTOP cf.. C. corrdative terms. and Spengel..g. Where relevant. oj. demonstrates the general rule by ..as. iJ"IfJouB.c. which are reciprocal in their relation: master/ servant..<t between 97"23 and 97b I I isread by the edd.. the changes will be noted..V) A (B~' etpl) does an honorable or just act to B." As Victorius says: those who argue that everything that is just is good can be refuted by stating that if this i. A. aefJOTTT/.... e.. Ii_Bav. V 404) and Minucianus (IX.ected instances of 'just. &.. in the first Lener to Ammaeus XII (747748) cites our text from 97a 23 to 97b 7 (. In this topic we are working with what A.e. a 22 : 1 xal ..~ . Expressed as it is in this translation.. The rule for this topic can be: relative opposites demand each other."presses a concept in which the rdation to the other is the dominant idea.. to posit X is to posit Y. (used to convey the idea).xau.. C£ 92a 32 -!/20b 3.econd i. 245-46. views Diony.". The first is the way d".. 611) give this topic. liy.llAo. . p.. not desirable. vice-virrue) the other.. Plalludes (Rhetores Graeei. [II]. i.e. buy/sell.iv " . Kassel at 97b 2 reads d. then whatever occurs ju. A relative term e.. says in Cat.. z Wv. "Observations critique.. questions the text he was using. g." a 25-27 otov ... S' tv .'I"tv... Radermacher (918 23) reads with Dionysiw Ka.ij .. Cicero.. On Style 94) and may simply indicate development in the language: "for example.. Cope and Freese read after no.. 5. as. e.aU""...at. in contrast to the statement above (0£ ~ 23-24).I3. De i.47). De inv.30.10.80·". he also contends that this kind of f..fjaav'E'~ : :seai d 'E'q.. cr....)..26.c.ClV. Orestes 538-539 (0£ 546-547.25. it is possible that a person.w. but it is an expression that appears elsewhere in A. Further evidence of the stock character of the argument is found at Ad Herenn..O.18-19: "a very common example. On RossJs conjecture. takes note of the possibility of f." Diomedon is unknown.. o£ ~ 23. The argument is also found in Euripides. I. . Cope. Other factors call for consideration." At this point A. 16.sva.. no.. 1. as is indicated in Ad Herenn. 1.26. d'l.. "and if 'well' or 'justly' is predicable of a 27-28 " .oil In other words.. and in later Greek (e." a 29-30 El ya..142 (as Schrader notes) exemplifies the topic in an argument for the study of good speaking ("cur aut discere torp. The reading of the edd..78).. 4'." etc. our instance of Alcmaeon (97b 3IE) from the play of that name by n. a 28-29 l .13. rae . ~aL -rep "£110. the one acted upon... if one had the right to. experienced justice (d". 15..O.. Drat.al .p . and correctly conveys the idea behind the correlatives: the polver to command entails somer.. and Cicero."..eodectes..Ise reasoning was common to Sophistic rhetoric.c.. and cpo Electra 1238-1"48. 1.ne's: obligation to execute the command (n:sn:o'1J"..alb 2. e. 1. mentioning in place of Diomedon the Rhodians and a Hermocreon (De inv. ':'v£i. The ground for the paralogism is an assumed (but mistaken) correlation between the temlS.17.) is read in the same way by the edd." nOLfjaa.l . Cope remarks the pleonasm in olo.. Cicero citeS our example. SSI-563.. and QuintiIian repeats it (Inst.fjaav'n.specifically as we are told at 97b co. 10.Ise reasoning in this topic.g... 'RHETORIC' II 9~ 29 a 25 ". The text at a 27-28 (.al.g.d .. est quod scite honestum est aut quod nosse pulcherrimum est id non gloriosum est docere"). (also 97h 27)....16.). this is paralleled by the argument in the Orestes ofTheodecte cited atola35. Spongel.18-19 .. Certainly it is not an uncommon form of argument in drama.....0.a. '"'dex" which emerges in the English translations as: "if it is right to. Eumeniaes 566-673 we have the issue set before us. Demetrius.B.• a 29-30 (el aov).. o£ 66b 29.) at the hands of A... sc. but it does not follow that A did a just deed (d ...".. In Aeschylus. . TO.".8A. orat.A1USTOTLB. a.. "0'>1aa. then it is predicable of the one acting. and Spongel.1 ct . What is being compared here is the COIrelation between command/obey and seUJbuy. . what follows? Or .pl Kassel.g.. b 3-"7 fL1l . 99b 13 which is rather suasive... Thus amla{Jona . XTa••i.97b 2: a. was the judgment on Demosthenes and the others made correctly (a".V€rV C£ Nauck & Snell. ae.. .. he was cured by Phegens.97b 6 (. a pupil of plato and with Alexander the Great a student of Aristotle see OCD. Cope. there can be no argument.P.uch a consensus I hesitate to disagree. If not. 9€o6obc.II belong where they are as further instances of statements based all correlatives which are open to question: e. but not at my bands) and the whole citation exemplifies 97a 30 . PW. b 7 : 1 " ...ik. he was a successful tragic poet as well as a competent orator and writer on rhetoric (e. 244-45.e.". critiques [II].." 4344.'s which belongs with 97a 23-28 (&llo. as in the examples given from 97b 2 on.g. king ofPsophis in Arcadia.1 . pp..at. I am inclined to think that 97b 7. in general agrees on the misplacement of 97b 7-II as does Thurot. "in whichever of the two ways is applicable": if the terms are truly correlative.OTT7/. it is necessary to examine statements grounded in correlative terms." Alemeon.". Theodectes. Driven mad by the Eriny. •. . The argument is !hzt 97b 7-II is quite in accord with 97a 23-28 but not with 97a 29 .€ .. if they are not. who gave him his daughter Alphesiboea (Arsino... The infinitive is clearly dependent on 97b 2 xpijaO . . ""OT4!.ae . . Cope read with Dionysius and a good text tradition: "al oCovlj.)..)..."aav ano"Teiva...6P . .. 379-85 in Nauck & Snell for the fragments of Euripides' plays on Alemeon.." 'xetO.• iiv cl:PfLO"'"<!J aei... A/emeon 2. c£ pp. (where the distinction is given: they decided that she die. Clearly what are cited from Theodectes are not consecutive lines but those relevant to the point A.. He also points to a similar usage at 76b 28.>1aavT. If there is not. "for occasionally there is disagreement b 2-3 ivlo.) as Spengel thought ("Ueber die Rheto.. "O..) in marriage. as A. . is making.. IOb 3). indicates..OTT7I with a good tradition and Dionysius. is that it lends itself to false reasoning and so. On Theodectes. 82.C. i.i.." 498-501). . Faced with . 19. Kassel also secludes b 7-II (c£ 972 23) as an addition of A... But the nature of this topic. this and nothing prevents (one from stating) as in the A/emeon of Theodectes. ··.i. "Observation.& .o".. 375-334 B.. " . Kassel alone reads &v ae.. aile ean show the fallacy in the argument.l"/J ". The play by Theodecres (ca..on of Amphiarans and Eriphyle.COMMENTARY 297 1 whether there is a true correlation in the terms.ou in a case such a. one can make the argument.-q "Tav. avenged his father's death on his mother.) appears from the citation to refer to the period in Arcadia. as he says.. (one must examine the question by distinguishing) is explained by nI. O~~ "~:'1"tov TV"T.. b IO : J xu.l<a• 6n eI TO ~TTOV tlncleI71 ZBl "al TO plill.trikes hi. de'<a. &'. then the more likely is.1 tlnaez.." On ai"a. tlncleZBI]' TOV. .] and Kassel b I6-I7' ["a6' .eo. T. "al Td. iT. Hellenic. 1'. na'"ea..".> dBrJ . which would make ... b 9 . "Further the argument that the one who .ARISTOTLE. " "'I oifr.... pp. although Dionysius (c£ 9']3.. I will follow Kassel's text and lineation: "e IS Td 6' 8n .eo• .1.." 44-46 on the text.o. pos. <"aB'> 11' d"o.pl ..•• N. <11..LC'cr8£vouS . II-IS...ibly has in mind. 504-505..... 2 <loS ••• /Iv S.B. rJi ~TTO' . piUAo. neighbors. . 2086d: "on the ground that it was not wrong. 7.j"deXBI ... (which follows) from the principle that if the less likely is.. This event occurring ca. 8. p~ tl""ez'" . Hammond.j"cleX"' ["aB' I7 d"o.. ~'."...6' 0. 23) thought that it was and that the reference was to the defense of Ctesiphon against Aeschines in Demosthenes' Crown speech... to be a dittography.. Con'equendy I print the text I am following. . oli. Ii' <11. as does Tovar in effect.ue •.j"cleZ'" "al Td plillo.e who killed him did so jusdy? 2 A'Il. '/I sI rJi plillo. S.o~. along with a translation.C..o8czvEiv "(The accused man) bid that a judgment be made whether the man killed was righdy put to death.1 Td ~. Neither seclusion changes the meaning in any substantial manner..v• .xcivopcz This doe... a"<a. tlndez••).3..eo...o8civOVTOS Xenophon. c£ Thurot. 366 B..el is that Roemer secludes b IS-I7 [nm.I-I2 narrates the story of Euphron put to death at Thebes by Sicyonian exiles....mO"T. "d. The major change from Roemer introduced by Kas.uch a reference highly questionable since we know of no Nicanor with whom Demosthenes was or could have been so involved. d.T. dBrJ d. for men strike their fathers less than they strike their neighbors. not appear to be the orator Demosthenes. . In the critical editions we find that Dufour reads exacdy as Roemer. "Observations critiques (11)... '/I nl.... with many variants from b r6 through the next five lines caused by what appear.trikes his father ..ca 7.." b I2 : 1 oiU0S This fori topic is read by the edd. .v. 2.> tlndezo. Victorius suggests a' a remote possibility someone like the fifth-century general Demosthenes..dy killed that tho...44-46. but we know of no Nicanor at that time either... . 'RHETORIC J II 298 97b 12 does it readily follow from the fact that the man at Thebes was ju. during the Theban hegemony is the one which A. Roemer in his apparatus offers the readings found in the two main text JIaditions.6' 8. .••. Cpo Helle.. 16 l" TOV.m. with minor conjectures and variants Ross is in basic agreement. I982... ~TTO' TV"TOV"....ae "aTiea.". Dionysius apparendy did not have in his text the words xal T.• 4 ."aiov.. where Theon calls it comparison of the greater. in what is a common inferential form for these topics. b 15-172 "'0 S' .23.. The argument afo. We find the topic in one form or another in the Rhetores Gram: at I 225. Planudes talks of the more and the less (V 404) and Apsines mentions ouly the argument from the less (IX 522). Ross alone of the edd. p. AU these are noted by Spengel. or. A. C..ii). "oU~ nA'lcrlov C£ the text printed at lI7b 12 : 1 for comments on b 15-1'1'. I2S." The secluded Greek is not translated. is saying (as Victorius. (the argument proceeds) according to whichever of the two positions one must demonstrate: either that something is or is not. for example. S. (then the more likely exists). the references are from Spenge!. A.oG1. "lC. The argument runs from the evidence of the less likely to the strong possibility ..) is given by A... ad maius and so the other side of the coin seen at b 13-14.. ~TTOV) in quotation marks.U. c£ 9'7ll 7 : 1: if so and '0. Boethiw. Our present topic forms the substance of A 7. (then the less likely does not).. Andocides (ca.IvOe""o. This topic in the example which follows immediately (olov .•. p. remarked) that to strike one's father is a less likely action than to strike a neighbor. calls the statement here fidse. c£ LS. then ..lI5a 24. lesser. Further the logical ground which validares the form in this instance is offered in the next sentence: TOVTO ••• <l> ~TTOV.tiori (whether it be from greater or from lesser) works from the principle: every greater contains a lesser. see also Cicero..o). 4. 29S. "Ill fj'<'<OV C£ Radermacher. if that which less naturally would exi. is to say that [cpo TOVTAC1T' in later usage] if something is not present where [literally: to whicll] it should more likely be present..IO. Vater. C£ 92" 13 : 1 for other references to this kind of a fortiori argument. Victoriw comments that as an argument this topic is a common one among the Athenians and cites Plato Phaetirus 6sb. . Antidosis 166.. Against Conon 23 (I264). b 13 b '3-14 ". Plataicus S2.S6--93..II9Ia). '" fj .ij "much less so". stating that it is not an argument a minor. equal (cp. B. II4b 37 . 360-292).. On the Murder of Eratosthenes 31.172. thw if one is guilty of such action. Against Demosthenes 4I-4S." From b I2 on. De topids differentiis II90C . Demosthenes.). On the topic in general c£ Top. 2.). Lysias.. 52. De orat. Z ".COMMENTARY 299 Or you may argue as follows: if that which would more naturally exist does not exist. . p.40.. 44D-390) Against Aldbiades IS (wrongly attributed to ADdoc. 406..However..t does exist. Top.o . one is more likely to have struck one's neighbor. encloses statements such as this (el . Isocrates.. wed the argument at 92a I3-IS."" ToVTO ••• lC1TW: "for this . then obviously it is not present where it should less likely be. In support of his observation we might note Deinarchw (ca.2. all three are also mentioned in Minucianw (IX 60S).. Quintilian S. and also their cousins. Bsa 9 : 2)..." All . &om the instance of Hector.1 . Tovar print the quotation marks. and some (c£ Cope. (..oiiYT.aO'> ""oneo. b 25 e. 36 and c£ Polycratcs in Baiter & Sauppe.) in which the two sons of Thestiu. Top. the killing of Achilles by Paris is defended.". by Spenge!. 'RHETORIC' II of the more likely.. Similarly. Castor and Pollux (brothers of Helen).choliast Stcphanus thinks "that our lines are those spoken by Oeneus to Althaea as she grieves for her father (Thestius) in his loss..""""". 'BU. who was the wife ofOeneus.: "are defeated.. el . b 17 CI8 k-. daughters of Leucippus. Helen 18-20) who carried off Helen as a youog girl (plutarch.. p. So it is that the . A.. Introduced here and exemplified in b 1'J-27 is the • pari argument. Kassel. b "3-24 xed d . the brother of Althaea.. &i1J <d. p.. 792). .'.. Erg. II4b 25-36..174 <ciy> . of my son. Diodarns Siculus 4-34. p. YOvov Cf. 8SS) consider our citation and that at 97" 13ff. Tovar. ..'s citation follows another (e. all are. The author is unknown although some suggest that it is Antiphon (on whom see "b IS. 300) read only by Kassel. II 223.. . 248. cpo Top.• xcletv) to collie &om the same play. "ai8a. Theseus 31). cpo 98a 22. Nauck & Snell. who caxricd off Aethra.> Mn at I'fA. b I'f . 0n the grounds that among equals if one is guilty (or not guilty). AJespota 81. Kassel also conjectures < . b I'J-2O xcii "O~ . 'Al. Amidosis 2O'J-2I4 mentioned "condemned to death". to be pitied for his son. 'I'Ll-aoorpo. a conjecture of Spengel's (p.. and &om that of the Dioscuri. and also b 21-23 Ariadne from Crete. Nauck & Snell.. These examples may come &om an encomiam called the AlexanJros. OIb 21.1-6 tells the story.. and then. .>.' Cpo !soer. Meleager?'" Stcphanus follows one account. xed BT' •. are killed. Cope alone reads 7jTTOi. am I not to be much pitied for the los.a. • minori. the innocence of Paris is argued &om the like instance of Theseus (lsoer.i. except Spengel. lIsa 6-8 expresses the topic as here: first. • maio. At 99b 25 we have a reference to the Meleager of Antiphon (c£ Naua & Snell. Phoebe and HiIaera. Ocneus asks her •If your father i. ..g.300 ARISTOTLE." b ::16-"7 "d .. Most of the translations interpret 60<'1' as "rep~tation"..• ijnov At b 18 we return to the ordinaty lineation found with slight variation in Roemer.6po~ a pari arguments in defense of Paris and his abdllCtion of Helen and his killing of Achilles. 13. In fact we know that an Oeneus was the father of Meleager and that Meleager killed Plexippus ("b IS). < 4.y . first Letter to Ammdeus XI (739-740) cites our p . W. On the Olive Stump 27. Isocrates. Spengd.98.ge 97b 27 . In the life of Ly. On the Estate of Astyphilus 14-15.hould they dD so now? See also: Demosthenes. when they were angered at collaborators why . Ag...nd Radermacher. 303. it is argued (1']-19) that if the Athenians did nDt confiscate the property in 403 B. C. "xo". On time as a topic. 01.8-9 (if we had acted in the past.55. IIlb 24-31 enlarges the topic time to past. Top.d an "argument. who uses an example quite the ""xBte'1P" by which he same as that of Iphicrates and calls it • means." there is no direct connectiDn with Dur ch. with • few minor variants. From Aeschines. Leplin. In such an inst:mce.. Thucydides 3. qualified (and so time is an . etesiphon 243. The fifth topic is an argument from the adjunct of past time as an associated accident of an object or event. For example in the peroration. and the fact th. act nDw). cbto).sented her. they make clear that.C. Ag..6. most ofhis comment is more directly concerned with circumstances in their tempDrai rdation to an event.umed rdatiDn between past time and the obj. Rhetores Graed. cites Hermogenes (Rhetores Gram. Ag.." Either is possible since we have no idea of the context of the statement. 3 'I<pucpci""l~ C£ lisa 25-2. IX 525.een in the examples offered by A. 1. present. who also identifi.... The topic is a fairly common form of argument and i. 3 oIov':'~ C£ 9'78 25-27. found freqqently among the Greek. 836d in the Lives of the Ten Attic Orlllor.. Spengd.. we knDW that the general Iphicrates was honored with • statu. III 132-35). In fact. found in the corpus ofLysias (0£ <)7a 13-16) as Or. In fact. Lysias..42-44.COMMENTARY 301 it could also mean "opinion. Dionysius in hi. xviii. Quintilian. ifx is true at t{I) in the past. "Aa.ccident of the thing) or nDt qualified by time.s the topic as "past time"). On the Team of Horses 12-15. wDuld nDt have this situation.n event can b. Isaeus. ... therefor.omewhat remDte to the topic as pr. "hypothetical argument.1-4.ct X). Among other things. then it is also true at t{z). 84.ia. where a necessary conjunction Df time and the truth of the object X in the past is taken as the ground fDr the truth of X at the later time. .'" b 27 : 1 IilAO~ •.o"l~: "in the defens. p. Ag. 250.. 2.. p. 304. by A. the object X when qualified by past time is taken as though possessing that which makes it trUe in itsd£ This can be . briefly discusses time as • topic. o£ oob 17. time is viewed as an integral part of a larger whole which includes the object (X) argued for... p.pter.. see Cope.49.g. lv -rti sci. also mentions other instances . AnJrolion 6-7 (challenges the . The argument has its force in an accepted inevitable relation between the accident of time and the object.. future time. 5010. e." Apart from the similarity to an example used by A. as does 1I5b II-35. an event most prDbably referred to by Demostbenes. uplines 84-86 (this is mentioned by Apsines.t it is calI. while clearly indicating that there was a speech called "On the Statue. dl>111011'. is read only by Ross. 92r94h 30 p." A.. and somewhat indirectly in Aeschines. The present infinitive.06v"'OS when you receive it. xviii). VI 51£) against a Spartan hoplite force. However. a town on the direct route to Thebes and Athens.. you would have allowed him to pass through into Attica even before he ever gave you any help. omits the quotation marks: ". cf. • "'ply •. As the first direct help offered ro Thebes against Phocis. Athens also sent an embassy.. . He came inro Greece by way of the pass at Thermopylae and at the time the Thebans would not have stopped his march on Athens if he had asked pennission to pass through. VI 256-60. he sent ambassadors to Thebes whose help or neutrality he wanted against the threat of Athens...24-7. we are told that Lysias wrote two speeches for Iphicrates.. he gives his reasons in Der Text. for which there is a good manuscript witness and which is also found in Dionysius.... cf. 'RHBTOlllC' II 98a I (found in the Moralia of Plutarch to whom the Lives are wrongly attributed). cf. I2 of his L ysi.. n?w that .. In 390 B.2H213. II 178 (Or. The construction is an articular infinitive: "in respect ro the Thebans allowing Philip ro pass through into Attica they (philip's envoys) argued that . mentions that he saw a statue of Iphicrates on the acropolis in Athens. who succeeded in winning the alliance of the Thebans. Altiea 1. pp.. VI 233-43." "When you expect something . ~"'x'is Ross alone of the edd... following the reading found in Dionysius. Baiter & Sauppe. cpo 8TI. On the Crown I46.udjy For the history see next note.. After his retirement in 372/371.. Pausanias..ei7al.. Iphicrates received the honor of a statue for his success at Lechaeum (CAB. this is the event referred to in these words. The argument of Philip's envoys as given ro us here is: Had Philip asked in 346. he brought up the question of his statue not yet received and presumably gave this speech. h 29!P' Kassel alone secludes this. CAB.i .302 ARISTOTLE. as Dionysius tells us. led by Demosthenes. in chap. b 28. But Dionysius of Hali=nassus. 179. and end the war.C.. Philip reduced Phocis and returned home.. 4f. denies that the speech is by Lysias.. In 346 after the Peace of philocrates Philip decided ro give the help. h 3 I &"£0". 36. There are references ro this need for Theban cooperation in Demosthenes.S··· ".. obviously considers the speech that of Iphicrates.".. Ctesiphon 151. Kassel in place of the more common aorist: d. one of which was against Harmodius. In 339 Philip was back in Greece at the invitation of some Greek states to help in the Amphissean War.. move against Phocis.ro"". frg. 98a I : J ' A. Establishing himself at Elateo." In 347 Thebes (an enemy of Athens) and Thessaly asked the help of Philip against the phocians in the Sacred War (356/355346). CAB. " with the reton: "If you were my wife. I'd drink it. e. it would be unparalleled to deny him passage through. and 27. it can be used in any kind of Idisoourse. 6.' tolerates two meanings and each has its adherents.. with the explanation (a 8-12) in mind interprets it as character ("the character of the speaker makes a difference").25)." 72.-73). however. And so we do not really know whether we are to understand the topic as it is given at a 3. they do not appear so limited. neither offers a reason.98a 4 COMMBNTAllY 303 he has given you substantial help.). 252. In the first place there is nothing exceptional in the topic as presented by A. and thrown away any advantage ("'100''''0) he had in that regard. we do not know the example (or examples) from the Teucer and whether it is different in character and tone from or the same as that of Iphicrates. Spengel.. to judicial. It can mean: this turn of speech "is excdlent" or "differs.. &. This topic 6 is one of those which Spenge! (pp. Cope read atr..g. 23. as A.and this. that it should be called an "excellent" topic . On examination. accepts our present topic as usefuI in deliberative and judicial rhetoric. 306. .." To which Alexander replied: "Were· I Parmenio I would too. d"c\v'rez statements made against oneself upon the one who made them. with the oodd. and we find Euthyphro lIb 8 .lId 2 exemplifying the figure when Butbyphro gently turns back on Socrates a charge he had made against him." Many instances are quite ordinary. or in tbe limited way ill which A." SeoondIy. In fact. with Bywater ("Aristotelia III. 20. I am inclined toward the seoond. as does Brandis. which is the way retort is ordinarily understood. p. and placed his trust in you. 401) and as guilty. 19. explains the topic in a 3-4. p. p. ov. 25..54). tojudicial and deliberative.. Diodorus Siculus (17. plutarch (Life of Alex. though there are excellent examples of it like the well-known "If you were my husband. contingent as it is on what is said and the ingenuity of the respondent in turning the statement. on hearing Darius' peace terms Parmenio said: "Were I Alexander. But Cope. he sees topic 6 as applicable to judicial. would restrict topic 6 to rhetoric. as the reply of Alexander the Great to Parrnenio cited by Arrian (Anabasis 2. and Cope. I'd poison your oolf. 'rpo"o~ I would take "'eo"o~ as "this tum of speech.." Spengel. for example. The explanation would restrict the topic to use against one who accuses you of wrong and who is looked upon as morally inferior (as Victorius saw.ezrpoipEt. "another topic oomes from (turning) the a 3-4 a>J.nder 29). a 4 6. p. 28889) on the basis of 97a I argues does not belong among the topics since it is not oommon to all three kinds of rhetoric. but since I'm Alexander I shall send another answer." I do not know that either one can claim to be the only oorrect interpretation.atpte." aiTrov is read by the edd. explains it at a 8-14 (60' ..o~ . For example. As a common topic it is quite straightforward.. I'd gladly accept. 468 B. Spengel. played a prominent part in the two Persian W m.. It. In fact. and was a paramount factor in the formation of Athens' first Delian Confederacy shordy after the wars.. read without the conjecture. Aristides. On Aristophon see PW.ca. understanding of retort. recoDSt:ruCts the possible retort in that play.. TEllxP'I" <I> This is the reading and the punctuation ofthree edd. A.656-657 (Dindor£. Cope. and Cope.." Tovar. see Pearson.man in Athens in mid-fourth century after the fall of Callistratus in 361.. 49." .0'Pc. the one who makes the original charge...6vTa with Bywater..ARISTOTLE. It apparendy concerns a charge of betrayal.. however. too. as does Cope... 520 ." 73) read by all the edd." the kind used by Iphicrates (with rJ> referring to TeO"O~). PW...• T".C.xpci"'1t. Kassel also reads with Shilleto dv ..21 who gives the story of the baede and the accusation. is mentioned by Dionysius as not being written by Lysias (c£ 97b 27 : 3). a 10 . Kassel conjectures 01."erp.. and have an acceptable.. Kassel of the edd.t.. a 7-8 "crQ ••• 'I<p...d&'1" known to the Greeks and to history as "the Just. he became a leading states. wbo makes reference to both the Hamwdius and Aristophon speeches.. r". c£ also the comment ofQuintilian. which would explain some of my problems mentioned in the previous note. Cope) is a conjecture of Bywater's ("Aristotelia III... c£ CAR." quotation marks.. one can take the first meaning of d. All the edd."erp <"al> rJ> which appeared in an early edition of the Rhetoric. 'RHETORIC' II a 4-5 orov ••... CAlI..u... As was remarked." a 9 'Ap. I would accept this conjecture. Ross pl~ces olov . T". p. 252. save Roemer punctuate with a 8 bcEillov i. ruo~ (for the codd. indicates that there are varied kinds of retort. IV and V passim.' A." He lived ca... c!lld which is read by Spengel.nAOt.9-IO.. c. C£ OCD. 357-355 B.. It is commonly thought that the Teuc. for lJ. e. P2. a 5 'I'I"xpci'"l~.II. The present speech was Dlost likely given when Chares (76& 10 : 2) supported by Aristophon wrongly attacked lphicrates for treachery as a fleet commander in the Social War. plutarch has a life of him.."". Or. Bom before the Peloponnesian War (431-404) and. is the play of Sophocles. . assumes here as at 97b 27 that the speech is that of Iphicrates as does Aristides.p ..e.g. II 215-16. VI 2II and Diodorus Siculus 16. & I understand the conjecture A.. if restricted.. after el. This is a second speech of Iphicrates. use quotation marks. 97b 27 : 3. a 6 "et.. Aristophon in the example: "it is necessary that the opponent be one who would be thought more likely to do wrong. II 518-19).living well into the fourth century.. On the first.. av £i"••.uri . ..atpiee. the kind found in the Teuc... t defined and then conclwions were drawn from the definition. 10']8b 27-29. . remarks that there were two significant contributions made by Socrates to philosophical thinking becawe of the way in which he used both. cpo De part.6zb 9) and "aM. pp." "the lIS!' of this figure is ridiculow .. 9) among others.g." i. It is mentioned in R1retores Gram. Quintilian j.e. 402.la.32 explains definition.. definition is open to a number of formulations such as we saw in 9'7Il 7 : 1.choliast Anonymus. 12-14 of our second book the analysis devdops a series of qualities usefuJ for a good descriptive definition ofthe characters of the young. which is explained by Cope.o"o~ person who follows: "for one is ridiculous when one criticizes. for example.ISSb 8). p. a 1S-17 &11'". Our reading would be interpreted: "if someone should make this kind of statement to Aristide. one could say that this places the problem of tlaimon.. "'edypcrra). Cope.. and in chaps. Met."'''" .. V 4OS. z hi is read by all the odd... In the first book we have definitions and deductions therefrom for aya8&. 6..p.. could readily agree. 27G-271.: and others understand reM... Euehyphro etc. mentions as examples of definition [socrates. 6(139) 24 . T.17.). 2S4lf.S4-64 explains the topic together with a number of dements which can invalidate it if neglected. Spenge!. Simon 41-43.•. orot. has argued many times from definition in the present book.. In general. and C£ 6za 21 . De in". 2. 2S4. for the manwcript reading dsl found in cod. p.pO.." Cope. eivll' This is repeated in more detail at r 18. Cope. Apol. a IS 6pu.. 2S3. Cicero. was fir. C£ LS..oG A. Spengd. As wed here and in the Apology. Antid. all based on the fact that the definition and tle}initum are convertible. They were definition and inductive reasoning. Anyone acquainted with Socratic dialogues such as the Lathes. As a topic.41. Each of the emotions. (chap.". and the question is identified as that of Socrates to Mdetus who bad accused him of atheism. e.. a II-I2 (8Am. the verb. A and accepted by the . III "pretends to be.•• is apparendy the adjective and denotes either the result of divine activity (ler ••. old.26-7.IO.. and refer this to the a 13 a-. or that which bdongs to a aa/pow and sperifically a god (806. a prosecutor with reference to his lack of credibility as a prosecutor. (chap. Lysis. I9a 8-12. engages in an extended study of definition in Top. a I would agree with Victoriw. 27b-e. distinguishing it from enumeration of parts and analysis. xa'tT/roeotJ): dlC accuser's pretension to moral superiority.. p. A..S3-S6. A. Lysias Ag." a I I (3cNA.. discusses 12 : 1 "rOU".. da. S.. and mature person. . p. 308. 12..Ud of the codd. s...98a IS COMMENTARY 30S Ross secludes 11•• The standard English versions translate the reading a. o~.~ . chap. citation from Iphicrates may well be from his speech against Harmodius.. 'RHETORIC' [I 98a 22 a.el< . 2SS. Cpo 60b 30 : 1. ...ome of the evidence for the latter view. 9sa 2S-26..."v idea "defined": & "dap. 330-32) and remarks at p. non-licentious man. p. da'pd••op. Y8.. 1eYo.1s I87b.. Baiter & Sauppe. 13..o~ (Victorius interprets it as "temperate"). In the present passage (assuming such an attack) Iphicrates responds to the charge by giving as a definition of nobility of birth (YBPpa"lT'1~) nobility in one's actions.D~ 31.tock (y.. cf. 180: "Daimon does not designate a specific class of divine beings. EtV'" Cope reads a different text and punctuation at b IS-I6: olop 6..cI. cf.d.dT77~) as he won by his actions.. with the . Do they represent for the Greeks a kind of divine action. the tenor of his comments here on the quality of true nobility is very much in accord with the other comments attributed to "Iphicrates" atA 7.e was: "My line begin. 21 (in the Bernardakis edition) where we are told (as in Sayillgs) that Iphicrates' respon.. Burkert discusses daimon (cf.. In terms of the argument as given in 98a 17-22: if actions define nobility of stock. pp. 27d I: 8.oT77" iJPe". my actions more than your. <with me. yours end.u.PS.imon..:.g. with you. a 17-22 K. who claimed the hero as his ancestor.. Altogether four "defmitions" are exemplified. On Nobility....~ .306 ARISTOTLB.l .. Harmodius: Lysias XVIII... II 223 frg.pa. gives .." ana The statement at 90b 22-31 is relevant." Ro.ol? Cope. This he asserts is true ofhirn and makes him more the kinsman of the heroes Harmodius and Aristogeiton (cf.. a 20 cruyyEV .. Victorius. Cpo 97b 21-23.s alone places this within quotation marks. cf.. a 16-17 Cip' . 403. p. and 9... which also incidentally tell us in effect ill that we know about the accuser. 6sa 28-29.. but a peculiar mode of activity..wp "aida~) lower than the gods but cilled 8. Plutarch. 67b 18.. are like the actions of your noble ancestor and confer on me that same nobility of .36 (see 97b 27 : 3). 90b 22a 18 yEW .. or a class of divine beings (e. 98a S. ""o). c11arged with licentiousness because of his actions concerning Helen. This explanation of Iphicrates' remark is most likely in the light of the following references to it. is: one satisfied.. o "dap.. This is an example based on the third a 22-23 K . fairly accurately. Sayings of Kings Gerul.<i" Thi. suggests that Paris.-Plutarch. 90b 16. Apol. 97b 27 : 3. Certainly all of them would be appropriate responses to an attack on lilin and his family background by Harmodius.. In fact.a. cf. QIa 17 : z) than Harmodius himself.. and that suggested as his at 9Sa 2S-26.:. is defended on the ground that the definition of the well-behaved.EpD~ On the idea see SIb 34 : 3.. 179-81.. ' . Cope. ."". cia". I07b '4.. Corgias 47OC-47Id.1 i"" is the essence of a thing or what makes the thing to be what it is. does not necessarily signify anything since A. On the other hand.C.. Furthermore.}. The TO . Archelaus was not a particularly attractive person and as presented in the Corgias would be even less so to Socrates. 107" 14. and Plato.) and its correct/incorrect use. a 24-26 x. Laertius. there are two detailed discussions I06a 9 ...d &.) and brought a nwnber of Greek: artists .6. an insult to.~ TO""'O'~ to the "topical system" (disdplinam lopicam) where this method of analysis is used. The"definition" is the verbal expression of that . 258. distinct and separate from anything else. "draw inferences concerning the particular topics of their discussion..g. cpo Xenophon. Seneca. Therefore I would interpret our passage: "another topic is derived from the varied meanings of a word [lH TO. enjoyment. I042a 17.98a 28 COMMBNT AllY 307 enjoyment of a single woman.2-7..25. IS. Socrales 2. after defining and apprehending the essential meaning of a term.. tells us that rills is Socrates' understanding of hybris.g.. D. Met. 23. l~l'H. the persons mentioned. "Observations critiques [IIJ. The definition ofhybtis on which Socrates makes his decision is somewhat unusual and has been questioned by some. V. I iliv i. .to his country.g. There are a number of interpretations of this passage which can be found in Cope.2). one's person" to be placed in the demeaning position Socrates describes: namely.uOa. Phys. ". e.. As we might gather from Plato. Difficulty with the passage is occasioned by de8cii~. p. c£ OeD." uvUoylC. "OC1azcli~l as has been mentioned ['c.. On Benefits 5. and.aci!'ovo..I07b 39 and Iloa 23 . I can find no reason to refer the statement to a specific section of the Topics and consider Victorius correct in referring . Thurot. Spengel. at 78b 23-26.0~ . "0. it is quite possible (see. I06a 13. Apol.." 46. 248b 7-IO. 6p8". c£ 6Ia 17-19). Euripides . "oAlazcii~ liy'1Ta.~ The text here is read by the edd. of Socrales 16-17. so. Cpo 98. a 27 : 1 op. CAR..e. This is found to be true ofPatis in his union with Helen (on anoAavu. a word not discussed as such in the Topics.p a 28-29 iiJ. 2 DUlloyl!. a conjecture he attributes to Thurot. as Thurot remarks. passim.IlIa 7 on the ways to determine the right meaning of a term (leI.essence.a'l .. "to be unable to make an equal rerum when one fares well as to retaliate when one is hur~" Cope alone reads the singular form. as can be seen from a glance at the Topics and Sophistici Elenchi. 32. The fact that it is not in accord with the mealling given to it by A. Agathon. in support of which he refers to Top.sb '4-15 : 3) that the definition is legitimate for it is "an outrage upon... may mean simply to use reasoning (S6a 22 : 2) or to reason by syllogism (s7& 8 : 1. e.e.•• x"x"'~ Archelaus was king of Macedon (413399 D.. Kassel alone reads dUo~ (for oe8cii~).. ywyjjs argument by induction and argument by example. division is variously named by Latin rhetoricians.e. 46a 3I .73.165) speaks of division as partitia and di. na sff. Insl. Top. C. 931> 27. reasoning from part to part. In actual fact the present topic and the one which follows both are related to and are aspects of the topic definition. As a topic. A IS. 10.io. %efjaOa. &lCllpia_~ all the legitimate possibilities which apply in the given instance.). atA z. Top. 502S and cpo :>:>.i. has been interpreted to include example (i. "RHBTORIC' 11 9S.s Brandis. 56b 14-15 on the general similarity between a 33 : 1 ~". If the division into parts correctly exhausts a 30 &lAo~ . but Y is c..g.30S ARISTOTLE. The Auaar ad Hermll. this topic can be the source of a valid argument to prove or disprove (e.e.. CiA 2.te. . j. from analogy). I. sSa 33-35 (accepting the division of rhetoric into three genera).3I. orat. calling both induction. Cicero . i. the elimination of the irrelevant reasons offered for an action. They argue to the statement: women everywhere best determine the truth about their children.S3. Our topic certainly speaks of induction [I. mlTrp. !socrates. z. '102940..39. cf. reasoning from particulars ro a universal. sees agmeralprindplein this. like to like. divisio is the separation of a genus into its species.. Quintilian (PO. Ci=o (De in•. :>61). 7.g.g. Antid.oIb 3 with A's warning at OI. OIa 24 . e.2. Cope). 7Sa 2.ingle whole into its parts..e. also Radennacber.II. Cope. therefOre Y is X). Graed." We can see A.. division may be easily used incorrectly.. word [se. Pr. Rhetore.1. using an example quite similar to A.. X is and only is a or b or c..-30 (the three elements necessary to understand an emotion). The reference sometimes made to An. cf. however. is related to the two topics between which it stands: definition and division. On the difference between the two see S6b 5 : 2.'s criticism of trying to prove that something is necessarily what it is by using Plato's method of diairesis." This topic. gives a reasonable explanation of each and remarks at 5. !/4lL U : 1. do not entrust your safety to those who have failed to protect the safety of others. notes.g. placing in the same category that "which the Greeks call epagoge. 57b :>7-30). the separation of a .e. calls it e"Peclitia.5157. e.Iff. 33 on such misuse: ''The whole topic is fallacious.10. 2. This topic... (the different kinds of oaths).'s.4:» seemingly makes no distinction between example and induction. S7b 27 : 2. De arat. however (p. 19.so. himself using the kind of division he speaks of (9Sa 3<>-31). speaking of the argument from similarities (i. 217-:>:>0 uses a division similar to that in our text at 9Sa 3<>32. e. 33 in the topical discipline concerning the right use of. Thus Riccobonus cites 9sb 6-10 as concluding not to a universal but to a particular. Cicero in analyzing the nature of definition (Top.1.63 that it is Cicero's distinction: partitio i. On the other hand. also makes no distinction. V 405. Iosa 13) as the opening lines (9Sb 1-5) indic. Quintilian.46b 37 with its discussion of 9ivision is in fact a reference to A. Ismenias and stilbon are probably the Thebans who were well known in Theban political life (IsmeDias was possibly boeotarch in J68. & 3-4 'Icrp. Eustathius citing our text in his comment on ad." and b 3: "the mother. . VI 46. Boeotus I.o&bc-rou statement here and at 99b I-4 it would seem that this "Law" was probably a speech of Theodectes and was possibly a statement concerning mercenaries employed by Athens. Hell. Dodona (the mother's birthplace?) is the site of a very ancient shrine of Zeus in the mountains of central Epirus. Livy 3I.. such an argument grounded in one such example would in fact carry small probability. i. z UE1tClp'l8[CI~ Peparethus is the largest of a group of small islands off the northeast tip ofEuboea.. XXXIX in which the son registered by Mantias as Mantitheus is a losing (c£ Or. This account is given in Or. The context (a 33 .2S£[. p.:>IS .. His first statement that a general truth is derived from a series of analogous cases is correct.28. pp. 259) somewhat confusing. Buckler.E••.. Ismenias was proclaimed the father. He is the father of Mantitheus duly recognized and registered as a citi2en of Athens.. and both men represented Thebes at the Amphictyonic Council).. and the rdations between Athenian .. Ag.16.COMMENTAllY induction.e. who had registered himsdf apparently as a Mantitheus. Boeotus. Mantias is most Iikdy the father mentioned in Demosthenes... CAR..TO at b 2 I take it together b 3 "'oU-ro with as the object of Wride. that of the Peparethian woman.g.es. e." Induction is regressive thinking working from the particular.b S) strongly suggests I"woman" (peparethian woman).68~. 2S.. ultimatdy he was forced to acknowledge and register these as his own. 33.") is unclear for there is no induction here to a geoerol truth from a single instance. Plangon) two SODS called Boeotus and Pamphilus. see Xen. and SO argument by example) to the principle (or the universal) which underlies all the particulars.[. see also II. 64££. Prom the b 6 : 1 No." . -roil a.6 mentions its destruction in 200 B. which is far better known since it can be apprehended by the s"".. Victorius suggests a piece of writing called the Peparethia." 98& 2-J M""".. 1':/j'"lP Cpo Herodotus 6." or "the Dodonian woman. their serviceS. Cope proposes a trial. He also fathered (by another woman.. I. through like particulars (from which in fact you can argue to a like particular. lawsuit (~IH7J).'I"iou On Theodectes c£ 97& 2-3.. in the fifth century it was a member of Athens' Ddian Confederacy and in the fourth century (3408) was again an ally of Ath"". Some . functioning as a zeugma: "showed this in proclaiming her son to be the child of Ismenias.e.g. I35-37 and DU.. Since it parallds in meaning TO. His further explanation (''The meaning is .think the word refers to the place (a woman of Peparethus). In his note on this passage (b I-S) I find Cope (p.. b 4: "Dodonis. XL) plaintiff against his halfbrother.C. As a mbstitute for citi2en troops they were a questionable factor. The places mentioned down to the end of this topic are all well known: Paras and Chios are islands in the Aegean.te with a comma. III 459 (T. and specifically the city of Croton on the southeast coast of Italy..> mggested by the scholiast as do Dufour. Sappho). I I : 1 ao<poU~ The meaning is specified by the people mentioned: poets [Including a woman. pllDctuate (as Thurnt. I "surely ifit is the same in all instances. they PllDctu.. b H VrN~· i. 'ltHBTOIUC' II citi7ens and mercenaries. Odes 2.'"Ipl. some of the seven sages of Greece . pp. Anth.I20. Cpo 000 I8/[ for a further comment on Alcidamas. Lyeambes.7. 75D-700 B.. e..g.C. B. Mercenaries. frg.I4. a quality he more or less acknowledges in !rg.ince apart !rom pay and possible booty their ties to the COllDtry which hired them were inexistent.t notorious for the shield he tossed aside in battle to rl1D and fight another day. Lampsacus is at the northern mouth of the Hellespont. philosophers. a common phenomenon in the fourth century B.!~. frg. as is Lesbos on which Myruene is the major city.logy (ed. See 98a 33 : 1 for Riccobonl1s' interpretation of the argument here. Gaisford). He does the same with b II-I9 (Ode ••• . Thebes are well known. Horace. I 20-27 illustrates these points as does CAR.310 AIUSTOTLB.I3. PW."~ C£ 73b 18: I. " b 10 ·A:1. From his fragments it is clear that he was a prolific poet and also one known to antiquity for his bitter tougue. Movu ••o•• a work whose title and contents are much argued. "Observations critiques [II]. AP 79).. then . Demosthenes. II ISS. when employed as a force integrated with citizen levies were valuable and responsible.ruxoUv ••• " ." 47) with a colon. OCD. I> b 12 •ApXv...la. 5B (cp. The Italiots are the Greeks of southern Italy and Sicily.. attributes it to a work of his which Stobaeus. . c. Athens.. Kassel. Speugd. LTo PW. Radermacher. the reading of the codd. c£ Radermacher. B.. 66 (Diehl & Beutler Ill).. Ross.).6ci(l.3) call. 5. and cpo Cope.. Tovar. as might be expected . and Sparta (Lacedaernonians).XXIl. {Jildu'P"f/f-'OV (cp.oxov Born at Paws he probably lived ca. II 247. cf.. Phil... cites b 10-17 as that of Alcidamas.v Ross alone encloses this in quotation marks as though it were a direct citation. .x. I.. these edd. Roemer reads the conjecture <rd. Horace. Baiter & Sauppe. VI 57. 2']6-77b 6-10 EI .. persons especially distinguished for talent and learning. He is somewh. It is thought to be a collection. b 8-9 ..XXII. &g. 2 Olip'o. Baiter & Sal1ppe.10) and for his ongoing conBict over Neobule with her father. or golden trcasuty..in general.. "oil. Cope. of statements on varied topics. " Secondly. here has Alcidamas denying that Chios is his home. a city on the coast of Ionia.CLYOPClV the edd. and the most favored is Chios. Spengd." Kassel (Der Text.). see. however. Rheto.. b 14 Xo. aT' Ross reads.C. 480 in Athens. as does Victorius. from which he and his followers were banished most probably toward the end of the sixth century B... secludes Hal 'LTd. Anaxagoras (ca.98b 17 COMMENTARY 31I b 13 : 1 1t.) the Bn at b 17 could well have been preceded and followed by a lacuna. In accepting the text the first thing to note is that we have here a new induction with three instances to prove something which is not stated at all and which was quite Iikdy: "wise men are the best political rulers." This statement was then proven by the three instances of Athens.)... pp....ca.suasive. . etc.g.g." 47).' s sentences . the rocky island.." z Ellmpw C£ 67a 8. bom in Clazomenae.5 where Homer remarks of himself: "blind the poet and he dwells in Chio.Je ••• . Socrates records (PhDedo 97b .. probably as a conscript of the invading Persian army. His life and wOTk are identified mosdy with Croton. On the passage here see Vahlen. there is the possibility of an earlier exile in the 4505) which brought him to Lampsacus. A remarkably original thinker who was both a theologian (e. This friendship was partially the cause of his trial and exile (probably ca. Thucydides 3. c. The edd.. 428 B. PW. The argument is reasonable and fOT me in the light of my regard fOT the articulation of A.. I 173-81.n 557.see... He went to Metapontum where he died.ik. I would also note that from the statement at b II (Bn .roTa. n.. c£ OeD. for example 7tb 2 : Z .. "(and as X said) that (wise men are the best ruler.wll b 15 YEpciv.." C£ 89b 4a partitive genitive: "one of their senators. Kassd bases his reasons for seclusion on the structure of the sentence at b II-17 (II.104.. Greek Philosophy. b 17 : 1 . Cope assume a lacuna befOTe BT. e.M'"!v Seven cities claimed Homer as their own.. 4]:'. which he left ca.98e) his high hopes of and then disappointment with the Anangorean system. his doctrine on the immortality of the soul) and "a founder of mathematical science and philosophical cosmology". 531 for the Greek colony of Croton in South Italy. c. and Guthrie. 570 B.. Kassd secludes b 17-20.) on the Aegean island of Samo. 139£) alone of b 16 Du9I1YOPCLV ••• •AVCL!. 500 . Hal m)...ro .. Here he taught philosophy and science and was both the teacher and close friend of Pericles. Pythagoras was born (ca. IIv6ayoeCD' following an observation of Thorot's ("Observations critiques [11].. arrived ca. "al in place of Bn from a good tradition. "Kritik d. although A. 19. Minuclanus. .68. when she was the effective leader in Greece. apart from A:.43 where. may be referring to them is s1ighdy strengthened by his references in the topic which follows to others from the same fourth century B. ARISTOTLE. Intrinsic topics are those which are directly related (e." Victorius suggested. c. comparing the Roman Repnblic with the constitution." b 20 J(pID.30. 2. and in this he is followed by others. a moment's reflection will reveal that there is no segment of human society from the most to the least learned which does not direct many of its actions on the acceptance of such authority. Theban history offers no other obvious candidate. PW. cause. An argument from authority is based on a witness (testis) who states/denies the truth of something (testimonium).uch.. IX 6JI. ~ This is the argument from authority. remarks in part: "the fortunes of Thebes very obviously grew. 1. In a . witnesses..rJo~ C£ 7Sb 32 : z. mention (Pol. parts. This topic is often called an extrinsic topic since it does not directly rdate to one's proposition. an argument for or against the point 1l1lder discussion based on the judgment of someone thought to be a secure soqrce for its truth or falseness. reached their peak. Rhetor. C£ OCD.c. 36-44. et verax). documents.. D.17-18.. and declined with the lives of Epaminondas and Pdopida. inv.II. as one of the earliest known specialists in the devdopment of Athens' constitution Solon made a major contribution to the wdfare of the state in his codification and publication of its laws. 2 ciIL" .ition. Rhetores Gratci... Auctor ad Herenn. The topic can be found in Cic. What is stated may range from an acrual fact to a scientific or theoretical principle to a fact of religion. It should also be clear that this certitude can vary in accord with the capability and quality of the authority.o). IX 526.. QuinIili2n. the legendary lawgiver of Sparta and the founder b 19 : 1 AUJ(. exhibits are other examples of .30.. C.) since they are involved with an analysis of the terms and the cnherence of the propo. Z. He is well attested in ancient sources but his existence. 1274" 31) of Philolaus of Corinth as the "lawgiver at Thebes. esp.22. of some Greek stateS. that the leaders were Epaminondas and Pdopidas. i••tiII conteSted.13. The fact that A..48. Apsines. and the statement may be made on the witness' own knowledge (immediate) or on that derived from others (mediate). laws. The witness' authority is determined by the fact that he knows and is truthful (scien. It is on this last point that our motive for giving consent rests. etc. PW. 5. Finally.g. P. 2. The reference of Victorius is actually to Polybius 6....3I1..~ "as soon as the leading men became philosophers the city then prospered. whether we assign him to the traditional dates of the ninth or the seventh century B. tRHBTORIC' II • EO>. Graed.upyou of its constitution whose life Plutarch has given to us.C.. An argument from authority can be a source of certain knowledge.48. On both men see OCD. definition. These men were the instruments and leaders of Thebes' moment of glory in 371-361 B. 2 et seduded by Ross alone.v. the point we wish to establish. ef...g..lonneSfIS 40.. the reading of documents.. Autedes himsdf was later prosecuted as Demosthenes says (For Phormio 53).lcind).. Meixidemides (as Kassd spells the name). (9) those whose judgments it is unseemly to overrule. (3) all the learned. one's teachers.0 All the edd. eln••).) is analyzed here b 20-25 ". I prefer the Bywater reading.". or like to. see PW.. those about to give judgment on the point under discussion whose past judgments on the matter are favorable to it. Demosthenes. e. &. Bywater ("Aristotelia V'') suggested wa"ee iJ on a paralld with oxb I5 (010' 8 U.... or opposite to.lvat: " . is the reading and punctuation of b 22--23 ij <ly.&. from a lost (and possibly not genuine) speech ofLysias dating ca.. e. U53): '1ike the statement Autodes made to Mixidemides. With the punctuation given by the ede!. at least by name. (7) those whose judgment these judges accept. il>cmop ".. "al allTo!.g..2. I.. (4) most of the learned....':'. and Spengd read 11 d. one's father.e. understand 6.. of what is judged: the "eta" employed as an argument may be about something that is the same as. Xenophon.o.e. The analysis also considers those wha give the judgment: (x) all men always so judge (in the moral order this is practically the same as saying that the judgment is the sensus communis of man. (2) most men. i."u>. Cope. 393. On H. PW. 265).Ool.'s discussion of wi messes. The other edd. 63a 17-I9)." b 26 : I M'~'&'1p.. p. and most of the edd. Aristocr. 7--9 mentions him as one of the embassy to Sparta in 37X (before Leuctra) and gives us his words to those gathered at Sparta.. Autokles is better known (ef.a8ol.. Ag.. . 22471 it was all right for the Dread Goddesses to stand trial before the Areopagus but not for Meixidemi- .us I04)..I&'1v . read wanee TO. those in authority. The judgment ("eta. 264) is hdpful.3-4) and later in 362/36I took over from Ergophilus (see Bob II and Demosthenes.. Ross reads similarly but places a comma after dya8ot..~ fust in term.. b 25 . S. understood here and with the nominatives to b 23 is the verb "eHQi"aa. A.xoa I7-I8 ("al 8 .7I.. (5) good men (ef.. Kassd. Autodes said that it is frightful that [sI: S.01 Cope. the gods. (8) those whose judgment cannot be overruled. A 6. All the codd. Reading TO makes the whole phrase the object of the verb (ef. ij 01 .... is generally to the point here. Kassd. For its we in argument ef. In 368/367 in command of a squadron of 30 ships he was sent to the aid of Alexander of pherae (Diodoms Siculus 15.e. 75b 26 -760 3:0.).3. Cope's suggestion (p. A I5. i. Hellenica 6.. and it is read by Ross....COMMENTARY 3I 3 more general form the topic is frequelldy wed by the orators when they call for wimesses. (6) the judges themsdves. read lv""da save Ross who conjectures the singular...pl .". Au""o""ij~ There is an Athenian. who is known.. .mp" C£ 98b 13 : 2. VII II53 where £Om this example Gregory of Corinth (on whom see the note to frg.a when threatened with an invasion from Sparta.. b 28 E .. as the story is told by Aeschylus in his Oresteia presented in 458.wn for the precautionary double visit according to Xenophon was the Argive habit of declaring a festival orod so a lime of In... IRHETORIC' II 98b 32. all the edd. From what we know ofhis own comments it is somewhat strange that he shollid rebuke Plato with speaking "rather professorially". Kassel. .. Apparendy Meixidemides would not acknowledge the jurisdiction of the court in his own case even though the goddesses had judged its authoriry valid. Somewhat older than Plato. Kassel punctuate with quotation marks around "cillO. Cope (p. except -Roemer read Agesipolis from a good tradition. Ross. (0£ CAR. i.P) tells this story of his visit to both shrines before he invaded Argos ill 387 B. he taught as a Sophist with some success and is the likely founder of the Cyrenaic school of philosophy. 104. 20!.. des. discusses the matter.. ·Apl ..".. Spengel.. . Greek Philosophy.rgoruent is from a judgment of the gods. p.. 142nS8) in support of it as the term used to consult an oracle. and Kassel offers evidence (p. PW. Cope. There seems small doubt that this is Agesipolis of Sparta (son of King Pausanias) who later became king (ca. c£ Mannebach. Kassel (Der Text. Xenophon (Hel/enita 4. Guthrie. lOS.. imJp. 266. b 30 b 31-32 AUde •. As Xenophon notes. C£ Rhelores Gra«i. the verb. also from a good tradition. o£ Lobel & Page. The rea. 394). III 49D-99." "ovBb 't'olo6To."..•. In this example the argument is on the authoriry of a teacher.. c£ PW.. Kassel reads o.. 267) gives an account of the text problem as known at the time." The reference is to the Brinyes who willingly entrusted the just decision of their case against Orestes to the Court of the Areopagus in Athens. If the quotation marks are read.314 AIUSTOTLB.d •• and with Ross the accusative in TJ for Socrates' name. pp. ttg.'1mO~ ... Ina.. frg. VI 52). 201 in Lobel & Page) exemplifies what he calls an epenthymesis.... 141-42) presents us with a detailed corrected account of the history in which we discover that Agesipolis was a reading found in the tradition and that Hegesippus was probably the mistake of a Byzantine copyist. Ewxpa'"IY Cope. a verb of "saying" is understood with the quotation. p.wv. On Aristippus c£ OCD.C.. is read by Cope.. a confinning argument added to an enthymeme. this was an effort to neutralize the Spartan rear prior to the planned campaign against Thebes and Athens in the Corinthian War (395/394-387/386). again the .. Cope. b 32-33 •AY'lar"oA. Tovar. He came £Om Cyrene to be a pupil of Socrates. In this example the argument is on the authoriry of a father. ". In his account Xenophon uses the form ""'TJeWTa.e. He fought in the Peloponnesian War and was helpful in the rc:-establishment of Athens after her defeat... and the notes to those topics indicate some of the possible.67) notes. I27b 13-17.Ib 2. The problem of the soul and movement (Is it movement? If so. the soul is the first actuality (ivnUx.I2. Greek Philosophy. 268). illO..oi. a 6 .. I27a 20 . .~ . Since the latter cannot be said ofhim neither can the former. In the example from Theodectes we see one line: if contempt for the divine (genus implied) can be predicated of Socrates. Guthrie. whose formal cause is the soul. 2 and 3 of the first book of the De anima..•bt. what kind? etc. ca.. topic A. We have a number of . On his flight to Evagoras in 404 see Xenophon. a 7-8 tIC ••..63££.. Cope.".. If one is omitted.. in the union a living being is constituted.Iub I I (the likely reference in To.a) of the body.3a 19. IV 73). CAE.... Evagoras 51-52 for Evagoras.. Quintilian..."tOu "Socrates" is apparently the title of an apologia by Theodectes (on whom see 97b 2-3. 5. Hell.. c£ PW. K67. eE06t. Cicero does not. is speaking of "parts" in tenns of genus and species. Ross alone punctuates .tp_ .. the statement can be challenged and dismissed. Cpo Top. OCD.) is reviewed in chap•.u8b 10).1"'1"" are four in the De anima and six in the Caregories.99a 7 COMMBNTAllY 99a I c:. and the kinds of inference made possible by this topic are seen at Top.4 . .29. cpo T2. 2086. Guthrie. Greek Philosophy. . V-VI passim. discusses "parts" as we find it here. Cpo our lines with 63a 11-19· a 3 Ov Ross alone reads 6n. the "parts" of . "to"'lCoi~ From the statement of thi. 41-48 for Alexander.. For such an argoment to be valid you should know all the "parts.g." as Quintilian (5.. S. 444-392 B. I would not assume a citation though four of the words in a S-6 appear in Evogoras S2.1.10. confining himself to the topic of definition (for the references see the end of 9Sa IS).uch defenses among which the Apology of plato and th~t ofXenophon are the most well-known. the form which actuates the body (matter). 2. VI 277-330 olfers a survey of the psyche in A. a 5 KcIv_ a distinguished Athenian naval commander. For example (e.iv his father". a 7 "0(.. For A. varied lines of inference. lIla 33 .• ilS.10. then the profanation of some house of the gods (or) failure to reverence the gods recognized by the State (species) can be said of him. 3IS "implying that it would be shameful to contradict a 2 'IlJoxp«"t'l~ The passages referred to are Helen 18-22 for Helen.. This topic is closely related to the triad at 98a 15-33.C.. p. 2. for other examples.bcoAoue. ~ We have seen these two concepts at 62a 29 : 2... ftldu"Cwv "in most instances. etc. See also r I9a 8-12 and Cope.. a II h . 28) the two words are in fact quite similar in meaning.. tion marIa.g. Obviously Cope'. Medea 294-297. cpo S8b &-29). 5-10..e. 3. Xenophon.. cf. Cope.<pm.74-'77 speaks of two kinds: consequenlia t<b<dlotl9a).. Top.. In 14 we start with two opposed things. contradictories) where the relation of the consequent to its antecedent is a necessary one. punctuate with quotation marIa. practically a necessary consequent. In th~ example "a"•• . .. those thing.t~ . II mention Meletus' ebarge against Socrates of disbelief in the gods of the city. i.'s words. C£ 9~ 29-30.. each of whieb has two consequents whieb are themselves opposed to caeb other: e... see Cope.>. 29. &.. 63b 16." ~'"'. 2271. 1I0. interpretation cited at 62a 29 : z would clearly have to be qualified in this topic where the cons&quent is nol seen as "invariable or necessary.o~ . courage. a 12-13 npo. s.g. anyone of whieb can usually be found to have opposed (good or bad) consequents.. 20. "o"U.• ojIoIy. ojIoIYEL". III 212. II4a 25. 'RHETORIC' II 99-0 13 a 8-9 ". and cpo 63b 30 : z. in A. Apol. 98a 15-17.. . This thirteenth topic on consequents is closely related to the fourteenth.. education. Apol.. Another dilference between the two is that 13 speaks of things whieb are simple and unqualified.. Cope... 271.consequents: loved by men I hated by gods. V 405. '1I3b IS. whieb did or will follow on another. Kassel read a period after 'l'iys.. a 10-13 au. and see d7lPJyoes" a 22. with lad understood.. a 13-16 olov 'rfi ..31 6 ARISTOTLE.. (a !O). This is not 50 in our present topic.•. Topic 13. AIl the infinitives are dependent on ruG. he also reads at.g.. C£ 201Ia.•• d•• in quota<0..consequents: loved by gods I hated by men t t t vs. insequenlia (naemdl'. c£ Memorabilia 1. running.5354) speaks of consequents (also antecedents. Sec R1oetores Graeci.. 14 This excerpt is from Euripides. El". justice. anlecedent: to speak unjustly ." From their use here (and at 62. d~. 1I73 5-15 describe the character of argllDlCnt from consequents well.. a 10 : J z bl . 255. p.1.. anteadenl: to speak justly . 24). e.. p."a). is valuable as a source of inference in all three kinds of rhetorical discourse (e. Baiter & Sauppe.. a suggestion of Richards..... But he confines topic 14 to deliberative discourse (a 1&-19: 6Ta•.i Ross alone encloses Tjj . Plato. Quintilian. 26b. At 62a 29 ." Cope and the edd.62b 9 A. II 247..... frg.e. a 12--13..." Cicero in his treatment of the topic (Topics 12. p. uses the argument in establishing what things are "a good.. e. is rather clear in itself (sometimes to have a .MENTAllY 31 7 the two consequents.a. as Diodotos does for their pardon at 3.38. Ag.Ta cf. ad Here"". = the two opposites: "and must use in the case ofboth the method just mentioned..6a.). tlv8p.. Reading it we bave: Hal (Mn) . is saying in Euripides....L) and.. Roemer's text is awry. cpo Demosthenes.. al'!".'. Kassel.. he is mentioned again.. a quotation is started at a U and not ended. 66a 31 : I. pastfuture. a 17 Ka1. contrary.ci.1lY ht Roemer the printed text of this topic leavessomething to be desired: slllrting back at a 15 the lineation is olf. and in Auct. Tovar uses them at a 22.o. This difference was explained at 99a 11>-13.j.. a 21) and so the consequents in tum arc opposed (d. IC. Kassel reads TO"'P with Radermacher (B... a 2..1-8.e." 2 be.6 'I"ij> ••• n." epenthymesis.Abmou An Athenian from Lamptrai and a pupil of Isocrates (AnIiJosis 93). gods-men.. The Phoenician Women 954-958... On TVXO. Radermacher.a. ~1"fI0iv The reference is to the method described in the preceding topic at a 13-16..ible-impossible..XXIX. one good. Ro.... d. On the kinds of oppnsition... a misprint ata25 (!"M>!eOV"'.ta... xe. cb.XXIX. a 18 cllAo~.. 2. Aristocrates 2. There is a further illustration of what A.46. . i. 316). Its meaning. cf.1-4 (Spenge!."" . topic 13 (99a loll:)..es e." a 22-2.. the elements common to all discourse set forth in B 19: pos. p.24.-23 (la•... .. 97& 7 : 2. So we £ind in A.. cpo 68a 8.l'wo . B. See Top.5 .""..1 ""XOv. There is no reason to think that a work of his on rhetoric is not intended (cf. 67b 6: "any two things. $C.. one bad. arc expressed in the artirular infinitives.. and there i. as noted (99& 18).d ...'s example that a double opposition is found in the consequents: hate-love.pOmp ...re'rr:a. II3b 15 . where it is cited as an example of. I 409."'"I'.. = opposed. I. a. In this topic we start with antecedents which are opposed (Ta. Leutsch & Schneidewin. the strengthening of an enthymerne by a corroborative argument (see 9IIb 28). more-less.ij> "ahead by all the caddo is secluded by Spengel..). Cope... ooa5.. Dufour. I should say. Ross." . 6e.). VII IlS3..~ The "saying" is a proverb ("to buy the marsh along with the salt") whose provenance is unknown. -MVIIV.39. Gloon argues from consequents against pardon for the Mytilenians at Thucydides 3.... Sponge!. i. Tovar. a 19 6in.. a 2. uses them.II4& 25. and not the more technical sense: contradictory.COM. Kassd read without quotation marks. see next note. On this example see Rlreto.3). a 20 : 1 . 92& 1)-11.I-5) which contained this topic together with (Tdlla. a 27 (nco. is helpful toward understanding why and how men may profess publicly that which is conttary quite probably to their privare view. chaps. A review ofA 6 on the nature and the kinds of good and on the fact that the advantageous (""!''Pie. Therefore I will be loved either by the gods or men. 'RBETOIue t II 99a 30 good you must take the bad). The retort: If you speak justly. opinion. &. 99a 10-13): (I) two opposites: speak justly I unjustly (2) good/bad consequents of: speak justly: loved by gods I hated by men good/bad consequents of: speak 1lJljusdy: loved by men I hated by gods (3) each of the two consequents opposite respectively to each other: { loved by gods I hated by gods loved by men I hared by men.6e"". " Cope. twisted. SE I72b 36 . So speak either justly or unjustly for in either case you will be hated eitheJ: by men or the gods. In fact in this sense the term seems to have the meaning found in LS: to retort a dilemma. See also BE I243a 34 ..u63a I. you will be hared by the gods. 173a 4-5) to work on it and cause the individual to make 3 starement conttary to common.31 8 AllISTOTLB.. Put in form.').. if unjustly. I .') is itself 3 good.. a 30 SIx. it means (cf. the good has an admixture of the bad. and also ofA 10 on the character ofhuman action.. This opposition often enables the speaker (cf.xU. who explains it in the words which follow: a blaisosis occurs "when good and bad follow as comequents upon each of two opposites. in the sitwttion as given.. <pClV. and in the context. Against Th.Cl ••• xd" . i.. if unjustly. PanatheniJicus 243-244. The root idea in the word is: crooked.1243b 2. and the speech listed as Ps.-Demosthenes..1733 2 describes how the topic can be used to examine the dilference between 3 person's wishes and his professed opinion.. . I will be loved by men. In either sitwttion given at a 22r-25 (im. the dilemma would be: If I speak justly.').. Its form here appears to be a unique instance in A. each of the two consequents opposite respectively to each other.I4.e. or to his private. Cpo IsoCtates. pp. I will be loved by the gods. a 29 1iAM~ ••..piii~ ••• Il<pClviii~ This 15th topic on the inconsiStency to be found ordinarily between the expressed and the unexpressed opinions or convictions of people is ultimately based on the fact that all people seek what they perceive (rightly or wrongly) as their "good".... Thus the comment in our text at a 32-33 (~Oi•.rines 39-40. ""e"bTaT. bent. explains well the problem with this term as well as its possible meanings and the general lack of understanding on the part of the commentators of its meaning here. you are damned if you do and damned if you don't. cpo EN n62b 34 .. C£ A. you will be hated by men. curved. B. Radermacher.." As I understand this.". 273--"74. So I will speak either justly or unjustly. 9 and 13. . etC. cf.II3Ib "3 where it is used to determine a moral concept 'just action" as being "fairness in distribution.. Kassel read atlTOV. au. old age to life as evening to day.. An argument from analogy infers from one instance to a similar one. If from something belonging to one class (or genus) to something of another class which is in some way like it (as in our examples..' c£ 95& 25-26..aupy.. the argument is called analogy of example. see SE r73a 4-6. "Another topic is derived from analogy in things" (Freese).E. was carried over to other kinds of reality. To show that a person does or states something contrary to his professed belief . 99a 29. The Socratic dialogues of Plato frequendy illustrate this divided viewpoint in the persons questioned by Socrates. as we see at EN II3'" 10 . the argument is called analogy of proportion.• 4:8::8:16). "This is the mOlt effective topic for produca 32-33 TW. from these opposing views (h< T06T.and so seemingly contradictory .. "Another topic is taken from the symmetry of results" Uebb & Sandys).• S-II. At 460 we find his private view (rhetoric eH"ects a persuasion grounded in knowledge).b 4).-. To counteract such an effect.. e.. see 94b !rIO.. !J8a 5. For the statement that 1:10::10:100 is certainly a matter of similarity .6"". (PoetieJ I457b 16-19).. a 34 : 1 ·Irp.iv The liturgies were public duties performed by individuals for the State in Athens. . and the analogy of proportion i.g.97b II).xpoi.•• l . This topic is similar to the third topic (97a 23 . present "when the second term is related to the first in the same way as the fourth to the third.is an effective way to undennine his p".. Tovar.eto. If the inference is from an historical fioct. one should be able to give the reason for the paradoxical statement or action. as A. a 33 lx ." Our clause is interpreted variously: "Another line is that of rational correspondence" (Roberts).....g. Proportionality (or equaliry of ratios). Gorgias' professed opinion is seen at 455 (rhetoric effects a persuasion which produces belief but not knowledge). !J8a 1']-22. a 34 . note.". an adverbial neuter = "in propottion. Go. Quintilian throughout SoIl gives any number of instances of the argument under the general concept of similarity. yollp .. Such is the argument from paradeigrna which we have seen in B 20. z.) try to establish one or the other.ition. Among the more commonly known were the trierarchy (the maintenance and repair and command for a year of a ...." Four terms are required.g.es G.v ing paradoxes"." dvalOJ'o.99a 3S COMMBNTAlty 319 a 32 cruvoiyc'" O.pov Le. an idea common in arithmetic (e.. says at oca 23-"9. on "<I/1a~o.. a 35 ).~cdv••v This r6th topic argues "from the proportionality present in the occurrence of things.34: "I consider analogy as included under similarity. also R}." e.gias 455-460 is as good an inStance as any.aed.. V 404.o. as A. ..Ii As it is written. b 6) . comic. c£ also Athenaeus 10.. a 35 . Spengd.. the tide .e. b 5-<i auo~ . OCD. T06 (lly. Pol... uplin. (b) the gods pass out of aistence (die) . Ag. c£ OCD. Ag. Erg. CAR. Kaibd). Alh.3-4. PW. indicates b 4 "O. These obligations were imposed by the State on the wealthier citizens and metics.... cites a number of examples of the topic of which the following are hdpful: Lysias. 89 (mention of the citizenship given).. Ag.•• ilT.• tragic. offered at the major festivals).· Ag." The statement of this topic 17 is elliptical.7j"B"OB. II 219.g.. Aristocrates.E here those sent into exile. Since 'P"Ya~a. the gods at one time do not exist. This far topic !"e . b 2-4 k.. Cope.." C£ glib 6: 1. pp.cal U eli. 2..(a) the gods come into existence.. -raVTa (In.Bey• . Dernosthenes.oU~ . The likdy meaning here is: "because of their merits.. 84 mentions Strabax.' (hencfactor). 57.. This last would be translated: "from stating that they also are the same [I. On the statement.dxE'''V We bave seen the word at S6a II : 3. frg. ." Therefore we have: "Another topic comes from stating that the antecedents are also the same if the consequent is the same.436b-c (ed." The topic then argues the identity of cause or antecedent from the identity of eflCct or consequent.oilv. 145.. PW (5). 73a 18.. with the exception of Kassd. and served as a fonn of taxation. 65... X"p(&7J1'OV Charidemus is the centerpiece of Demosthenes. 5.7sa 19b).. the antecedents1from which the consequent comes.. 319-20. c£ 23.are identical because the consequent in each case is the same: namely. cpo Eley.32. b 3 b"..... 1917): "they must resolve that.x .. it implies that they are citizens (cp.. C£ Baiter III Sauppe. The example from Xenophanes makes this clear: the antecedents .. Spengd....•. and p .0 AlllSTOTLB. Pol.. and so I would interpret: "will you not make exiles of those among the mercenaries (who bave been given citizenship and) who bave wrought irreparable damage... see Baiter III Sauppe.. VI 2OOff. ""oA("~ ..'' The quotation marks are read by the edd.. Ross alone reads a comma for the period. Eratosthenes 34-36.. e.'ij .99b I at . I would understand it to read: b. 'RHETORIC' II trireme for the Athenian Beet) and the Choregia (responsibility for the major costs of a production of a dramatic presentation. Ij>7J'P. &"'''EnP''Yl'tvou~.. 185. more likdy it stands for a fonn of command (S.. I2.. Ag. 188 (golden crown bestowed on him). """pal••." 76a 28 : 2.).o. Epicrates 7. The future may represent a simple future.. Ross alone conjectures ". b 2-3 Eoopcip. sim.. AgoralUs 92-94. II "'47. ... tells us in that odd commeot at b !r-IO "in general assume that the consequeet of each thing is always the same. Ul'.. the gods die) are equal because they necessarily entail the consequeet. Antecedents (as the topic proposes) are the same if the consequent is the same when there is a necessary relation between the antecedents and the consequent as there is in the Xeoophanes example.e...."fie· b!r-IO "CIt 3Mo1~ ••• lid This statement in the light of the instances given in this topic would appear· to mean that while an antecedent may have other consequents we are to assume in general (cU. at some time the gods do not exist.... However.~ Speogd's (0£ pp...• 50! 63&7: 1. If one assumes that the constant consequeot (0£ b 9-IO) of an act ofmaking a judgment on Isocrates is to question the worth of philosophy. A".COMMENTARY 32I is understandable... 21 A 12. I am not certain that the topic is fully grasped in the translations and interpretations given. .. 7<0. it represeots a conjecture of b 10 'I.teading of all except Cope. Guthrie.g. b 7-9 8.. of all the codd..o"pci. But in the other three examples this is not so. While "Socrates" does make sease. or slavery as the regular consequent of offering tokens of earth and water."'eaT•• .. his failure in civic duty) as an attack: on philosophy and therefore unjust. PW. his writings. etc. one could defend any attack on him (his method of teaching... The Isocrates example can serve to exemplify the other two.. T. (b) an acceptance of slavery. i. a dative governed by b9: '/7& I9 : 2.. Thus one has the option (C£ b I3-I4) of presenting any attack on him as unjust or accepting some as such and others as not. e... and that would seem to be the reason why A.. Greek Philosophy.. Rad by all the edd. Freese who read: v• ·". just as in the first instance we necessarily acknowledged that deoying the existence of the gods is the consequent of asserting temporality of them." . 320-22) for E.t. . In the first place. ." So it is that in the other three examples in some instances but by no means in all the antecedeots may eotail the consequeot in each case. OCD..ou the . The antecedents (the gods come into existence.Pd•••• ) that one given consequeet is the same in all cases. Thus we accept that passing judgment on the worth of philosophy is the regular consequent of judging Isocrates... a reading of !socrates' Antidruis I73-I75 as Speogd notes . b 6 :.:£vatpci"'1~ I 3601f.. (a) a challeoge of the need for pbilosophy.vaw 1 "CIt .'s first example is different from the other three. (e) a submission to the commands of another.. z oixoi. A. Diels & Kranz.. al'-olw~..... Ross. is read by Cope.: "And to state that to give earth and water is to act the slave. The speech is an attack: on Alexander... Freese read with a good tradition and the scholiast.. Or the opposite can be argued: namdy.... b 13 dp~'l~ In late 338 B.. pgr.. for other references see Cope. i . that such a criticism is not at all unjust because in no way does it implicate the value of philosophy..y well the way in which this topic can raise challenging questions and strikingly sharpen the issue when persons are questioning or are in doubt ahout a former decision they have taken..18.. however.56. 'RHETORIC' II makes his conjecture more than reasonable. ciEl "(another topic is derived) from the fact that people do not always make the same choice.. 278. and bracketed by Spengd and the other edd. Spengel. As instances of this topic Spengd mentions Deinarchus..o1l~ av. On the False Embassy 229-233. 17-18.M>~ ••.. All except Sparta participated.E.. Ag. Kassd. In terms of the explanation there one could argue that the criticism of Isocrates' writings is equally unjust as a criticism of the man himsdf since in each case one is questioning the value of philosophy. Anonyrnus also notes.trod.) b 14 1m6.. If the remark: of the scholiast Anonyrnus. Andocides... Alexander moved quickly in late summer to re-establish the League under Macedonian control with himsdf replacing philip as general of the League... This does not that the remark at b 12-13 (TO make 338/337 improbable.322 AllISTOTI. 5. b II-I:> XCll II. for it could be a remark: ofhis for which we have no evidence.. lx "gij 1'1) ". On Philip's death in 336 and the growing break-up of the League.pov See 99b 5-6. and it is accepted as a work: not of Demosthenes but of Hypereides (389-332 B. The question of the actual date. then ca. (after Cbaeroneia) Philip formalizcd his re-c:stablished rdations with the Greek states by creating at Corinth the League of Greek States (CAR. p~ TIZ1lTO . VI 266ft:). Thucydides 3.. " On the idea of total submission in the act see Herodotus. I. is Demosthenes'. and cpo la-II). which is dated ca. a speech attributed to Dernosthenes. Spenge! also notes as comparable parallels to lsocrates' statement.. p.C.6-7 with 5702. The commonly accepted date for this "common peace" is 336 B. The example (b 16-19) illustrates b 14-15 : 1 cD. Demosthenes 81-82. There is. the Treaty "itb Alexantler.. is accepted.. who refers to Philip. On the Mysteries 103-105 and Dernosthenes. and so the acceptance of the 336 date...C..!v ~t1Tl. 335. 338/337 seems a probable date (c£ Cope. a . Anonyrnus: en TO. 36-49)..) or of one of the party of Bernosthenes. remains a question.j eleoi"'l (30.. .17. This mentions explicitly "o•.C. however... civ""d.:. O.ov~ dB!.. pp.." This is the reading of all the edd. I would say.. Cope.... . 77-'78. in exemplifying this topic to say anything more than he docs. "t. pp.. c£ Studies.g. cf.. which he explains at some length. (Roberts): "when we were exiles. In the first place A.. More reccndy." Dionysius of Halicarnassus in his critical essay Lynas at #33 preserves Lysias' speech for us (cf.e. Rheto. The year was 403 B. "". 280-8 I. 14... is not happy with this interpretation of the word. On this interpretation of the enthymeme see Cicero. . These words arc understood in most interpretations of b 1617. Conley. it would be strange to choose exile in order not to have to fight.COMMENTARY 323 b IS : 1 1\ the reading of the edd.tV AlI the edd. Quite possibly this is correct since it reads like an adaptation to the enthymeme form of a statement by Lysias in Against the S~bversion of the Ancestral Constitution of Alhens 11. The return was arranged by the Spartan king. At 32 Dionysius gives us the occasion of this speech written as he says for a well-known statesman and probably not ddivcred. p. 13. 80-81.. The Greek.. as docs Cope (p. calls the ent:hymemc not an inrperfect syllogism but an argument drawn from contraries (sententiam ex conlTariis conelusam). of the codd. Pausanias. "'" . sec following note.56. b 16-17 "d . Cope agree on this reading given by all the codd.~s. who clearly calls it the syllogism of rhetoric. at b 16-17 echoes (with the exception of the mention of the Lacedaemonians) the statement of . pp. Kassel in his apparatus gives some conjectured possibilities for the Greek. b 17-19 0. 2 "'~"'1". V 406." Unfortunately his reasons (p. "Enthymeme in Perspective.C. pp. 280).. we fought in order to return. 74-'75. men of Athens. views this interpretation with some favor. Spenge!. now we have returned. c£ cob 35-38. 281) for the comment arc to me not convincing. inJIucnced as they so obviously are by Anamenes (once thonght to be Anstode) and by each other. 323). 373. seems to be quite reasonable.. There is no need for A. when we. 279. Without dismissing the interpretations of later rhetoricians I fail to see how they.. but only after an armed conllict with them (b 16: (~l'o. The meaning is "as". His comment is-that here A. if.' s Greek. the way in which many rhetoricians C'magistri dicendi') usually understood the term. . Cope. B. p. is quite exercised at what he call. and Richards (p. "1lJ(..'s "haste and carelessness in writing. V 371-'75. A. and dre occasion had to do with the return of the democrats to Athens from the Peiraeus...s Gratci... Spcngel (p. and cpo Cope. Kassel among the edd. III) rejects it for "al which Ross reads. Planudes. CAR. LS. along with Cope use the quotation marks. 279-80. Spengel.. Lysias' statement starts with the words "For it would be strange.. . Victorius (p. esp. Top. cf. Cope. Tovar.... i"a%o"s8a). On this matter Cope. 31). 414) interprets this in the way in which we find it in Cicero and later rhetoricians. cites b 16-17 as an illustration of topic 23 at oca 23-29 (Spengd." 175ff. Ross. e. can help to specify the term in A.55. 324) has problems with A.. ~"'. (b 18-19): "but at another they chose not to fight at the price of leaving their homeland" (TO. pp. (I) b 16:. Secondly. " We can simplify this without changing its meaning by translating: "Another topic is to say that the possible reason for a thing's existence or its having come into existence is the actual reason.AoS •.) arc found in Nanck & Sncll. 281) but rather to infer a possible motive for an action and assert it as the real motive.. the explanation at b 17-19 corresponds exacdy with the example given. Kas.. 'EUci&CI The fragment can be found in Nanck & Sncll. .. eI = as i£ b 20-21 orov •..a] something might be or might have come to be is the actual reason [TO. On the use of 11.." All the edd. 458... A. is not necessarily urging this course of argument. b 22-24 . concur on the reading of the Greek text./ivO'TO is hinted at by the scholiast Anonymus and can be seen in the comntent of Maximus Planudes atRhetores Gram. Rather he is calling attention (0 the possibility of this kind of argumentation.I8... W or I. presents a more detailed discussion of both readings in which he leans toward our reading.eN·Av. II 331>-40..g. 1. 16b 9-IS.TO~ ••• .. b :u: to cause pain... by way of .32 4 ARISTOTLE. 792. e. Cope read epeew... b 24: to make the misfortunes of men more obvious.1 /J1I yivo'To.. V 406 and in codex C. sec.. (2) b 17: ""T••OO . etc..explana- .' d. TO. for epesv6iv (Schneidewin) read by the other edd." which Ross alone secludes. b 19-20 oi).vYOVT. neO. as for the omissiou of Lysia.el notes).. The topic itself in my understanding is not to make an "inference from the possible to the real motive" as Cope following Brandis says (p. JJ1! /JI.. 8sa 9 : 2.el...) at the price of fighting".g. sec b 20 orov d &0['1) civ Goodwin. At b 22 all the codd.. Ross...cIllo.. One possible discrepancy which i.. Our reading 4• • r'lll . and the scholiast Stephanus. Cope.. 14 (Victorius). pp..VTO (b 17-IS): "for at one time they chose their homeland (TO /Jiv . 506.ij"eClL literally: "another topic is to say that the reason why [TO oJ b . of no significance in terms of what is meant would be that TO /Jiv .1 ep. p. b 28-30. r IS... b 25 MdEciypau . b 26-27 06x .Ow/JtnI (b 16).Oa is explained by aT•. Antiphon 2.31-36. However.TO~ ' ••"a] for .. for example. ."P""'''os C£ 79b IS.Ow/J" is explained by aTi /Js. . The scholiast Anonymus say. Cope. 8SS) but we do not know the author.~ . yoy. Spongel..o... Our lines (also reading epe ••ai.. 28I£. Epp. •. ••• /J"x"'/J.tpCls Cpo Caesar. 'RHETORIC' II Lysias at 33.. as do Spengel and Freese. 98b 26 (as Kas. The Galli. m"PClV€. l. . iieOVvTO (b 17-18) answers to "ad). AJespo/4 82 (p.n. Cope reads at b 19: &••r7j..•• /J1I /Jiv .••••). which is the reading of all the codd. In this· and the following examples at b 22-29 a possible motive for the action is asserted as the real motive: e..• "aTi).uml"ll Victorius cites as an example Horace.... "b 19-20. cf. ycle Ii• • r'l. This play and this incident are mentioned again at ooa 28-29 and the incident alone at r IS.~.. e. . paa Spenge!.... not physical. Ross reads . & is the object of "'ean. ci.on/non- action.. and Spengel read "a.." as "belong to. Cope.. as cD" b87«J (b 32) denotes "reasons. r"6T.'iJ ".'DV ii.1... one must not actuate.. 283.•••. 97b 2-3.68a 9.P..MBNTARY tion that Antiphon wrote that eminent men of Aetolia came to King Oeoeus. is moral. el (el is a conjecture of Spengd's.o~ ••• cbcoAOU8iiN On Theodectes cf.7COTP€mN'rCl. on hwnan actions and A 6. ~ for r. b 28-29 AI.pel""".. one must actuate (i... 12.(!oul. fall to" (LS.. pp.. As should be clear from my inter- .I. b 32-34 '<oN. this is not the Greek." This is the reading whiclr Victorius co. 326).llI) and so "be on hand to (us). B. What A.. not to kill the Calydonian boar but to see Me!eager do it and so give public witness to his act. Iv.n" . p. whilemadespecific to deliberation and forensic rhetoric..• oup.e... "d..." "? be favorable to": ''For these are the conditions which.....' The necessity in d.g." for acti.. To construe the Grode it helps to interpret ~"'dex..... A citation of our lines as a fragment of Theodectes is found in Nauck & Shell.. needs but a moment's thought to make clear its usefulness and applicability to epideictic rhetoric as well.. apparently refers back to rei neoTein... and is read by all the edd. 98a 3-4. > This clause does not appear in any of the major codd.. Le. but is found in a later codex. Cope alone· read without the angle brackell. b 31-32 cillo~ •. •. (Roberts): "These are the conditiODS which make us bound to act if they are for us.A reading ofA 9 quickly makes this clear. one must act). means to say is reflected in the common interpretations. b 33-34 <~clr.. . Ross. b 3S xa. p." On this topic A 10.. It is read by Kasse!.. if unfavorable." However... offers a running comment on the topic.. 801.. m. This 20th topic. if favorable to us. p. b 31 rcpoTP€7CCW"'C'U. Kassel referring to ..... father of Meleager.. The other edd..eUOUC....'>I. "and if the act is liable to punishment. and see 67b 36 . At 67b 36 A. 16b 12-15. and cf. 11 in.. 284-85.." to action.. "pci'<'1: . mllijera.. b 30 w3tx .yectured." and forward to d"""rd.. For an explanation of the possible context of the citation cf. 7 on the nature of the good and the greater good merit a casual review for an understanding of why men act.v.r..... p.. p. el (b 34) dismisses . 325." llmotives.q nearn...... the punishment being less than what is achieved. C£ my comment at the end of 99b I!)-20. tAli.COM.. remarks that "epideictic and deliberative rhetoric have a common nature." udeterrents. II. "inducements.. Spengd. eli... Cope.... 98b 6 : 1. B... p. I would construe the passage in this way: "Another topic is derived &om things which on the one hand are reputea 10 olXur but on the other are unbdievable because men would not have conceived of their occurrence if they had not happened or almost happened:' a ']-8 XCll a.ct is that . ."v.72... Cope. namdy..h is not in cod. men would not have thought of these instances which are unbelievable) .CI' •..• ?Cicero... On Callippus c£ 99& I7. 3. believing that there is good reason to think that a work on rhetoric is intended. "on these same grounds men prosecute or defend..tYI'-""0S...32 6 AllISTOTLB."since the fa. those which are inducements to action do the same for prosecution..XXIX. anoAoyoiiv......("this..:. 28S).. Pamphilus is not known..4 (p.b I. Radermacher.....1co>v Ross secludes a'. is a mistaken repetition /rom the previous line.. Ross. Der Text.. A and that anoA0l'0v." refers back to the motives/reasons for ooa I-2 be &~ . A "a"ll'0eovalV.34 refers to the same Pamphilus is questionable.. a 6-7 ilAos. ." namdy.yopOU. ov" d1' laoE .tV""O'v "And [one argues] that this is all the more so" .. Dufour. 'RH1lTORIC' II ooa7 protation above I can see no need at all for. On p. Radermacher is uncertain (p.g... here ("are thought to. see.e..i• ...81. Kassd alone conjectures <7j> TBV'1 (c£ a 4-S la-. Kassd (and Freese). This is the reading of Spengd.): those things which are deterrents to action offer material for defense.. that. E. i." "appear to")? Is On causal (because). not a deterrent... a 4 XCI.'0•• ij 'Un". as we saw at 99ar7. Tovar read with cod.. C~ ..P.. and as we see at the A I2 passages. .. which Cope accepts (as does Freese). notes that ..21.aU. Ross alone punctuates with • comma. "a""IY0eOva.... I92) argues against Spengd (p. read "al h . 317). KtU. De oral.g.6.. end of this comment) and refers to oob I6 (IS in his text).. Kassd..." acting or not acting." p. 72a 4-9. And so. any action whose reward is greater than whatever punishment it may bring is an inducement. 1q!OTeinoVTa.1.• atCIV. b 36 .. or does it introduce an indirect statement (e..a.. Roemer.ooa I XlIl "PO.. On themeaning of A:s words..a.oAIII'-P. 1jv The text here and in what follows to a IO is interpreted in different ways. la.. All the codd.... 286)? Each of these is possible.pt.g." He explains his meaning at a ~ ('" .". e.. Cope's "you argue. Cope is not (p. Whether Quintilian 3.. 72a 36 ."". The point here appears to be that which we met at A u. Kassd secludes this and b 36 . I42. a motive: for action. how do we translate do"ou. For our passage at b 34-36 is speaking ofinducements to action.A1. I92) that they are the same.. .. = "they urge men to action. 284 Cope olfers an interpretation of his reading..•• followed by a lacuna. A demagogue and prom- inent member of the democratic party living in the latter pan of the fifth century.. For one does not think of it as one does r. "" ... therefore they are affirming this thing as something which actually is..O"OV.. a'.. and denlCllt of Alexandria. a-ri.• the members of the Assembly in Athens were creating an uproar and disturbance over his starcment on the law in • ca.. .. Roemer..g.. and the matter at issue is clearly not TO (in fact.. Kassel... TO 11•• The argument is: men affirm either that which actually is or that which is probable. cpo Baircr & Sauppe.8.. Kassel breaks it up into three (" dJ . oG-rc.. ... 2060).. he was a firm opponent of Alcibiades (eE Plutarch.. PW (4). it would really exist.IJTal.1ie . Stromtlki. then it is real..ooa 12 COMMENTARY P7 men affirm the existence of those things which either are or arc probable.) a I2. 287.n. cU.4. elalov".D~" Androcles' argument to confirm hi. . lAatoo"). eE Eliot..for example.. 19) whose banishment he helped to bting about and whose rctUm to Athens in 4II he opposed.. . cf. it is ".Oe0o. a.. if the thing is unbelievable and not probable. Thucydides. a 10 • A.] because it is probable and plausible..e whose issllC indicarcs that it was a matIcr for deliberative rhetoric.Aa iAalo~"). Pithos is a deme in Attica." a..e.41..' ." At the moment we arc at the stage that the fact that these unbelievable things are the object of men's thought makes them either real (truly existing) or probable.. p.-IS "&eovTIII. CAR.• " for the purpose of amending..{3'10""" i.p8c:. .a (real entities) or Ta . e.. man's mind affirms the true (i.. ""al Ta . On setting apan the first citation I would agree with Cope.. a 12 6'....• that which for the most pan is or can be). Ross make this one citation.. "diona..a' . V 286.cxLou" Punctuation varies here. II 153-54.. correcting" (5. G."'aT. IXOv. who in another ·context circs the words almost verbatim..u~ On Andracles.. AldbiaJe. 8. and Cope into two rdto. a 8-10 doW. a II 180"... only to be assassinared himsdf by the oligarchs.e0rb- cU.." """I .. sI"..v."". r .e." If the human mind affirms either (a 8) Td6'.65. This principle is the foundation for the following statement..aovT. that which is) or the probable (i.. cf.. . In shott.r••.."J. statement on the law is the fact that fish need salt . ~ i. and I would accept Kassd's pWlctuation. On a ID-13 (.. 2065.....I. Cope. 326.~ "Consequently. (probabilities). & nL... but men affirm this thing which is improbable.e. to preserve them after they have been caught.291. Tovar... 321. 8... and therefore the Assembly.e. Dufour. a 12-13 "xlll ymp ••• 1t.. .6poXAij~ . a 7). . of the topic. a 9) that creatures whose environment is the brine (aAp1J) need salt. that it is neither probable nor credible (cp. actions. found in the codd.328 ARISTOTLE. Kassd reads it where it i. d' at a 18." . Cope. Cicero at Top. cpo 96b 26-28. A. 6/X1J' d". axon. Secondly . From the use of dp'!'.... for "dvT'" with Thurot.01 •.. Eratosthenes 39-40· a 21-22 "XCII cro. i. On rn:ep'I"'Aa. however. "litigious". 287. Ag... ~ ••. cf. who were viciously anti-democratic. 365-72. and were removed in Fcbruary 403.. ap'!'. &>.Oyco>v scl. .o. Lysias. .... stat<>ment that "olive-cakes need olive-oil" as another improbable and incredible statement. Theomnestus 12-3. the topic seemingly refers to judicial rhetoric and is so thought o£ But it is clearly of use in any of the three kinds of rhetoric.. po is understood with 6ea....iv On IlA. a 7.E. 3.afl1JTOV>To. As example. ....!"M6". statements.".... l.." a IS uxcd fP'IG'l . however.'" In all the codd. ·'RHETORIC' II ooa 21 a 13-14 XClI."tI~ C£ 97a 2--4. First .." Cpo Demosthenes. axo".. of Androcl. and in the case of onc... c£ !socrates. The Thirty took over Athens in the summer of 404 B.C. .") for inconsistencies or contradictions in the statement of one's opponents... Cal/imamus 47-48 (Spengd)... a 14 "XCIi. Thirdly .". "Observations critiques [II]. Thurot agrees with Mord's transposition but suggests that Ta dvopoloyov.'s explanation relating the example to the topic: namdy. p. Ag. 20 = "separately in the case of the opponent . a IS li>..d~.. Lysias. could have affection for the demos.O~ This is A. no one who worked with the Thirty (c£ ooa 33)...1"tI~. SIx." It is usually interpreted: "in thr.aOa... Eratosthenes 25-29. c£ 73a 3S : J for the verb. separate ways. it appears after X"'~l~ .cdou"· Kcd~OL. conveys the concept more fully and clearly. CAH.df .. Mord placed it whete it is now.Here its refutative force consists in looking (aHo".""".. save Kassd read this clause immecliatdy after axo"..afl1JToVvTO~ (a 17) and the three examples. but brackets it as an addition of A. Ag. Ag.. On the Crown 3XI-PO. a 16-17 d .. 17 X". Ag. ..a should go since it looks like an interpolation. Alcibiades I II exemplifies a contracliction in actions. On the Palse Embassy 229-231. "E'plcixav'TCI" an obvious contradiction. D....... a 19-20 "XCII ". i'm/aT." All the edd. 'fa: ...Ao~ .n speaks of a topic ex repugnantibus and exemplifies it at 4-21.:. Ross alone reads T..ov.aapi-lo•• Cpo Lysias.. and in the case of both together.e.: "to examine whether there is any inconsistency (contradiction) &om among all the dates. V." 48..•.. • • In "alTO' a:JUa~O'll ••• eAalov we have (as in the note above) an explanation by A...'. fb"'rTOV "ai pi} ... = "to go to law with someone".pl~ fIo6v Along with "wei. . although Cope.. 289) is a move in the right direetton.. V 404.. p.. for another interpretation t£ Cope..... kinds of causes and the nature of their effects... The argument is from cause to effect.b7J~ it should be clear that a mere kiss or embrace would hardly cause anyone to form the idea expressed in . The statement of this topic contains a series of problems: e. is not this.. l&OxE' c£ S. from exi....• uCav? To answer each: (I) a dative of interest (S.. a 28-29 olov . (I) Toi~ . cpo Quintilian. s..b7J~ . o6x l . De part..". (3) the common interpretation of the clause is "who palmed off her son on another woman" (0£ LS. For example. .1J.s8~ Cicero discus. . 'v The general idea of the argument from cau. 28990.) is that it not ouly makes the mother's aetton quite unusual but also throws doubt on the fact that anyone seeing such action could be accused of"misrepresenting the aetton by prejudgment..ODa 30 COMMENTARY a 23-27 .IO. takes it with ruo~. I am inclined to bdieve that Victorius' comment (for part of it o£ Cope.. At Top.nA0S . Spengel..e.. but "to bring in another's child as one's own.. for there is some reason why the false opinion is formed ['Pal. seems to me to want to say that the mother wantouly abandoned hersde in embracing the young man who was in fact her sou.'ea"lrp..o. the woman who palmed off her son on another woman was thought to be the young man's mistress because of the ardent embrace she gave him..SO£[ Our topic can be found at Rhetores Graea. p.. A problem I have with Victorius' explanation (which does catch the meaning in vno{JdAA. II). "Another topic with reference to men or their actions misrepresented by prejudgment in actual fact or seemingly so [i....." It is this topic which Planudes exemplifies with 99b 16-17 (0£ 99b 16-17).{J)." a 30-31 . 5'''(3oA>1 Ross alone reads a colon not a period after 'Palv""a.. pp. 2..pA. her own child.a. S. Without pressing further on the meaning in vnop.e to effect is mentioned in passing among the intrinsic (0£ 98b 20) arguments by Cicero. (2) it modifies d0geo\no. 14. do"o . i.." In the following translation I retain the common interpretation (but see following note). i..g.. orat.40.. 2073 on the subject of the genitive absolute and that of the main verb as the same.e.nA0S •.ap. 1474).~ Hal nea".aTO (why) see 55a 20 : 1: "Odyssus tells Ajax wby .7.. A. thought to be by others] is to state the reason for the false impression [naeadOEov].pA'1.9a. as does neod.ioa. (a 23-24): why the dative? (2) II do"o""" what is its meaning? (3) how are we to inteTpret vnop. 289. at a 2S. P7.." which is the topic. however. and exemplified at De Drat.e.na" appears to be so). p. a 2S-26 6tt0(3EIiA'IfLiv'lS .t- ...171. finds difficulty with the interpretation.i. 2. that the youth i. IX 606.. On d.es the variou.. 06 50XEL Cpo 99b 28-29. the usual meaning of the middle. .~.. . III 41-42). it would not be at all impossible that the same person is meant. 8n 0... PW. a 34 : 1 a'"l>"'"1~ "inscribed on a stele. Z9I. as far as age is concemed. However. The example illustrates the second alternative: xap P7J .. c£ Baiter & Sauppe.. that he opposed the democracy. or dishonored (Dernosthenes.. Cope. Demosthenes. l..... pp. he was banished in 404 by the Thirty (on whom see aDa IS} but was ultimately responsible for the return of democracy to Athens in 403.." People could be honored by this action (Lysias......ou Athenian statesman and democrat who led the democratic opposition to the oligarchic governmeot of the Four Hundred at Athens in 4II :D.. a 3S-36 "au... 330 C RHETORIC' l[ coalS ence or non-existence of the cause (Il•. 6.although Cope. (CAH. c£ oob II-12 where we have the same construction (01 pJ:. Thrasybulus (3).ARISTOTLB. Leodamas (I).. On the Palst Embassy zSo. . c£ PW. ~ro. would understand UYOPTO. but the implication is clear from a 3S-36: namely.u>. V 34Iff. offers an explanation of the possible c. Gorgias 48zc) or on the idea of "stating.14 EUTIP. re.. Ag.. leaving the effect to be drawn: C10dius was the aggressor . In Pro Milone 12. P7J ~"aem) to the existeoce/non-<OXisteoce of the eJfect (8T' IiUT< • •• o~x HUT"). c£ OGD. More likely this is the Athenian statesman of the fifth and early fourth century.m.).... and this did not happen. 29'-9Z. I do not see why the infinitive construction cannot depend either on HanIYOe"p (plato.....! 72).. • Ocxo<j. a 33 8p . 292.axopra). .)2 Cicero argues that C10dius had many actual motives to atta~ Milo. believes it is. Ross alone col1iectures '""Axomal. p.. The reason for the public inscription is not known.... which saw the rule of the Thirty (i"l Tm. Leodamas (2) . A successful naval commander in the waning years of the Peloponnesian War (CAH.. II ZI6-17..ircumstances and also of the procedure.oP] go together and nothing exists without a cause.. call." a p A. p....c. him "the democrat who brought the people back from Phyle"... p. a 3'-3z 4"..c£ PW. Cope.).. 6mfoLa~ This does not appear to be the same man as the one mentioned at CI4a 19 : 1 . This could have occurred any time prior to the period between the summer of 404 and February 403. ~"&em .an argument using the first alternative: unt1eZ'!1' on 60"Ct.J1'-"" The arguntent is that the asserted cause is false for its effect would have been that the Thirty would have placed greater trust in Leodamas.."aem. Agoralu. . . a 33-lS &.. Phil.v "for the cause and its effect [oJ alT. alleging" clearly present in "a'"'7yoe"p..cruli.... V 330-34). Because of the shift to the infinitive. .uao~ i.t (TO TOUT. In the interpretation given hO!'e Wv (the course of action) is a genitive of attraction.Tlov. the subjunctive repb 6 .. I can perceive no reason to exclude this topic from any of the three kinds of discourse..I c£ S." Blea on the southwest coast of Italy is associated with Xenoph2nes and gave its name to the Bleatic school of philosophy.. resents a deliberative subjunctive in the direct question which is retained after primary sequence (S. this is a topic which (with topic 23. and edd. Kassel.. if the person has not taken the better coursel. e.•• . read oob 1 <pClV'po./J4 f1". .oob 6 COMMBNTARY 33 1 a 37 . fiillaciom. also 63a in this note read63a38-63b3).pa). ••. c£ 99b 31-]2.. Cpo SE 174b 19-23 (Spengel). 01 fIoiJ ••• nt"puxEV pfJ except Ross.LV O. However." b 2 rN3EL~ ••• "pOClLp. On the use of . not a translation. axO". which was actually started by Parmenides..o~ .41 (Victorius) is an example of the topic directly to the point. 2675. All the codd..) WV: if any of the things which.2675. Ag.~ . With the comma righdy placed 1J.. b 3 <I>.eonei" = U to exa. and for the reason given at 3-4 namely. 69b 18-]2. Spenge!..t .O~ ••• aXo"ELV "AnothO!' topic is to considO!'whethO!' the course of action which someone recommends or is taking or has taken was or is possibly done better in another way.~ (Roemer alone places it after 8. 6]&20: 1." On the idea in ba. p.). c£ 98a 3-4. 329..oob 1 /i). Plutarch who is mentioned among the testimonia there in place of "the people of Elea" addresses the response to "the Egyptians. .e.63b 4 (for 63a 38: 2 C£ A 10. C"pe. ooa 23-29) Spengel also would confine to one branch of rhetoric. a pupil of Xenophanes.nrine together": "Whenever some intended action is contrary to wh2t has been done. he has not acted. c£ 92a 9-II. and in this respect the Oxford (Roberts) translation is more an interpretation of the Greek. Aristocrates rro-U5 (Spengel) is far less obvious." On the use of . judicial. 63a 20 . views the topic as mosdy forensic (judicial) in character.L.. ~ flo". ("o./AO'): All punctuate with a comma after ""'eayp~. another topic is to examine (thetn both) together..Id..g. Demosthenes. . deceptive.). Reading it we interpret: "for it is clear that. ... questions it. the more expeditious way may not have been known at the time of the action and therefore to infer from it anything about the action actually taken is misleading. p. 293.•. 68b 9-12.1 see S.ClL 19. fIoiJ MEtV This statement of Xenophanes (on whom c£ 99b 6) is found in Die!. Leucothea is a sea-goddess who was origi- . b 5-8 olav . Pro Milone 16. & Kranz 21 A 13.ua". b 4-5 oJ). Certainly without it the meaning is more readily obvious. Cicero. 2677). if this is not so [i . remarking that he would not dare remove it when the repetition occurs at such a short interval. . partieularly at the court (367-357 B. the reason for the charge of murder against her. a techne which was largely concerned with judicial rhetoric. ov" 11.. Spengel.g. Once again. and secludes the following ct7.0>. it would have been in not killing Jason if she had killed the children. (e.. C£ Euripides.v If the example exemplifies. V 406..• au_. Once again the extension of the topic is cballenged: e... 'RHETORIC' II 33 2 oob 13 nally Ino. however.. C£ Rhetore. 11 II x . PW. for their absence wa. She was transformed into a deity with her son Melicertes.". b 7.. Melka 12821292.. 58b 10-12). Ross alone enclose. he was a productive tragic poet.• &. as all know.. And Jason. Active in the fourth century.o~ .a6a.. don't sacrifice.. p. This is the grandson of the tragic poet Carcinus much ridiculed by Aristophane•..pxlvou Our text here is cited in Nauck & Snell. 798. b:ol1J""" Medea's mistake was in sending the children away.) ofDionysius the Younger at Syracuse. codd.v Again we appear to have the finite and infinitive construction with this verb.7.. At 08a 3" where the repeated If... is very much alive.7 is not in all the codd.. b IO X . writiug OV [117]. or e.. The validity of her argument is confirmed by Jason's fierce reaction to the murder of the children in the MeJea of Euripides. b 13-15 "II 6' .. p.ARISTOTLB.. o£ OeD (2). this in parentheses.nort or dissuade (deliberative) using thi. Xenophanes advises them of the contradiction in the two actions: if a goddess. as it is here Kassel reads it.1j "".. don't grieve for her. OCD.take at all. if she had made any mi. was the substance of the art of rhetoric before (0£ oob 15-16) Theodorus. Further reasons fOI limitiug the topic may be in the obsetVation (b 15-16) that thi.C.1&""... On Spenge! see 9Sa 3-4.. Consequendy. 1293/£ .1Jyopoii.. PW(5).cop. the daughter of Cadmus and the wife of Athamas.0y_'._~cNAEU"" . b 9-10 a>J. The particle is repeated with the verb (b 14). In reply Medea argues that (if she had doneany killiug) she would have killed not the children but Jason.g. misplaced for it belongs to forensic not to deliberative or epideictic oratory.. A 3. ifhuman.. b 12-13 ijp... topic. Graed." The !reason for the restriction possibly resides in "aT1/'l'oe2i7 ij cbroAo". I fail to see why one cannot praise or blame an individual (epideictic). 329: "the whole topic i.8. then the people of Elea had done one of the actions (sacrificed to Leucothea or grieved for her) and Wete about to do the othet. o£ ooa 34.. e. cites Sophocles here. which explains the dative a''''Ie'l' read by all the edd. p..V...IO. From this comment. XlZl c:...) worked primarily in Athens. 1 D.... S. Theodorus of Byzaotium (fl..C. A.. This line (alJT1/ dll in. 296. 2613-<: (and cpo Cicero. except Kassel. b 17 : Its effi:ctiveness as retort . gives some examples from Greek tragedy.. O. Top. Euripides. . ma buona parte..ax.xe1/. 297.).. Sopko S97. "'''xV'! Cpo 99'1 rs-r6. Kassd reads feoVoJaa for tpoeoiiaa.. F 6SS. Brutus I2. and A..XII. 6vOfLCl"'O~ The rdevance of this last topic to the general character of the other topics as forms of inference is not very clear.. The observations of A. one unlikdy to limit itsdf to the earlier and popular form of judicial rhetoric.... identifying all three as esteemed men who advanced the study of rhetoric..ailvOfLlZ The fragment is from the Tyro of Sophocles and can be found in Pearson. as we find it in Top.The idea in our present topic receives passiog mention in Cicero. or ru. II 6SS or Nauck & Snell.. at y I2a 2S .~ Only Roemer.YE.oob IS COMMENTARY 333 b IS-I6 ii.o~ . Cope.word Eupatrid.~ ." This is the interpretation of Spcngel.stS 2S (a play on the . Cope. usiog the proper name does make the meaning clearer.n) cites our passage and in his note agrees with Spcngel. r 123 323S.. 2 olav ..2S and is more or less dismissed as a technique in Quintilian.". Sophocles. and they suggest a larger view of rhetoric in general. Cope. As A... is thinking in terms of one's proper name." From the examples given. 2660... 431>-400 B.4S) and of A.d~e" with Spengel. and is not thinking of etymologizing (i. or !socrates.e. along with those of plato at Pluzed. Kassel. reading the same Greek interprets: " . De in •• 2. V 406. 329-30. On the Team ojHo... "Tills topic and type of cnthymeme constitutes the whole art of rhetoric in use before Tbeodorus.. Phoenician Women 636-637. "'xerr b IS c:. it is clear that A..'s idea in the topic can be seen in Eteocles' taunt to Polyneices. This last gives citations of our text by Eustathius in hi.or to emphasize and call attention to a statement in an argument is clearer. Used well. is the whole of the earlier art of Theodorus. ooa 4-S. I4b 7-IS..at. it can have a devastating effect.3S-37. I would read the proper name L". .. p.on which see topic 6.. I2. TIlls reading is also found in a good tradition and in the scholiast. . and Plato are the earliest we have on Theodorus. However. 9Sa 3-14 and 98a 4 . i. pp." Radermacher (B. ct... as can be seen in the reply of the Italian noblewoman to Napoleon's angry charge that aU Italians are scoundrels: "Non tutti.31>-31..iv1/. ".. places him (SE IS3b 26-33) with Tisias and Thrasymachus. S. noble birth).9. commentary on the Odyssey and the Iliad. and cites the preceding line found also in the scholiast Anonymus. tracing the meaning of a word to its root ideas)..1/) explains the dative ("d~e'l' as the object of ". or Radt.r2b 2. Cicero. I lean toward SpcngeI's view.39.etores Gr_ ci. Dufour read a lacuna before Hal Roemer conjectures that the tc:xt continued with the words eli.. Eustathius in his commentary on the niaJ.yccturcs >fa"" for it. C£ OCD. e~ 990. c£ S4b I) in Athens.A11ISTOTLE. TOO. Ross.37 refers to this p.•r' I would punctuate as here with Tovar. Dracon. CAll.pil/U'W ••. the fragment is attributed to the Dionysus of Chacrenwn (fl.I-n. . B. sage of A. It can also be read in Spengel. b 25-26 XOI. III. Chaeremon is a tragic playwright whose plays. c£ also OCD. text unclear.. 1274b IS-I8) and won the reputation of being "written not in ink but in blood. 783. b 19 . His effort to counter social unrest arising in Athens was to enact this law code in 621 B. On Dracon see OCD.M. PW (8). is well known from the BtJtCh"" of Euripides... I.). lxliJ.•r' On Hcrodicu. Kassel. Kassel. Radermacher. p.cholia. called by Soaates "young and passionate. pp. Cope. ApcbcOV'l"OI ••• &pcbcOV"Q~ Cope and Kassd. and Spengd read it. PW (3). Richards. These laws became rather notorious for the punishments attached to violations (c£ Pol." This dialogue at 461b 3 . as it is. IV 28-36. a play like the BtJtClute of Euripides.. A.. the author also of the following comments on Polus. PW (1)... c. p.. C£ Did.~ K6vc.C. or po.(Sou .u". c£ OCD (I).. 330-31. co. 414. B." as Plutarch (Solon 17) notes. .XIV. Creek Philosophy. Pentheus. who explains the phrase . PW (5).o" thus: "as Zeus is given his name as the cause of our life" (Cm. Guthrie. were intended for reading (7 not acting).. Radermacher. and in Kassel.IX.. TW.. b 20-21 1Iii">1ov "old . Ross secludes it. ooa 33b 19-20 'HpoS'''Q~ 8pOl. . a Sophist who is important in the development of prose style. and the author of a rhetorical tecbne. Dracon is one of the early lawgivers (~omothete. reading with the more recent tradition. Polus of Agrigentum is a younger contemporary of Socrates. breaks into a conversation between Socrates and Gorgias. Cope..OIXov "old . 430-400 B.'.. this would be the lost clause. I would punctuate with the quotation marks as do Tovar. teI!s us at I3b 12-14. on Thrasybulus. is well known from Plato's &publll: as an ardent defender of the theory that might makes right (c£ 338b-e).C.4C>1d 9 gives some sense of his "coltish" nature as h.o~ C£ Nauclc &: Snell. 6xb 5: 1.. Thrasymachus of Chalcedon (JI. Ross. 8sW.I-I9. omit dv in this sentence. a king of Thebes in mythology. iml>vu".:. 137Spengel finds the reference to A. c£ 9!Ja 5 . he i. and thus make clear the rights and duties of all. .Jv .).. sibly dittography from dv8ecb"ov. III 294-98. &: Kranz 85 A 6. b 21-22 The citation is from the Trojan Women b 22-24 E6p . mat.t Stephanus. p. On Conon. He is well known from Plato's Go'gias where at 463 e he i. 'RHETORIC' II 334 oob 25 we find in the . p.•. ]50 B. the other edd. . and.. 01.iiillov In b 27-34. C£ Studies...... rIO. ifnot.•..oMi' 76b 14. a~ in the following clause naf!' elll'll" ..On the idea cpo 94b 17-25. it is completely expressed... 340 13). b 33-34 . 56b 24.•• p. On 8oevpsiTa. h8~"'7J.... cpo A 2. 18b 2-5.. governed by 1laTEet\ovaIV..." TIP . A 2.." (on nae' W7Jla. . 8~I on the enthymeme as an abbreviated syllogism.86.8czvo'""o... 88. comprehend it as soon a. 570 r5-21. The comparison of two opposites is seen rather well in the examples at 970 7-19.•• el. sV~o".. did TO .. r ro. ... conclusion achieve this objective very effectively since they allow the auditor to compare opposite. A. Cpo r 9.!n.Ii".. rob 10-26. it: an inference marked by such brevity and clarity of statement that the auditors readily apprehend it as it is delivered. gives us a brief observation not SO much on demonstrative-re!Utative enthymem. "because ... pp..." lIa. the end of the presentation of the common topics for demonstrative enthymemes.. Index.. ... In our present passage (b 27-30) refutative enthymemes which conclude to the opposite of the opponent'..0-:>3. dative of cause. the articular infinitive is still at work (e. lUi..71.cob 33 COMMBNTAllY 3JS b 27-30 ":'&OX.••v "and all those enthymemes are applauded which they are late in apprehending only to the extent that they grasp then! as soon as they are stated. • l."oL .a" articular infinitive.""" .. p. b 32-33 (11.allo. rob 21-27. p... b 30-32 ... C£ Studies....es as on the essential character of enthymeme as he understand. loa 2. dv. cf.g. 9"b 20.po... Y""'plt.". Bonitz. on . cf.") and predicate (""""Y"Y>1v).. .....I a""".een at a glance).tatements set side by side are .i• ...) "for at one and the same time men are delighted with themselves as they anticipate (the conclusion) with understanding.dT("" is a genitive of the whole.) with their ability to foresee its devdopment..."AU such refutative and demonstrative syllogisms are particularly applauded which (the auditors) foresee from the beginning (as they are begun) not because they are superficial (." Auditors are pleased with the speaker's argument and also (d.. cf. articular infinitive with subject (TO oil.". r 17.. . " 16sa 24-27 (0£ 174b I!r23). and is totally at odds with the cJfort of all his work.. stoichcia (03a 17-19) into which many apparent enthymemes fall. that which is. auUoy"rl'-o~ "L~ As we begin this chapter on the apparent enthymeme.S6b 4. This S\lIllS up accurately the tenor of all A. For it is obvious that in these nine topics we have nine principles from which inferences or arguments can be developed. as far as possible. III. Dufour. 94-99. pp.. Roberts. C£ S6a 36 .alb 3 IV . One should also note the emphatic correlation here between syllogism and enthymeme. etc. On the contrary it is an effort to unmask false reasoning on the part of others. the effort to apprehend and communicate. In a passage in SE (16Sb 23 .g. and to be able to expose the individual who makes false statements.ala 24-25 III . These topoi are nine general propositions each of which can be used for &lse inference on any number of subjects. Studies..alb 9-10 v- VI VII VIII IX - alb 15 alb 20 :2 alb 30-34 alb 35 028 3-9 oob 3S-3 8 t"d 6' .ala 12 II . cf.CHAPTER 24 C£ the outline to chapter 23. Tovar number the nine as la. ssa 2!r38. e. We read in SE (which in dialectics is eomparable to this study of the topics of apparent enthymemes): "It is the task: of one who has knowledge about a thing to speak the truth about what he knows.oIa2-6 Ib . Viewing the discussion of apparent enthymeme as a study of the ways to misrepresent reality cannot be substantiated from the Rhetoric. b. a numbering found in the English translations.I68a 16) comparable . ssa 29-38 that the student of rbctoric must be able to argue both sides of a subject simply because in this way one eomes to know the subject as it truly is and thus can then refute false statements about the subject.mOL common topics. o£ 99b IS : 2. we should recall the statement at A I. I-alar 1a . o£ 978 7 : 1. This study of the sources of false enthymematic reasoning is not at all in aid of the teclmiquc of deception as a positive factor in rbctorical discourse. Roemer. Cooper. II. The usc of TO"D' here reveals once again the character of the b 38 "I:. ala 7-8.. Jebb & Sandys.' s writings: namely. cpo I66b 37 . (a 7) and naea niSI op. has no comparable paralld in SE. Freese give two sentences) contrasting this verbal fallacy as found in dialectic and in rhetoric. The fallacious process in dialectic is to present a statement as the conclusion of a syllogistic inference although it is not such. cpo 166b 2a:-36. does not make this contrast clear. A distinction is also made (I65b 24) between fallacies which. ora 24 . lBE . pp. 24-25 of the Rhetoric epitomize in a way the SE for rhetorical use. In rhetoric the fallacy resides in making a compact and antithetical statement and p... Chaps. IX. b.I68a 16). >.20. is included as a fallacy of consequent at SE 167b 8-u. £V8uP. as·chap. verbal.: codex .. i. i. since the use of sign. cpo I67b 21-38.. grounded on principles which result in false inference. ala 1-24 (ambiguity. On fallacy in Latin. The following fallacies independent of language are found in the Rhetoric: V. 2.87-95. however. alb 30-34 (not cause as cause). assumption of the point to be proved (1670 36-39). In short A. Schriften. oia I "lIpci •.e.sing it off as an enthymematic inference.ARISTOTLE.>ip. cpo I67b 1-20.)... oIb 15-20 (accident).e.1670 20. II. At a 4 ("al ~d ~oi. 24 thirteen topics are given. amphiboly). lEO) Tii.g. The reading of the codd. and Hamblin.) and that in rhetoric (lvOvp. alb 9-15. is valid for the topics there. Do inv. EvOvp. 300-302.. UEBo)'.aa.•. review the fallacies of the Rhetoric and SE. two verbal fallacies: wrong accent (I66b 1-9).>ip.. In each case the form gives the appearance either of a syllogism or an enthymeme. In the Rhetoric the following would fall among the verbal fallacies: la. while not stated in the Rhetoric... start another sentence. ~. Cope. Cope.) the codd. oIb 20-30 (consequent). VI.'tJp. c£ Cicero..a XTA. has given us a single sentence as found now in the critical editions (Spengd.p . 'RHETORIC' II OIa 2 to chap. form of expression (I66b 10-19). 1.. 50-88.. pp. rde of a lau. use of indignant language.alb 3 (composition and division).3146. one occasioned by the use of language. Auct. read < "al ••> ~o. (c£ oIa I). We are told that there are two kinds of fallacies: (a) fallacies rooted in language.~ or variants on the . (b) fallacies independent of language..II. VII.aA.La'JI (a 12.).ru.>'IP.". " . "oed -nj.. This is divided here into "oed ~d u1/ip. e. form of expression used) are found in the Rhetoric.02a 27 (confosion of the ab_ lute and the qualified). The edd... Of the six verbal fallacies of SE all but the last two (wrong accent..<TI"o. cpo SE I65b 24.au.47. alb 3-9. ad H"""... 23 makes use of the Topics.1600 23. and three of the fallacies independent of language: ignorance of refutation (I67a 21-35). following Vablen's suggestion ("Kritik arist. combining separate questions into one (I67b 38 . VlCtoriUS indicates wdl that the contrast in the sentence is between the procedure in dialectic (~.. cpo SE 166a 23-38. Five of the SE fallacies have no formal counterpart among those of the Rhetoric.v verbal fallacy. on ala 12-24 cpo SE 165b 30 . Of the Rhetoric fallacies only one. alb 35 . a 2-6 c." 135-37).t. T' xe'lj . Kassel: "all." and so both the lcind of statement made and the way.. the adjustments the passage does not read satisfyingly: "One lcind of this £allacy is to present.l8v6le"'.. 6f1o"'Vu".•• •......e... When such final statements are combined there is the appearance of some new conclusion resulting from the union.OIa..la. Tovar: <h l'ae>TO'~. as Sprague analyzes the dialogue. Spengd. cpo I76b 31-3". the other edd.. o~ Ross alone encloses this in parentheses. p..L"'"""..~.. suggests !socrates.e. the final statement [TO TelsvraiO."d.. At a 8-9 TO ". Euagoras 65~.. Amphiboly.l.. a !rIO (0. read d. xr..dl''''l Ilea xal TO xal TO. of the other edd.l_ equivocation..e. or the place where (T6"o~)."" i. is a form of equivocation occasioned by the double meaning of a phrase or clause. mentioned in the SE passage similar to our present passage.. . Toi~) while Spengel and Cope read with the codd.lo1'. Ross. a 10 Dc.' 'Therefore such and such must be true'. a I I cillCo>v "from other evidence. Ross: h TO'~. but are aware of the problem.~ is effectively h6.g. "the form of expression.'\'\oy . end of note.p'.." a" 1i""'. e. .unilarly in the case of enthymemes [i..6...EYELV "in regard to spealcing in a syllogistic manner by means of the lcind of wording used. SE I74b 8-n..... lip." As dn.) as the conclusion of a syllogism [""I""Sea"paT..~ Ross alone encloses a 3-4: oux Ilea . 3. a 3-5 0(."3. a ']-8 Et~ . Ail'S" ("to state the main points of several syllogisms") the articular infinitive is subject to l .d although it has not been inferred syllogistically: 'And so such and such is not true.. .. in which it is expressed are the source of this £allacy.. 12 COMMENTARY 339 (e... loa ":Ir "3· a 7 "Xii".IJea a 6 il .p'lpaT"''. Kassd. for that lcind of language is the province of enthymeme. Spengel. on the statement cpo I9a 19." In the context of oob 35-38 "".x." i.Teap. "V"'L". Cope read dYdy..• 1j. and so cf.po.. 01. Cope read with a good tradition ..h"'~ for the ""...o. as is done in dialectic..a cpo Demosthenes.. = the locale...S).. Homonymy and amphiboly are forms of the £allaey of a I2.aT'x.. Even with oil. On ".. Homonymy is the use of the same word in diiferent senses..O ••• l..'1 aea TO "al TO. oob 35-38. as seen in the example. Kassel. 333..IX6'1 indicates. each main argument set forth is itself the conclusion of a demonstration.g. the form. lv9u"'' ' ' . Ross. xal TO in quotation marks... this commentary belongs to A...E1C"'L"OL~ e.. which is rampant in the EuthyJemus of Plato.. in rhetoric) presenting a compact and antithetical statement gives the appearance of an enthymeme.s""eappi..g. a and is not helpful. take in as an assistant.. 85 Pan appears to be an attendant upon Cybele. pp. On PoIycrates see OXa 33-35.. Anonymus reads "owei for ".. a 14 : 1 TEA""". " "to claim that Hermes particularly a 20-21 XO'Vb>V.. It is spoken of by Pindar. c£ Pindar.. or to be a Cynic. brightest star in the constellation Canis Maior and known as the dog-star.340 ARISTOTLE. From frg. a Db. in the as. Pythi. Both fragment. are from the Parthenea which were songs sung (and danced) by young girls to honor Pan."pd.) the lyric poet see OCD. and here the god of good luck. Of the scholiasts.e. a l'uCJT>\p'" Cf.xOv. 24-1-14). with.<1).: "held in respect.cure" (obscurus aurem lot:u. p. itself the statement is a puzzle.s. Burkert. a 15 Ti>v ••• aGp""c!> i. "Mysteries".11'. For Pan.. oxb 16. od. guide of souls (Homer.CtI'(3civo. i.umption that pv(mle.0118 .a (major annual religious solemnities celebrated by the Greek. PW. 3. The equivocation lie. e.." In. 400 . a 11)-20 i\ 8T' . or in Victorius' words "to a hjgh degree ob. is Arcadian in his origins and has many facets: messenger of the great gods (e. 325." Its appearance marked the beginning of the hottest part of the year. The equivocation resides in the phrase 'to be a dog' which can mean either that a dog is in the house. of this relationship between the two. On the chance discovery of money or anything else (such a find was called i1 TO Ie- . I do not see the point of his "in the house" and prefer "to be without • dog..g.)] is something honorable. however. ca. 'RHBTORIC' II Ola 2.0 a 13 . like Pan. and his statue to be placed before shrines. Sirius. a festival accompanied by mystic rites of initiation. 276-304.ca. the founder of Cynic philosophy received the nickname of"deg")." His Latin would read: ''That not even a dog is maintained in the house is the highest disgrace. the Magna Mater..C. On Pindar (? 522/518-438 B...'" Hermes (0£ OCD). frg. For Cynic philosophers are called dogs•. 8) gives this as a fragment of Polycrates..g. Stephanus suggests the possibility of equivocation inherent in the reference to either dog or Cyuic philosopher (Diogenes of Sinope..." Baiter &: Sauppe (II 221. OeD. Schrader's interpretation (Cope.. and so it is clear that to be a dog [TO "..) is derived &om pJ~ (mouse) and not pviw (initiate into the mysteries).011 C£ 6xa 25 :. Cybele c£ OCD.77-79. the scorcher.a (817a..011 "or to state that to be without a dog is the highest disgrace. Virgil.r admodum •. 85. 4-211)-276). 306) is substantially repeated in the modern interpretations and translations.n. 86 (Bowra) and again in frg. frg. harbinger of the "deg days.... Therefore to be a dog is honorable.. 'Epl'ij~ among the gods is the most sociable for he is the only one of the gods called 'sharer Hermes. C£ S8b 24: • for the idea: take along a 16 : 1 GUI'. There is no mention there.. Am.e. distinguished" is a word special to Diodoms Siculus..o~ ...6"EpOV . a 2S: "or to divide [6Ia~.v is not wed with a single meaning. &LlILPoGv".•. My..:....I6y.. ~. 6•• ". OGD. a Sophist from Chias. oob 38... a 25-26 . a 24-2S lDJ. ola 12). Pallegyricus 47-49 as indicative of the high esteem in which logos was held...da. . a 23-24 "~YdIp . On the equivocation here see previous note.. 32. 28G-28s (cd...ora 27 COMMBNTARY 341 palOV).. ala 13. that one is to use the fallacy not in presenting an argument but in refuting the statement of an opponent who may have deliberately or inadvertendy used the fallacy....6TaTov. e. ef. e.g.g.." e.•..'.. Euthydemus (ef. its character is .. (not TaVr6 as at a 26) S. 'Eepii' (luck: is common) is proverbial.." On Tml".g. This topic is found in SE as two topics.. the Supreme Court is a prejudiced body since its members have prejudices. Spengel. a 2..u.Id Adr"'). Theophra. Menander.".. pp. Studiell.. Composition is to assert of the whole what is true of a part or parts. I would say. theword refers to the whole and its parts which frequendy appear to be the same and therefore capable of the same attributes.!tIlS describes the covetous character (Characters 30. PW [13]). 333£. )." On clnAw.8n.. division. see 560 7.g.'7) is. Epitrepolltes 284 (108) and ef.'" The phrase x.I42Ia 2. My.CbCL~ "for since what is not the same is often thought to be the same.g.I. a study of eristics and the use of fallacies.. p.~. a U-23 " . e. Here it is a single fallacy which in fact is twofold: composition. Ross (along with Bonitz.g.. meaning "notable. cU.EYE"'" "for the expression Ady. cites Diodoms Siculus 1. 87) reads TO <TO> 6'TJe'7pbov.~ Kassel alone conjectures Tmo <0>.7 ".66na Myew] that which is separate [TO 6'TJe'7P"""]"... ... The equivocation rests on the different meanings of x.. to as. a 26-27 6.9) a.E. Division i. if anyone on hand cried out" . was a contemporary of Socrates and is known to us for the most part from Plato's dialogue Euthytkmus (ef.Aoy. e. a 24: "another topic of fallacious argument is for the speaker to combine [a"".vTa] that which is combined [TO avyxstp...w6" as in the following example it rests on the different meaning of .ert of a part or parts what is true of the whole.. one who when "some money is found in the streets by his slaves is clever at demanding part of it by crying out 'halves.. e.. as speech (a n...1-2. _'Ei" c£ oob 35-38.brEl .•.v) and as esteem (a 23. Anaximenes I42Da 6 .g. and Isocrates.owo. Sandbach). To.v !l. all the faculty members of Oxbridge are distinguished scholars for the Oxbridge faculty is noted for its distinguished scholarship. dEt. The import of the comment (e.v]. 'Eepii'" (or OUI "halves'') he made a claim to a share in the find.6. . pp.7-2.pp. which also governs the dependent /In clause.. too. gives an exact citation of Victorius' wor." ".ge is explained by Victorius in terms of the SE passage 177b 12.)... 69-100.s. Thus we have here: What you know. CODSbtute." He wrote a number of encomia on startling subjects such as mice (Ola 13).. 'R~TO'RIC' II OIa 33 mirrored in A. san). Euthydernus (13) with Kerferd. icnLV dt~ ToaouTo7 = twice as much: Iland since twice as much of a thing is hannful.. This p . a 3~3 I xed mEl . you know that there are triremes. Whether the Euthydemus of Xenophon's Memorabili.d. Busiris."'6~ The first formulation is refutative since its conclusion .-13 which..•"." citing by way of illustration the first few words of the Ili. The kind of composition at issue is of the following sort: Patti is good...a. but its double is bad. ("another topic is to say ~at not evc:n a "siDgI~ po~on") and infinitive 6l"a..B£ On Thrasybulus see ooa 33. for this . II 2." . Patti is a good artist.. Its OCCUIrence in a slightly different form at SE I77b 12..1.. p·53· a 2. an explanation of the Euthydeman logos.. B. 4-9 and answered by Xenophon. .p(l).'.-13 would indicate that it is • sophism identified with Euthydemus...oy. c£ Cope. His Aa:usation of Socrates.e. pebbles. iaTw. ~ 32. ftg. Y"P On Polycrates see Radermaclrer.9 -rav. now lost.a. governing the accusative I"716i Tel . is open to the fallacy of division.5..so too Cope .. Chroust. 3"730B..P.. is the same kind of fallacious statement.. O. Cope. written somewhere about 394 B... This last statement is often correct but is open to this attack.1-<54 where Polycrates is apparently "the accuseT. secondly. IlTmro" (sc...IU. pp. Mem.u and his difficulties with them . allo.. Dodds. ". cpo PW. Gorgias. On The Thirty as a collective name. It was criticized by !socrates.. PW (7).One good thing does not make two bad things . . emf)... He is a rhetorician of the fourth century. (c£ D.2. into 2.).is the contradiction apparently of what was originally stated: One portion of a thing is good.d: I". 3II-I2.and not "word..ob 351f.-33 oikw . pp.. . Even the converse . a 2."d"... .though apparently demonstrative is not correct for it.t Anonymus intetprets bro. may have been occasioned by Plato's Gorgias.' sSE. you know in the Peiraeus where you now are. Patti is an artist. oeD (2.2..sy. The scholi. is again a predicate infinitive (sc. a 33-35 "..ARISTOTLE. And so the statement: you know that there are triremes in the Peiraeus.. 5.j'" d••6. I.. 1. 0[&611 This example is not in the EuthyJemus. 2. it stands. at a 2. see use of My.Two good things do not make one bad thing . together with Baiter & Sauppe. as "verse". is a different person is questioned.I-13 and particularly # 13.8 or.C.61IOV The accusative is the object of Uy ••• understood ("to say of the one who knows the lettets'I.xXI. " TO. and Spengel. 61"a . d. In adding that the faIIacy may be the one of omission.. Joseph.". XII."vdC. Rather we have the fallacy of composition. 58:1.art of discourse. We do not have that here as far as can be seen.. p....6).44 (c£ 3... a 36 5. In most respects this is a fallacy more typical to rhetoric as an. i. Cope.~ The fallacy of division is to assert of a part or parts what is true of the whole... a 35. However. Spengel.. is the reading of all the codd.•.'s mixup of the two. a 37 5IxlI'o" . and we might think that what we assert of them collectively we can assert of them as individuals..... This is not an obvious example of composition. The odler edd. frg.. p. Cope reads without explanation 0..£1. Thrasybulus overthrew 30 tyrants and so 30 tyrannies.e. used for refutative syllogisms. the fallacy of division sinc. Thus Thorot ("Observations critiques [III. .."0.~ . . 311.. "al TOliTO iJ. and 97a 29 .. the speaker) leaves out at whose hand. Tovar.. "IJlITB8ivTa .. 803.n1l XIII 1t£1tPIIX.II." 49). In the same way its opposite here (as at An. pp.02a 3. Ross. Quintilian illustrates the point: "Me 30 awards owed to Thrasybulus?" for putting down The Thirty. 0'.. on the use of the verb as a technical term for demonstrative syllogisms. for instance. there may be added Cope.. 97b 2. On the matter of this fallacy Joseph's monitum (p. we think of The Thirty as individuals. Thus Quintilian.Dufour.. exemplifies A.97b 6. olb 35.24 speaks of deinosis as "language which 6.is worth noting. 42" 1-3). A. For what is true of the parts has been asserted of the whole. To the references b 3 5e."ou C£ 'iYfll 28-29. it is also right that a son avenge his father. But one is not justified in asserting of the whole (as A...olb 3 COMMBNTAllY 343 tyranny.o".. On the verb see S9b 14.p£. b 2 4cplI'pd "the statement (or. It is right that she who murders her husband die. p. each was overthrown by Thrasybulus) is asserted as true of the whole. 1to.. read """efix8a•.""b". 586£.6.o .2. On (exaggeration) see 9sa 8-9. bas in mind the faIIacy of the exchange of an absolute and a qualified statement. 5. here they are spoken of differendy.. considers this an example of division and the following an example of composition. see Kassel's apparatus criticus. says..) -that it was rigbt for Orestes to kill his mother."" C£ Nauck & Snell. 6.II' "''''eaXTa."':'. argument) and i.... eEo&i... Kassel. On the face of it this appears to h.. this could be composition. "al TaiiTa "lIneIl><Ta. Pr.olb 1-2...)"0. c£ orb 35 . ala 24-25." . But the 30 were a collective in fact constituting just one tyranny. Ross reads with V ahIen ov"oii. What is individually true of the patts here (namely: each was a tyrant..I'' . 139.. .Ta "al is read by Kassel and in effect is the reading ofRoerner.2.--3..1)"It is difficult to keep Composition and Division apart" . means to demolish (usually the opponent'. c£ ooa r8.. 7-4. olb 1 06xoW. as can be seen from the instance of seeking a bodyguard as a sign of conspiring for tyranny (A 2. ToUTO This fallacy of sign. which for the sense I find more attractive) is accepted by the edd. by the very nature of the non-necessary (anonymon) sign." This. Since the argumentation concludes to the probable and not the certain. or to glorify. Kassel.. specifically semeia allonymo (non-necessary signs. save Ross. is not logically conclusive. but the argument can be disproved as fallacious.61. c£ Studies. or hateful subjects.. 335Jf. 'RHETORIC' II olb· 10 gives added impetus to shameful. exemplifies the fallacy from !socrates. 2. there is 110 inevitable demand that the assertion must be accepted. strengthen (76b 34 : z). b 10 Tcoi~ ".. which.. Ag. however.. all the Mysteries 29-33. pp.aea- Ao"lCeT"'). 57b 20-36). From the use of del. Ross alone conjectures ". Kassel..46). This reading of the codd. The subject of avE>1"11 is "the speaker" who is specified in what follows. semeion anonymon) can be used as a legitimate argument of persuasion.344 ARISTOTLE. the accused. Spengel. b 7 : I opyl!. exaggerate.. 96-99. • • "I"""copxov enclosed within quotation marks by Tovar.. there can be no question that non-lIecessary sign argument can be a form of valid inference which."UUI'-'11'4 It fails to be an enthymeme because nothing is demonstrated or proven (oil dedo. this can be challenged on the grounds that it involves the fallacy of the consequenL Thus it is that sign (i. as we see here (b 4-6). Pro Milone 23.oi"l"" <"'''Id' {In oil. is but Ol1e aspect of the fallacy (see also Auaor oJ Herem. b 9-ro IDo~. ailEd. • . Symposium 182C 4--'7 says substantially the . Plato. co61..>icrn '1<Oi"l"BV> all~~"11.e. i.e.. can mean quite simply to amplify. Cope.. p.. the defendant. In fact SE 167b 1-20 not only remarks that in rhetoric proofs frOlll signs are based on consequents (b 8-9) but exemplifies by using a sign argument (b 9-Il) which is the same example as that used in the Rhetoric to exemplify d. Ross. i."o.. But.29.e. Antidosis 88-92."".e fallacy of affirming the consequent (oIb 24). would also question our reading of all the cadd. is very much implicated with the fallacy of consequent (olb 20-30). 337. any conclusion or inference by the hearer that something was or was not done is a groundless inference (". On the other hand.. S7b 1 : " 57b r0-21).... (except A: 6el17J'. pp. b 5 rnol'lO"EV. also has a positive character. the latter is the meaning here. harsh.).£0"' . 104-15.. exalt. sign inference can be highly suasive. eularge upon. Spengel.6). however. When used correcdy and with reasonable circumspection. Lysias.'1Tco. assuming that the consequent is convertible with the antecedent.. Andocides. the Subversion ~f the Ancestral Constitution 2-6. Another example would be Cicero. C. The argument is non-syllogistic for it is in the second figure. as Joseph. "what Aristotle says about the Fallacy of Accident has seldom been clearly understood". It seems to nle that Cope's explanation (pp.I68b 5. Timarc"us I32-I35 (Spengel)." The first problem here is the meaning of"accident.oIb 15 COMMENTARY 345 same thing. It is far more complicated than it appears. A.." Ordinarily what is meant by "accident" is that which belongs to something 110t always.etoric examples are ignored probably because the expositors do not understand how they exemplify the definitiOll of the fallacy of accident given at SE I66b 28-30: "Fallacies depending on Accident take place whenever any attribute is thought to belong in the same way to· a thing and to its accident. 'l<OV'lpoS yap The fallacy is obvious from the explanation given in the text. C£ Aeschines. the major premiss is not universal and there is no negative among the premisses. Hipparchus. not only (e.. b 14 a1. On the grounds that bombing is wanton violence one could say. Michael is irritable).· 6 ~i"'"lS. Even with this understanding of . enjoyed a position of eminence in Athens when his brother Hippias assumed power in 527 B. c£ also Connell.. Pirie do not mention it. Fearnside & Holther. The examples of "accident" which he offers at SE I66b 28-36. on the death of their father. b 15 . The RJ. therefore do not discipline children. 84. b II : 1 . i.. Ross omits o. p. 6Sa 17 : z. and thcy are not helpful.·. 7tOV'lPOS Tovar omits . not necessarily. c£ 6Sa I7 : 2. Hipparchus died in 5I4 B.a:~. also 9Sa IS. "oAe".C. does.ISea 22.. He himself (SE T69b 3-'7. here denotes the Greek city-state in general.1'-!3E(3'1"OS No one who speaks about the fallacy of accident as we meet it here and in the SE is really happy or secure with it. to assert an accidental attribute as an essential one. 3I2-14. and in fact it is frequently explained as the fallacy secundum quid of which the following would be an example: freedom is man's supreme endowment.e"'Te~. as he also does with the fallacy of ignoratio elenchi (SE 168a 34 . but wrongly. b I2--I5 ij.. that the destruction of Hiroshima was an act ofwanton violence.. son of the Athenian tyrant Peisistraus. I69a 3-5).e. Ag..pWvTES the reading of all the codd.g. partly at 179a 26 . On Harmodius. Aristogeiton. but c£ 313nr) of b 15-20 understands the fallacy of accident in this sense. What can be truly said of the accidental attribute (bombing) cannot be said with truth of the subject (destruction of Hiroshima). Kassel alone reads . It would not misrepresent the actual situation to say. are the ones mostly featured even in the contemporary explanations of the fallacy. Hipparchus. 168b 27-29) ties in the fallacy of consequent (as does Hamblin) with that of accident. z 'API'-0&lou ~d. himself (SE I68b 6-10) remarks that "the experts and the wise" have trouble with it.[ T'S ••. cpo Spenge!..e.. . As A..EVov Fallacy VI is that of affirming the consequent. cf. Nauck & Snell.ffi:ct that the inhabitants of Troy honored the mice of the region for this action.0 "'rc6". 425. himself since he is a 'man." "Accident" means any property of a thing which is not fully convertible with (i.XXI.. Pearson.5.141. I do not see.. J. 313.... p. 'RHETORIC' Il orb 20 "accident" there is a problem insofar as it is not as simple as it sounds to decide with regard to many subjects what are aedelental and what are essential attributes. If anything. was the disregard (d). underst\lod this . Radt. I would accept for them the first and more ordinary meaning of accident. 2.. Bill is clever)."'. has not the same defmition as) the thing... b 16 Do>. Moralia 74" speaks of a Sophoclean play in which reference is made to Achilles and an invitation. Cope.sa 32. that this understanding of "accident" applies to our ruetoric examples. cf. p. Syl/ogos (The Gathering of the Greeks). p.. "'~ Cope. rational animal would be with "man. cf. .. A.).." "on the occasion o£" z . is not identical with its subject.uxpci"O)~ ..ARISTOTLE. The second problem with the fallacy of accident is that in his explanation of it at SE 166b 28-30 A.... Pearson.. B. not convertible with Coriscus since not every man is Coriscus. and so.. Sophocles. Pearson. Thus the fallacy of accident violates the principle that whatever can be predicated of a thing can be predicated of anything identical with it. Plutarch. Kassel read with a majority of the codd. p. he will see this deception..79a 8. ""Mann is considered an accident of Coriscus...: hd TO. II 205." And so what is true of the accident cannot be true of the thing (Joyce). did not discuss the hypothetical syllogism. i. 338 and Radermacher.. 78b 10 . particularly in this second meaning. as. 161. The non-invitation is the accidental reason for the anger... b 20 : I &.« .o....'s comments on the concept. Thus in the first example at r66b 32-33: "Coriscus is different from 'man' and so different from. . for example. but he sees the deception. i. In the past the incident has been confused with another Sophoclean play. For accident..ov The articular infmitive (TO .. The story is said to come from a play of Sophocles' called the Syndeipnoi (Companions at Table). p. 194-100. as we see at a 19-20 (0 d' tb.a. offu-s a different bnt not for him an unusual meaning of "accident. Nauck: & Snell. OIa 13-14. however.. cf.e. A similar incident in another context is related in Herodotus... II 198-209.'l''''eia) shown in the action. b 17 jj et . "'u~ C£ ola 33-35.e. A.) is the subject of an understood "is" in the finite or infinitive construction. It is ordinarily understood of the hypothetical syllogism (If Bill is clever.IO both citing the scholiast Anonymous to the e.. whose subject is the Greeks gathered at Tenedos prior to the siege of Troy.. asserting an accidental attribute as an essential one. the substantial cause of which. however... "A~81j.. tricken and those sent into exile.. see olb 35..6A'fLo~ This topic is cited almost verbatim by Dionysius of Halicarnassus in clrap.e.. should Paris be thought to be high-minded..ovoiv The same struct\lre as aT' at b 25. prime and had delivered most of hi." "animal" are hropna of fallacy in SE I67b 1-20..020 3 on the diiference between an unqualified and a qualified statement. On Ill"" . 8 uses a similar example of beggars and exiles. b 23-24 3. 111.. dance.oIb 30 COMMBNTAllY 347 (inop . c£ 62a 29: z) is a predicate necessarily connected with the subject as umortal.1"""1 C£ below olb 35 . VII 322. but so do the poverty". speech 136. in begging for pOC%ot." However. we have the fallacy of consequent.E1. high-minded people have a disdain for society. although A. 12 of his First Letter to Ammaeus in his effort to show that the Rhetoric was composed after Demosthenes had reached hi. Ur. rsocrates. i." This misapplies the rule that two things identical with the same thing are identical with each other. cIv then.e. C£ Poetics 14600 20-22..• post 330 B."aAO. b 3G-34 auo~ . e. iiv m&czlp.g. .. 6PXoii. consequent "man. On the encomium of Alexander b 21 ' A>..Dl b 26 ~5oucrl ." As in the other examples the argument is: the very fortunate sing...o. his explanation of the fallacy of consequent is easily expressed in the antecedent-consequent statement of the hypothetical syllogism..aed.. &111(1'011'£1 . and when it is so converted.. When we affirm this of Paris.. see Baiter &: Sauppe... hI fL£ycU"IruxD~ by Polycrates._d. see Olb 21: "to state that since these qU2!ities belong to those who are thought to be prosperous and happy. speeches. then.). A com- . we conclude wrongly that it is convertible with ''high-minded'' and therefore that Paris is "highminded.. and 97b 21-22.. I would understand a predicate infinitive (lily .1l Cpo SE 167b 8-u. i. Rheto.es G....~ZO~ see 66b 17.. and travel. i. Hele. 26. Thus. Rheto. In the example at a 21-24 the consequent is "disdain for society".1 yckp .. :'for seeing that the high-minded are such.cii~ should b 29-30 be obvious 6:om the last example given: exiles travel without choice as to the travel and the destination while the fortunate travel when and where they wish." b 25 fLDIX6~' Wtoil.e. the consequent is not convertible with its subject.h6p'I'... TocoiiTOC sc. II 223. On p.). c£ OIa 29 or OIa 3G-31 ('I'''. those who possess these attributes should be considered prosperous and happy. alms. so. therefore these latter are very fortunate.. With the comma after Alexander accepted by all.C. V 283 (Spengel) notes that Demosthenes commits the fallacy in the CroUl. did not speak of the hypothetical syllogism.a. b 27-29 hI yckp . . so. The . ..es Gr.BT'. ). Alexander.C. p.C.0 yap ...C. . if someone declares that the death penalty for murder is just. A.12fE b 31 otav"'-. 02a 4. Ind..ame as because of the other ("'~ d. by reason of the fact that a thing occurred together with or after another.«iao.d -ro. For example. the incident which brought to an end the distinguished career of Demosthenes (384-322 B." "for men assume the fact of coming b 31-32 .SS (Victorius)." or "on aocount of" (a"'I. YEY"""'IIL "for example. that a just . . Demades (fl. (both Philip and Alexander) during the 405 and 30S of the fourth century. On both these Athenians see OCD. S62. understood... e.). p. Antony was similarly blamed by Cicero for the civil war between Caesar and Pompey.ap.o~ "lIpa . The SE fallacy (see also An. although A. 'RHETORIC' II orb 13 parison of the statement of our topic with the fallacy in SE 167b 21-36 reveals a striking difference between the two. The interpretation of the fallacy of cause which is co=on in the modern books is that given here in the Rhetoric. Philippics 2.. polirically active as a Scltesman in Athens from the year 3S4. VI (passim). p. 4S£) mention of Demosthenes in the Rhetoric is questioned.g. . 37S.ifro).... Whether this is the only (Cope.. The conclusion is made possible by the gratuitous insertion of a premiss (granting . 6 (non-cause as cause). CAR.." b 33 : J Z otav':'~ C£ fJ78. Joyce.. 281). is one infrequently referred to in modem books (Hamblin..>. The objective of Demosthenes was to maintain Athenian freedom in the face of the advancing power of Macedonia under Philip and.22. pp.) as an active politician was an effective intermediary with Macedoni.3 B. "06"0) to he the. double accusa- tive objects of l). 07" S (of the latter Spengd. Bonitz. the post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy.oa61!~QU~ noA. Pr. 78). PW.. remarks that Victorius and others "'1"ithout . c£ 97b 7 : Z.. then it would be equally just to inllict the death penalty for picking pockets (cf. later.. the sophist argues that the statement leads to nonsense because granting that the penalty of death for murder is just and that a just punishment is one that is an effICacious deterrent. 6sa 3Sff. aida.. ".. e..~oi~QU"L~ after the other ("p fJtn:d." naea here as elsewhere in this phrase is best interpreted as "depend upon. 41J"'''&'IJ~''' 41J". I"trod. cf. The fallacy of non-cause as cause in the SE is a form of reductio ad impossible and was used to challenge (and presumably refute) an opponent's assertion.. It is possible that he was in the pay of Macedon although he was fined along with Demosthenes in the Harpalus affair of 324/3'. 3SD-3I9 B. "Another fallacious topic is that dependent on b 30 a>. 2S-27 for the expression... deterrent) which has nothing to do with the original statement.. the very policy Demodes attacks here. says that it is fairly common.g. p.ARISTOTLE. III S2. from which we would falsely infer: to strike a free man is hybris." "as one might think"... p. Sauppe. liex"'. I.." The adverb is used at times to qualify a strong statement and means "presumably. "(This is fallacious) for the choice was not given to her as one might think forever.." b 3S) e. the war which Aeschines. C£ 73> 13 : J. we have another aspect of this fallacy: namely.. 317.... C.. p.... Baiter & Sauppe. is demonstrating the fallacy involved not in arguing from the unqualified . cf. points out: . but only for the first time.02a 3 COMMBNTARY 349 reason" consider this a mention of the fifth-century general. the confusion of absolute and qualified statement. if the qualified assertion is stated and one argues from it to the unqualified.. frg. the fallacy secuMum quid from its Latin formulation jal/a£ia a Jic/o simpliciter ad dictum secundum qUid. Ag. told in Euripides. (in the example Hden's freedom was qualified as A. Baiter & b 34 1/. Tyndareus was her father. £Ix6.).. etesiphon 136 also blamed on Demosthenes' policy. Index." Cope. For the phrase see LS. takes it to be a reference to the general)... > 3-9 l"f •. Aristocrates So cites the law as making this distinction.ve'o. that of a dicw secundum quid ad dictum simpliciter. 347... 78b 14-IS : J. b 3S This fallacy is a form of the fallacy which fullows and which is also found in SE. but I do not see any grounds fur certainty on the matter. Further.).g.. e.... as it is commonly called. makes the explanation of hybris taIse. serrion to the qualified one but in arguing a dicta secundum quid ad dictum sim- . has other instances of the phrase.. II 3IS..2 lIpp. II 223. Iphig... A.0....~"de .. from the explanation given through 02a ::18. but Cope..g.. In each example.hybris. This may be the event referred to....£"<' . liS". The limitatiou exemplifies the omission of non (b 3S).. The omission of a necessary qualification of manner (n'. Philip ending at Chaeroneia in 33 8 B.'P'. and the story is b 36-37 otov ••.32lf.. a temporal dement qualifying Helen's freedom.. or..l. tA.. . in Aulis 49-79.. presumably the words ofDemades... Demosthenes. > 3 11"<"" .. This fallacy has a converse: a dicto secundum quid ad dictum simpliciter. "'. A similar Ill...1: "to strike the first blow...£1/.•. b 37 06 ya.'P" occurs in the second example. e. Something which is stated absolutely (as the first example: Hdeo was free to take the husband she wished) is wrong if it calls for a qualification which is omitted. The difference from the previous topic is that there the qualified statement was restricted to time and manner while this topic refers to any qualification. frg. 1.•.g. to strike a free man without cause is . Bonitz.. """<po.e. 3. Ag.. cf.p. i. 6TaP ••• ddt" .. The meaning of this topic has been explained above at olb 3S. '7.p . naqd n). cf. 02a.. It is commonly thought that the war was the conflict with. Ill. for "eristic arguments" as eristics and dialectics are at SE 16sa 38 .. On the meaning of ci:n..q 8'l'iJ II•.. "from the substitution of. which is the meaning of 'rm in this phrase..'.. SE 171b 24-34At SE 16sb 7-l! A.. the fallacy results in wrong reasoning in dialectics.16sb 12. understand 1. a 6 . I 2II (which is substantially repeated in II 318) Cope suggests that it indicates here a book or treatise as do the words for dialectic and rhetoric which follow.ov another example of the fallacy: on the fact that the unknown can be known (bnaT'7/To.. The common interpretation of the clause follows essentially that of Cope..lw.. in rhetoric. .. I : • for the word as signifying what is mentally challenging. In discussion of the word in his commentary. The fallacy resides in a ddiberate confusion of two meanings of . c£ S6a 7. a ~8 x .lll.TA. . e. "whenever a qualified assertion is taken as an absolute assertion. CN>. The word carries two meanings. liyvw. the confusion of the absolute with what is not absolute but particular.) and that signifying "captiou.. it would appear. for example...l .) to be unknown (8T~ ll". and so the second •• is superfluous." (a) that wbich signifies actual existence.. Kassd who seclude the final If. which is its meaning in the following clause: Ian rae TO I'... known. In short. 2896." With ""I1a TO ci:n.ADyLC'I'6~ "an apparent syllogism results from something being stated both absolutely and not absolutely but with a qualification. a 4-S ""pm. C£ l/48 12 :::1. SE 166b 37l8... makes a statement about cristic argunrents similar to our statement here: arguments that infer or appear to infer from premisses that seem to be probable but are not. see also 16zb 3-S. as he says at SE I66b 38£." Certainly the idea but not the Greek. •ave Ross." The point being made in these lines and then developed for rhetoric in the remainder of the paragraph is that false inference is the result of confusing an unqualified (absolute) statement with a qualified (non-absolute) one.. ep. C£ 7Jf11. or in rhetoric. that noted above ("challenging.01'''.. an apparent enthymeme." etc. solitarium. and (b) that which indicates that Ian is a mere copula joining a subject and predicate. the interchange of.or. a 4 ~P'CJT'''Dit..." primarily for the sake of apparent victory just as sophistry infers falsely for the sake of apparent wisdom.g.350 ARISTOTLE.. false reasoning. and the edd .. In cristics and dialectics and rhetoric this produces apparent inferences. an apparent syllogism. It could also be used. .. 'RHlITOIIIC' II 02.lw... a.. S.. in eristics and dialectics. 1'1. in proving that what is not known i.l. competitive. in demonstrating that the improbable is probable.1> 1'-1) av 1Sv This is the reading of all the codd..6 plkiter: from the qualified to the unqualified . . C£ 9Zb 7... and edd.. rde TO.''''''/1 . is the distinction mention..1 d ...•1. "a/l TI <"al>.. at a 13 Ross places a comma. TI six..'..•. it appears in rh.• Epistula ad Ammaeum 18." This. 57a 34 .. The structure of the sentence at a 16 ("all. 13 COMMBNTARY lSI .toric as the apparent enthymeme based on • particular probability raised to an absolute probability.) is elliptical. . "'0.a.• which permit on. distinguishes on it in the following statement." a 8-9 oG. in rh.6~ This is the conclusion drawn on the previous statement. to make the original statement: namely. c£ A Z. On sI. " • 'Ay48"".." C£Poetics 1461b 15 : "it is probable that what is contrary to probability happens." At a 12 the codd. too." .lx6~ "for that which is contrary to probability does occur and so that which is contrary to probability is ind••d probable. is commonly turned "on the confusion of some particular probability with absolute probability.•17.. however..] is not absolute but qualified... 9. Poetics 1456a 23-25.toric an apparent enthymeme comes from that which is not absolutely probable. Kassel and apparently the scholiast read: "t".." 8.jOa ..'Pa>Tia.... for it is deception when one leaps from a qualified statement to an absolute statement. a lo-II ftx· . a 13-16 clU' cNx . Dionysius ofHalic.a. 57'1 34 : J.1 dx6~ Her.. too. that which is contrary to probability does occur..&. A. The reason is that necessary qualifications are ignored. "'""<0 a9: 1 refers back: to TI .ctics. • /1' .57b I." It is clear... too.. a particular probability: "But this particular probability is not universally probabl•. but only probable in some respect...6..... "So.." "manner. a 13 el U . 6~.•." etc.. 765. a 12-13 ylyvemL ••• orO ....) so here in rhetnric ("al mrz.''''''/1 "al . here [in rhetoric] the fact that the probability is not absolute but a qualified probability creates the deception. & this eristic &IIacy of the exchange of the absolute and qualified statement gives rise to the apparent syllogism such as is found in dial.. read: rl""na. See Nauck: Il£ Snell.) it also CIeates deception.... that A." "in relation to. EI. . on what groWlds I caunot say.. C11J". here because the probability ["«ed TO . .~ ••• .&. ttg. p... means to say: "so. not a period. i. too.) it is argued that the unknown can be known: "to argue that the unknown can be known for the unknown is known as unknown. after sbed. The logic of a 13-16 is clear: just as in eristics such omissions lead to chicanery ('. Literally the sentence reads: "so.• circumstantial qualifications such as "in respect of..d in the preceding note: we cannot conclude to the absolute statement that the improbable is probable from such evidence... sI"d.1. so.oz." This clause responds to a 3: '.... 3 use.ia 73a r3 : 2.II.2. noteS...5. p. In the instance of the weak man liable to the charge of p!>ysical . a 22-23 '1'. 344. Brutus I2. In IsocrateS.12. However.C. stateS that both ca.. PW (14) and S.2. o~a 2...73C. certainly identifies probability argumentation such as we bave it in a r 8-24 with the rhetorical techne of Corax...). a. The tetralogies.. this very argument as Spengel.es which he has presented in a 18-2.. sc. if [d. 78b r4-IS : 3. were possibly model speeches for his students.~ a r9 : 1 eN ymp .)..0 ii" '<E ycltp ••.. you argue that.1.A1USTOTLE. r. Our phrase can be in~reted as it stands as can the parallel one at a 2. In fact Ross introduces here a series of readings. a 17 : ""XV'7 a 18-2. (for 'P ••"iI).). using more or las the same examples as at ooa 18-24. :B. 3.93. identifies it with Tis." are the reputed "founders" of the rhetorical art in the fifth century B. Tetralogy L (J.C. 2 Kop . Ca/lima. . Cicero. 1J (for w. three groups of four speeches (two for prosecution.0 appear to be probable but in one instance we have a true probability.9r).2..o (also r 8). 'RHBTOllIC' II 3S2. (for avluX"eo.w.. Antiphon (48o-4II B.. repeated] a physically weak man is accused of personal . luX"eo.1-28.." Antiphon.. two for defense) on varied kinds of homicide. . in the other we do not. aMa.1x6~ enclosed within parentheses by Ross as is a 20: o.sault. : 2... For A. "because it was sure to seem probable. Ross reads 'Pe6y. .<. a 18 alav. <palytJ "for example. e.. an Attic orator.g." On all.".. the defense 15 that .46.... a 2.u The topic here refers indirectly to the ninth topic of fallacious argument..2. dp..) A...!"'''' By way of summation and conclusion (. De oral..hus 13-15 we bave an argument built upon a series of probabilities and counter probabilities. (Cicero. Corax of Syracuse together with his pupil Tis. 72a 2. before each it is ~~~ to unders~d som~~ like "he defends h~elf on the ground that .0. In the Phaedrus 273a-d Plato. but in the sense that with them the argument from probability came to the fore as we see here.0 801...J "ae . . and directly to the use of the fallacy in rhetoric with regard to probability and moving from qualified to unqualified probability. M~. Radermacher. Ross alone places these lines within quotation marks.. 1. 1 '<o". was influential in the formation of prose style. a 19: 'P8v". Ag. Cp.a 2.xa~ '<£X"'! We bave seen this use of at oob r 5-r6.0. a statement which illustrateS rather well how this principle of probability/improbability works in men's minds with respect to wrongdoing.....h> oJ. 'PeVrrJ. c£ OCD." with a likely reference to Corax in 2. the exchange of an unqualified for a qualified statement.. c£ 72.A 12. 2 iiv taxupo~ .£.. 801.. In the second instance of the strong man (a 19bility of a 22-23: T6 20) we have the untrue probability..l. Guthrie.mAw. in which the "better" argument naturally finds the going difficult with a self-assured "inferinr" argument.6.. Apol. 16. To raise this second case to the statu. as far as I can see.. but.av a 23-24 ""II .. ME . This is the true probael. IS2a).v.tophanes where at 889-II04 we have a debate between "e81TTOJv and ". TheOBt. thw engaging in what Dionysiw of Halicamassw called that "most maliciow of arguments that the improbable is at times probable" (Epistula ad Ammaeum I 8). a very well-known Sophist to whom Plato devoted a dialogue. of the existence of those that are and the non-existence of those that are not" (plato.C. This untrue probability is the qualified probability of a' 23: T6 a. Such argumentation he claims (a 2627) is counterfeit. This together with other dialogues of Plato is the major source for Protagora' thought which.....08.0 Dp. In the fint case (a 18-19) we have unqualified probability as .... and apparently if certain lrinds of improbability seemed probabilities to the individual. 573 34 . Troth was rdative. he could legitimately we them in argument. III 262-69...". is best characterized for many by his dictum: ... more important. In the second (a 19-20) case we have a qualified probability or what A.yop"" • .. the acceptability of arguing either side of a question as expediency demanded. c£ OCD..6. not only explains A.. the sophistry described in the concluding lines of the chapter (a 23-28).. it is quite probable that he did not attack (jwt as we can also say that it is probable that the strong man did attack). This interpretation of a 22-23..'s comment here.1"6.. .).cz I. o~X .. Such. of a general 81.02a 26 COMMBNTARY 353 assault (a 18-19). . Brutus 8. was one of the charges leveled against him. PW (I).. is an instance of Agathon's generalization that "the improbable is probable.uyyu-p.6. calls d . I8b)....3D-3r. Greek Philosophy. built on apparent and not genuine probability. is explained at A 2.e. speaks of.. says Socrates (plato. at a 8-9."man is the measure of all things.. a 25 . a charge picked up in the Clouds of Ari.1.. . . In the very same way one can say of the weak man that ids probable that he made the assault becawe he was not likely to be considered a candidate. "the profession" of Protagoras (?490-?42O B." This makes for the sophistry """otpa1lTiav (a IS) which A. What appears to be called a "fraud" here is the teachiog a 26 ojI£ij&o~ of Protagoras grounded in the lrind of relativism which we assume to be identified with him: namely.57b I." . not absolute.. In this instance it is said that it is probable that the strong man made no assault becawe he was bound to be considered the likely candidate.-TOJV . C£ Cicero..10)10'. perhaps. and the qualification is the statement at a 20: If« .. right and wrong logic. the logical connection with what follows at a 23-:.. which here denotes bad rhetoric.IC' II 02> 27 a 27 : J !ll' €v Ross alone reads dU' <it> with Gomperz.•. no word for false rhetoric or the misuse of rhetoric as there is for false dialectic. which is called sophistry.• Outside Anstode I can find no parallel except S. C£ ssb 17-2. We have only 2j e'1"oe"'oj.1. he rejects cLUd but does refer to Denniston (p. who cites this passage and remarks "Here the rendering 'except' seems to be absolutely necessary. tRHBTOB. Of this Kassel remarks "possibly right".xii As should be clear from A I. OT 1332•••• " 2 P'ITap. .354 AllISTOTLE.1. 4). there i. SSb 17-2. 6. 100-103.3) and sophistically (chap.IO is dilIercnt from the Rhetoric.pl .CHAPTER 25 I . A. Pr.03' IS (0) o>b J3-ZJ (6) o>b ZJ .. :1. of well-known the different kinds of enthymetne and their refutation four kinds of eothymeme refutation of an eik:0I eothymeme refutation of semeia eothymomes refutation of • paradcigmatic eothythe tekmcrion eothymeme Kassel alone places these lin. Dcvdopment: 02« 37 .03a IS I. 24- the different kind....0 ] " (e) 0] .. 24). introduces the matter again at r 17. S.. In the Rhetoric refutation is analyzed in terms of any kind of rhetorical inference..U . those chapters are primarily concerned with the refutation of fallacious reasoning.ozb 13 (0) 02a37-0. oaa 37 . While in SOtne ways this chapra is compared with the concluding chapters of SE (chaps..ing 1lll11:aa" in terms of syllogistic figures. I have briefly looked at SOtne of these problems in Studies... Isb 2-'3. like fiom the judgmeoa penon.. too.. A.. • lp. Afra the presentation of the varied ways in which one em argue by enthymeme validly (chap.. eothymeme &om aD opposite &om. and S. introduces the student to the methods of challenging the validity or exposing the falseness of such arguments.--.. There is a running analysis of the whole chapra in Cope. w. the discussion of lpf1Taa" in An. end of chap.) ola Jo-I5 oza 28-29 "cal "..... Introduction: 02a 30-37 refutation of enthymemes by counrasyllogism or objection (enstasis) II .b4 (6) o>b 4-'1 (e) o>b 7-9 (J) o>b 9-J] •.IO there is no comparable discussion of ADa. mb 13 . 16-33)..~ This chapra on refutation is fairly sdf-explmatory in its analysis of the method.26 dilfers from our dlscussion by analy:>. 2. of objection &om the opponent·. at the a 30 : 1 ). Inlrod. pp. in the Topia. pp. So..5 (J) 03' 5-JO (. Apart from Top.. On the . . and objection raised against one of the premisses in the opponent's >argument.215 repeats the twofuld classification we find here.: a refutative syllogism which concludes to the contradictory of what was affirmed.. " 31 : 1 e1p"p.. a. 160b 23-24). i. i. 24) • olv"'Lau). is more concerned with an analysis of the technique of counter-argumentation. cpo 02b 25. locb 21-23.. narration.%o. con£rmation.. all inferences which reason to a false conclusion must be refuted (Audo. "33 Clu. cpo A I.ovci~ laTL~ C£ 75" 22 : 3.ARISTOTLB. rIJlaYHaioJl). 23 (for valid enthymemes) and of elIap.ci""". Tn the Rheto.53.e.. At SE 1761> 29-36 and 179b 23-34 he specifies AVu" as the exposure offalse reasoning with respect to that which makes it false. both real (chap... " 35 lva. P.31-33." .e places with one exception (see below) the explanation of enstasis given at An. 02b 2... Tn our chapter A. 101). 37.TCI \. 28-31 whielI indicate that it is a proposition (Premiss) introduced as an objection to another statement.e. l.~.. De o. C£ Top. And so it is that in this chapter his interest is in explaining the mechanics of handling the kind of false reasoning which is possible in rhetorical discourse. p. other references to "refutation" in Greek or Latin authors should be examined with care since they probably are speaking about refutation as a part of the speech (exordium. 'RHBTORIC' II 02a 35 cluracter of refutation Ci=.al. 55a 1"7-18 and 2. 12.•.~> . ~6ei~o>V erally accepted opinions of suelI • character that they are entertained by reputable people. in this chapter at 02a 35..or by bringing an objection") it is an accusative agreeing with the understood subject of A15. • ixcip..e.'m"~)..ic we find the word at 97a 5 (a reference to our present chapter). As he remarks. counter-syllogism...).. c£ 02b 21-25 (TO a••1"0..23...Ta) we have the reason for the possibility of counter-syllogismJenthymeme. This inter- . Ai: a 34-35 in the statement on opinions (aO"O.. and this is what A. refutation." and so in logic to "object".. Tn all the. r 17. together with iv"'''O.29. calls at SE 170b I-II an l'. A counter-syllogism would conclude to the opposite of the syllogism it refutes. to block.ov~ "either by stating a counter-syllogism". enthymemes. 69a 37 would fit the text: namely..a'. The noun would appear to have two meanings fur A.. I8b 6.. "enstasis is a premiss contrary to another premiss". c£ also 69b r. Dialectic and rhetoric use b60Ea in argumentation. 56b 33-35 (o~a• . 2.5.ci:a.~ .) by demolishing that which is the source of the fallacy (Top. the common topics of elIap. (c£ Studies.~ •• IIT<1//" in the passive has as one of its meanings to "stand in the way of. i. at 03a 27... 23) and apparent (chap..Oy"'ci:p. 24 (for invalid).. peroration).aooa can be correctly desctibed as gen" a 33~34 01 p. dialectical syll<>gismj against. pp. reference not to the Topies but to the larger body ofhis writings on dialectics . I60b 23 ....e. ..COMMENTAllY 357 pret:ation is confumed by the remark in the final chaptet at 03a 31-33: "an enstasis is not an enthymeme but comists in stating a received opinion".. and Isb 6.~ This is to clie best of our knowledge a a 36 : 1 . It is refuted by using his premiss or premisses. (b) in 6Ia 25 : •... the inference which is offered by the opponent. pp. e. 98b 20. The fact is that we have in the Topies no division of .. the division found in the Rhetoric is recognized -in the Analylies..70a 36 in a chaptet which as seen above also calls enstasis a premiss) does make it difficult to diJferentiate between refutation by countet-syllogism and refutation by custasis. a 37 : 1 Ev"v-. b 2 : 1 8." Or are we to assume that everyone knows that love in one respect represents a need in the individual (on love as a need c£ Plato. e.<nan.. Pr. On the other hand..." does callforsorne kind of inferential procedure to refute the statement "love is good.. The exception is at 02b 2-3: "..o.E.. 02b 7-9.ooe)? By the same token it is possible to see how both meanings (premiss.e.. on usc.lou See 02b 4--'7.1I4a 6 (9:za 9--u). and it brings us to the second meaning of enstasis found in Top. syllogism) may be compatible.. lIoa II: "emtasis will be an argument [i...• 02a 31-3:1..69b 1-3.~...o. Cpo 9Sb 20 . "aTa peeo" see S4b 5.. "all want is an evil..e.. Cope.. "'O"'leo. :1. 6gb 38 .. Symp. Pr. There is a fourfold division of ways to object to an inference at Top. IlIlroJ. cpo 6gb 19--37 with our 02b 1-3 (oC. C£ 03a 33. II4b 6-15. 492-95· . 269--71.g. lou On the idea cpo 92a I2 : 3.99a 6. 69a 37 . 9Sb 32f[.g. and to do so in An. S8a 29. glib 20--25. 02h 2-43 6. v.:1. 6gb I . • ..."...70a 1 (i. The two arc exemplified at 02b 2--3. in general. I99o-:l.. "'00'leo.I6Ia 15 but it is different." This understanding of enstasis as an inferential process (found also in An. and cpo ssa 9. with one exception.. comparable to the one here.6): emtasis as a premiss which is contrary to another premiss may have to be established as a valid counterstatement by the usc of inference. and see Iub '-7 . Further. 02b I cmou8"io~ Cf.aua loa6.). The refutation offered at02b 2-3. on use. Analyties. .oij i.p. each of the examples of CDStasis between 02a 35 and 02b 13 tolerates this meaning.70a I. cpo 973 7 : 2.... it is similar to the usc at Stib 13. 02b 9-13.. This would be the case with "all want is an evil" as an objection to "love is good. P'IJt. • l"".. Pr.X"'~ a general or particular statement as an objection is also mentioned at An." Cpo Ross. thesis. Top. On HaBoAov.. . Top. .. yvwpl""".e.76a 13 (where he speaks of "men of repute whose judgments are well known"). 98b 20 99a 6. """'..." But. ."... See o20b 7.' . ot ii" is apparently the reading of all the codd. 'Pu.e. see also Jebb & Sandys. p. Same construction as at 02a 3I : 2. Ovid. The other edd. Those of distinguished individuals are taken by A.. 9-4S4~6S tells the story. one that is morally wrong. Denniston.. olo. the reading of all thecodd..u. 346).. cp... 22 : 4. Cope read Spengd'.~ . A IS. Spengd and Cope omit oro. from a contrary statement. 7sb 26 ... b s 6 ci. 23-24 on dU' o~a. b 4 btl5~ ..02b 12 ARISTOTLE. 89a 16. . cf. correction dna (p. O2ob 6.. Spengd. b cf...oi:i.. i. and ofKassd for the dnd 6~ TO.." and leto hate" is opposite to "to like. o!'olov. but here with Eun U" ••• '!!'derstood." On ill' o~d' cf.. b 6 W . "it is possible for one to speak generally and to say that.. pp. 344.. read by the other edd. PW. 347.. e. 138n3. b 8-10 &.. Caunus.y... to carry added weight because the very fact of their distinction marks the respect in which they are or were hdd by men.. Judgments are acts made after ddibcration and reBection..o~ a proverbial expression for forbidden love.o. For the "illgsed" are opposite to the "well-treated.and Kassd..s. he continues. . !rIO xp(a.. as the story is told. Spengd conjectures dna. M£I.. cUl.eD~ on the article... p. Victorius notes that this way of objecting from a like statement is the same as the one which immediatdy precedes it.. Kaunos (3) Byblis (4).. or she of him. at b 8. p.u5' Ross alone reads <lfn> dU'. {IT.." b 7 btl 5£ """" 6.. 'RHETORIC' [[ • or. Victorius' answer to that (as cited by Gaisford) would be: ''There is no difficulty with the same instance exemplifying diJfering arguments understood in clillering ways.. or.oi:i "in the case of. Cf.• b 3 K .i. i.. apparently did not agree with this for he claims that a more apt example is called for since the one given also exemplifies an objection from a contrary statement. To avoid the rdationship he went to Carla and founded the city Byblis.. ." Gaisford. it is also an example for what it claims to be since those who always hate because they have been harmed are like to those who always love because they have been treated well.g.: "why not even.. cites Victorius for the following comment on these lines (the comment is not in my copy). 1I4b 25-36. was passionately fond of his sister Byblis. cf.."".. Roemer. Cf. "EfJp .. Grimaldi. and on dvay"aiov." do a~T... I274b 18-23 where his "special" law on a heavier penalty fur assault when drunk is mentioned as it is also by D. Spengd gives the word a larger extension than that met in A 2. Even the irrefutable enthymeme fIom infallible sign...v..''Ypa as a source of enthymeme. b 15-16 ..01 b 13-15 8l .. "1:fJp<lov"... It is not necessary as will be seen. pp.94" 19 with 1l0tes.!. "Inasmuch as enthymemes are detived fIom .g. 03a 12-13. a.a.. See also S6a 35 ..trod. Ross reads I" TO. S?a 34 : J) in fact or seemingly so are enthymesnes fIom probabilities. is saying that enthymemes come £rom these sources and that such enthymesnes are open to objection becawe of either their inferential form or the statement of their premisses.. and it /lies in the face of the constant distinctionmade between the two in the whole work.. Kassd seclude a. S?a 15-16.g... . 104IS.a a•• a•• b 14 : 1 ..p. Freese (Loeb). ]95--97. e... Spengd.. Further I do not view Spengd's comment ("Nunc et "aeda.. and of Cope. In this way he would include "aeda"'Ypa under lvIMp'lpa. On TB"p>le'oP.a." The modern English translations ignore ind.. . 0. S7b 27 : 2...g. another name for the necessary sign (e..."o."p>le'''' can be challenged on what it alleges as a fact...s8a2.... 104-15...... Tovar. some of them come fIom. b 13 """'.dies.. .. h! TO noAv. 93a 28 .''Ypa in numerum enthymernatum referre licet'') as correct or necessary..a9a. z elxo~ .. Dufour. .. 6polov with Richards. J." 8l 8. Dissatisfaction with the text probably begins with Victoriw who thought that a." 389-90. pp.... S7"n .. I have discussed these four sources in St.' hayt»yii. Cope. 160-64. 2fYT-76." .. "'11"".. III. On G'}p••ov: 57b I : " S7b 10-21. Stia 3 : 3.o8EnjcrEII . Laertiw..."Ypa: s6b 5 : 3. calls the two the "OLVa! "lar•• . I do not accept this interpretation of s6a 3-4.." This is the reading of b 16-17 . to say nothing of B 20...p T.... the T. pp. See S.oil . e.. p.02b 16 b 12 COMMBNTARY 359 C£ Pol..d (2) should be dropped and the phrase interpreted: "other enthymemes .. See also Studks. "Some enthymemes drawn fIom ["""fI'Y""" va] what generally happens [TW' cr..lv . II tpalv.. Lives: Pittacus 1. 02b 19): S?an : 1.t.""'Y"'yij~ 8.g. e. The verb is in the past potential. S7b 4. occosioned by the introduction of naeda. On "aeda..76.. Cope cites to the point EN II 13 b 30-33: the penalty fur drunken assault was twice the ordinary penalty becawe it is in the control of the offender not to become drunk.. .. 1785.p Ao"q> TO. In the context of the chapter A.).."!. I... . Roemer. as well as the seeming contradiction with statements in A.olou all the codd." . >i. C£ S?a34 : 2..... B 20 and refers the meaning to s6a 3-4 ("laT.. I . olx6. On 01"&. 8l .S6b II or 93a 24-25 where A.v. and these fuur sources are ..' . what A. However. on "a6<110v .... 57b 27 : 2. pp. 138) consider Td a~ 21-22) an insertion from a marginal note.7J. cf. This is what A.06.. speaks of here is the one whose source is n:aea6 . While I would not remove the phrase. Thus he returns here (02b 21 .'y. undertakes to show how each source can be refuted. Cope. TBH"'''e'OV.. From the analysis of n:aeda.a in the Rhetoric (mduction and deduction) is not something that is a part of enthymeme. notes. el"d" and at ala 2-I5 to fl7Jpsia.eade&ypa.03a 2 TO s.ieo~ cf. cites a number of instances confirming this usage with d. 'RHBTORIC' II 02b 21 are from the induction of a like instance either one or several. Cope." b 19 <ad> vahlen's conjecture read by all the edel. of COllISe. from the example at S7b 20-36: the probable universal premiss is: "all who ask for a bodyguard are aiming at tyranny. b 21 .03a 2) to the first of the four." e. which at A 2. I would resolve the logical articulation of .. El"o~ I'iill..narndy. means when he says "by assuming the universal.. 11• ..ay"aio>: "enthymemes based upon that which is always and necessarily what it is. . 137-38.Vater.. This. Pr.."aTa . saying that zfter presenting the sources of enthymemes A.a as a coordinate method of demonstration with blM.ov As Spengd. £txo~ .. 443). which also appears in the scholiast Anonymus." Ross alone reads "a6&10v ["1 . says is perfectly correct.e. 328. it is an awkward intrusion. 700 3 -70b 37." The enthymeme A.>! or the inductive method of proving. On the statement see 57& 10-21 and An. like to like . 54b 5. See O2b 3I. In order that an example be understood to be an example. '"11'£""" "Those enthymemes expressed by means of a universal or particular proposition whether true or not are sign enthymemes." This is what gives the person a probable universal premiss from which to "reason deductivdy to particular instances.a. i.. In the interpretation given I understand 11 with id.. .. . . p.>1.l"d." The text as it stands is aceeptable. 348. one must in knowing the particular thing intuir the universal principle inherent in it which it shares with other things and thereby becomes an example.ARISTOTLE.po~ sal reasons deductivdy to the particular instances".g. ml TO "olv (02b Victorius (p. Spei1gd.. xa. ... See the next note. &'tI .. 57b 27 is called may..y. would drop this clause as one at odds with such an explanation. Vater (p. Cope (ad loc. O2b 13 (C£ the references in 02b 14 : z). Spengd disagrees..) calls this "a rare ellipse of the subjunctive mood of elva" II T.. p. is part of the problem (see O2b 13) since n:aea6 . "whenever one by assuming the univerb 17-18 3TClV Aa(3cl>v ••• I'. that it reasons from part to part.y.a at 57b 26-30 .. and I would retain it: "other enthymemes come by way of induction from one or several like instances." b 20-21 Ttl &. . To refute it one must show that the asserted connection is not probable. Antidosis 17-19.'V the orators db not agree... There is a protasis at o~b I3-U (hr...03" 2. On the Mysteries 6.ci".. b 3~) on the part of the auditor is that explained in 02b ~5 and stated here in more detail at b 27-3 I.COMMBNTARY o~b I3-~5 in which it appears in this way.. Tetml.. the dif!iculty experienced by the auditors with such a refutation (02b 31-35).. Kassel alone secludes dBi.o~. and since the probable statement .• and since it is not the same thing to refute ...•): (13-21) Seeing that (hrB'1 enthymemes come from the four following sources. Lysias.e. (21-2» and seeing that el"o~ means that which is generally true. Spengel remarks (pp.g.• you refute a probable statement or inference only by showing that it is not probable...."UCtY i. Spengel cites as an example of the refutation of probable arguments AIltiphon. On the Prop.y. ) which is followed by an apedosis at ~b ~:1. On the Crown 6-7."o~ C£ 02a 35 on the word. . and the way to counteract this diflieulty (02b 3503a 2).z.. Cope.. To argue in refuting such a statement that it is not a necessary statement is no refutation. C£ 60a 30 : 1. but the fact is that all the sources except Te".• pp.).." See following note. lsocrates. Dernosthenes. (22-25) it is clear that enthymemes based on el"o~ (TOIaiiTa) can be refuted. b ~7 : 1 1tOtpcz).. III. The statement does not pretend to assert a necessary connection between subject and predicate but only a probable one. 6:VOtY"Ot'OV "For the one who brings an objection offers a refutation not that the statement challenged is not a probable statement but that it is not a necessary statement.t .. 3 l1tEl ycip This introduces a number of statements whose consequence is at b 31 (d dA "e'T~~ . This is then developed into an explanation of what a refutation of the probable means (o~b Z5-JI). 271-'74.oy.u1Jei)~ 6:d "not always genuine". e.• "since the prosecutor proves . 349-50) that b ~6 ""• ... Andocides..g. b 24-~5 ~ ycip II. b 25 iv. .g.afLCN "False rea.. .. Demades. b 23 TOUZUTI1.x. lfCH't . Introd. e.oning "and the fallacy which causes the false reasoning ("aeaJ. which is all that it professes to be.. offers a loose paraphrase of 02b 21 .. b 24 ... On the Twelve Years 3 (the authenticity of the speech is questioned)... enthymemes whose source is tlHor.7je"" are sources of probable argumentation.... . The reason why the refutation is only an apparent and not a real refutation is that it must show that the statement which is being rejected is not a probable statement. only an apparent refutation.rty of Atistophanes 2-3. e.oy'C&. Thus it is of no help in refuting the statement that all who seek a bodyguard are ainIing at tyranny to assert that this does not necessarily follow.-~5 ('1"17Bedv • . .. This is acceptable.e. b 3I iiv o6-n. I am inclined to interpret .• lxo~ "And so it is not sufficient to refute [a. if the . is normal. Ava!1.). The reading is that of the edd. i. b 33-35 in parentheses (0'.. p. yae "" 11.''"n··· a. p. reading . b 35-36 oGxouv ." "incidents." The problem.pllJ'<"fI 7sa 29 : 4. i.ov . lAuD. b 33 ""Ilyxcd"". If we assume fiom the context (e... "0). Cpo s~ 22 : I. Cope.. later. Ross alone enclose. as a glance at Cope. the consequence is [6 dB "IJ'T~' . 329. b 34-35 yvW.e.vaYXlliov· I would read this without any punctuation save a comma before it and a colon at the end as Spenge!. .' dBI slxo" del xal d. Jebb & Sandy. if the objection is "a more probable statement. reasoning falsely.aalV. This is the twofold way whereby an b 38 : 1 XPOv'l"" "pciy"llalV enstasis becomes more probable.. ll. general condition] by showing that the statement is not necessary but one must refute by showing that it is not probable. and such a meaning could apply in fact to other kinds of discourse. Roemer. Cope omits it. Dufour punctuate b 28-3 I with dashes before and after and a colon at the end.. p. Cope accepts lAu8. a refutative argument is urged as etxoneo." c£ ssa IO. and Spengel.. b 25-28) that A. 57" 34.tatement is refuted in this way [i. Kassel do..!. There are difficulties with the interpretation (and so the meaning) of both words. "by means of time") as the scholiast Anonymas did and. inl Td "oAu>. '40H:>'.. b 28-3 I lenL 6E 06 . Xld a.e. as we said.ceo''!' (literally. "e'." Tbis would mean that an enstasis by xew'!' cites more instances which are qpposite .!.ew). Victorius.ARISTOTLE. "time" when the action 'took place. At b 30 the edd.. "by the frequency (of the act). p.... (more probable).. JI5. as not necessary].u8ij Spcngel.ayxaio. I would accept that.. Jebb & Sandys. accepting Bonitz' change of the codd.y." This rc-states by way of conclusion the problem with refuting the probable introduced at b 21-25..e. COMMENTARY I 355. n c£ ozb 27 : 2.. 37 b "ii). i.. "Facts" is the common interpretation of "edy. and b 2831. Ross reads the first part of the sentence as Spongel etc.JB>7 with Bekker.) followed by a comma.:>." For the use of "probable" here sec A 2. will reveal. yae .g.. .> ). :>'74. has only judicial rhetoric in mind here. or uactions... However. In Antiphon's Tetralogy III. but reads 30£ as: (0'. (save Ross who reads as cited above) read with Vablen: <w. is with xedvcp.1 oOTo). then an interpretation of the word such as that of Cope. 'RHETORIC' II o2b 38 is always open to objection .." "circumstances. and [ntrod. b 3I] that the judge. Tovar uses acceptable parentheses before and after with the colon. thinks that the conclusion is not probable or that he must not decide the mattet. e."".') understands it to mean: "If a larger number of incidents [Td nA.". An..""W5"1) .{i) that enthymemes drawn from examples are refuted in the same way as those drawn from probabilities. correct ("d..].. 03a I a 2r-5 AUo.l ••• .I-2.. aVa<Au""x"" signs and sign enthymemes can be refuted even if thcy are true. this is more probable.let... 2 xup .my objection to his probable innocence of traveling 80 miles an hour i~ a 40 mile an hour zo~~ is de£ini~~.. most effecavely..e. "edypaT. a5: J aVa<Au". following.. 2. other instances or acts similar to it. Pr. But as can be seen at oja 5-10 both the idea of frequency of incident and similar incidents are stressed in Td "lei". It is quite possible.'P..-orav i. anonyma.. 1'CpW't'Dl4i • niiy '''I!. A. we know (see Oja 5. e. at oJa 7-8. dIat with the sense of this whole passage (o2.. suggested: sl yde Ta <".. has an extra Td.e. Roemer's I92.] are such as I say and the incidents are more frequent [xai nABovd.i.o says at 57b 5-10. see references at ozb 14 : 2. 17-21. Roemer. In this chapter.. ot y/&p "4 1<Aoov<ix. neglected traflic signals. 57b rO-I4.] with more frequency ["lB••We.. speaks about 2 1<.VI""..more pro~ble. This means: "For if things (happen) in a similar way [OilT.lB.g.. read: sl yde Tel ""Bovd. I would say..~ This is the reading of the codd. 11 v"aex. 57b 1-5 .. "against enthymemes based on examples".... I find this meaning (which Cope says is impossible for xeoo'P) more likely. but I cannot offer an instance of xeo.. finds Roemer's adaptation of Victorius supported by the Arab tradition. a4 : 1 "C'oiC. TherefOre I would understand the words in this way: xeo.. Spengel. an observation of Victoriw.. 14-17.. so used. as he says.p is a a~pe'.. he al.j where a distinction is made between enthymernatic and paradeigmatic rhetoric and speakers. etc. ignored stop signs ("edypaaIV) .e codd.. however.].j "i. Ross. the scholiast interpreting this Oja I reading of d. xeoo. Freese. passed other vehicles on the wrong side. if I show that a man has violated the speed limit a number of times (xeo0'P) and has committed other violations .o. p.'" an adverb: best of all. the sanle thing repeated a number of times.. ...Oja ra) in mind as well as the schaliast's gloss Vicrorius conjectured as the reading of Oja I: el yde Td <". cpo 56b 2..." At oja I in explanation of what he means by the statement the codd.a). A 2.oa Tlii. specifically in terms of time (dncl TO..lT..~ oil"". For example. a.g..g."" -liTO' bd l'cihl n:o . Kassel.s"y!'-".. Bottin.. which is read by Dufour..l.." Further. Still those points must be considered which make such an interpretation seem "more likely...emei." Further still... oih:w..2.U. TB"poje'... j2.wv • xedvru. "al> ".b 3S .' . Cope. "eayp.e ••We. ..J ed. These are . (on which see 03a x). .) and action (dnd TO. Tovar....e/OJ "al> "... p...but it is nDt refutable. "'edypaa.·COMMBNTARY OJ' 5 to what is claimed by the opponent.7. "The refutation of enthymemes based on example is the same as that for those based on probabilities.109. Cope.""'" C£ ola 5 : I. 'RHETORIC' II the refutation of enthymemes.tance.. pp. In the following interpretation I accept both the text and the punctuation usually read by the edd. The intent of the passage is to show two ways to refute enthymemes from example. "l. Herodotus. as.~) we should keep in mind 02b 38 : I. ~s] tIlere are more examples or several instances of the example favoring the opponent. true. and here of those developed from example (02b I4).. diverse?] examples or several in.... Cope places a comma before.""")' a 9: Kassel conjectures <M• • £ 1'>1>..03a 15 ARISTOTLB. Tovar reads la. goes on to say. if[lo.t~B' from a good tradition.. "at cf.."".. explains his changes at a 8-9..e.." i. a 6 <&6. Vcr Text. In the following note there is a ttanslation of 03a 5. since the argument is not a necessary argument.d from the scholiast.z "'~ ••• 4uulloy".0.o.a) .g. with the exception at a 7 of . (a) a 6-8. "Aeo.choliast'. d'. 33-39). 38 he offCrs a summary account of his interpretation. of the example on the opponent's side.. a 8: Ross places a comma not a colon after all.. Ix-' The edd. on p. the fact is true and it is a .. ola I. ("ed~ ... On mlnj . there is a refutation...... paXeT. Kassel seeludes lW"" ." But if.e. a 12 liv. Spengel. sc. Bottin discusses a 5-9 at length (pp.I.&.-l) ••• 01.a: "the refutation is the same as that of probabilities." The statement is answered at a 12: k""eTa. as A." Kassel. even though there are more [i. on the other hand. (on which see o2b 14 : a) there can be no refu- tation.: a 6: <"'>from VahIen and read by all except SpengeJ. we must contend that his present example is unlike those examples or shows dissimilarities or at least has some difference... a II 1CII"<. Cope. The following co~ectures are found among the edd.. which is that of the codd... a 7: el "al Ta. Cpo ola 5: 2." i. for if we have one negative instance.e.0. reading. Cope agree fairly much on the Greek of these lilles. "kt. (6) a 8-ro. a 6-10 Uv"<€ yap ...a.1 "ai. that found at 02b 21 . not after. 4.0&€'1i~ "Fat the whole statement becomes at once a manifi:st demonstration. Freese . "£YO"'' ' ' ' a 13 "<0 "the fact alleged. .1 "al ..... if I diverge from either I indicate it in a parenthesis. a reasoning from premisses that are alone read dnoa. a I 5 1i. from the .. In the light of what we find at a 7-8 (. oifr".."p>le'o.. e..03a 2...."" "on the ground of not forming a valid syllogism. Spenge! accepts only .ro.. 143-44. whether it i. 03a 34 . is happening..ame time and as part of the work which includes the first two books. In this structure chap." 93a 251. 03a 25-33 III· 03a34-03b 2 amplification/depreciation is not a of enthymeme TO". S9a I I-26. which are numbered among the basic concepts of A. maxim [which "is part of an enthymerne. 26. important or unimportant. first mentioned at A 3. I do bdieve that the third book: forms a whole with the first two and have given some reasons for this in Studies. !lIb 29. On the other hand." The final line. refutative and demonstrative enthymemes are not different in kind conclusion CO first two books and transition CO the third 03a 17 : I oW &' <rllI.CHAPTER 26 I .... will happen.ELV x . which ale found in all the codd. 20-22: example. 23-24). style. This division is repeated in similal language at the opening of Book 3. the common copics (chaps. The two modern commentators see it as a work: independently produced: Spengd (p. which corrects appalent misunderstandings about amplification/depreciation and refutative enthymeme. earlier with high probability than 1-2. pp. 2 <rllI. and seems like an afterthought.d ale pre-condiuons CO the whole process of deliberation in any of the three kinds of rhetoric. too. . the " •••d (chap. Cope (p. and enthymeme iudf). 03b 6-8. C£ S9a II-I3.'.g. and this.'s) Was written at the .03 b 2. bas caused doubts about whether the third book (now accepted by most as A. Chapters 19-25 are fully consonant with the statement at 9Ib 24 . and =gement (Book 3).d. whether it bas happened. e. of the chapter.. In order CO take up any subject for discussion and deliberation we must know whether the subject is possible or not. fits (in a loose sense) as a conclusion co the discussion on enthymeme since it takes up "common misconceptions about enthymeme. occasion some dissatisfaction among scholar. the common modes of refutation (chap.e. 03a 17-25 II . 923 . • This final chapter is somewhat anomalous. 25). For there bas been no mention in the first two books of a triple division of the treatise into principles of invention (i.92a 4 where we clearly make a transition co those principles common to rhecorical discoune. tYter the publication of 1-2. 50-52.ELV .l "ELM This is one of the three " ••... These " . theory of thetoric as given in A 1-3. the common proofS (chaps. Books 1-2). I do not believe that either position can be proven with any firm assurance of its rightness. 354). 334).. 19: the dements essential CO the process of intelligent discourse). loiW). pp.366 ARISTOTLE. i. there is no reason.ee 93' 9-18 with notes.IO. On amplification/depreciation itself. to minimize. Here TO"O. . etc. But this topic of more/less (l'iillo. pp. Studin.• TllmIV C£ 96b 21-22 and 96b 21-22. C£ S8a 2.8 : 3. TOnO.£. at A 9 (670 23-28..93' 21.is not > TO"O' i ."'/I'. (a 18-19: ItIT. the opposite. lu the "0"'& are explained by A.ymus .e. Studies..ary specifications of that subject matter if one is to . the "0<>" are neces. are constitutive aspects of the subject matter about which one reasons by syllogisms or enthymeme. On Tli"o. This seems more than justified by the way the word is used at s8a 2-35.. like the common topics.w /I'". Quintilian.. 'BHBTORIC' II 03' 19 4-'7. are forms of inference for reasoning on the subject matter of rhetoric. Studin. 8vl'fJl'aTO. c£ S8a II. . 75.0... To use the topic of more/less is to construct an argument either from the intrinsic nature of the subject matter or from a comparison of the subject with something dse in an attempt to demonstrate that something can or cannot be. possible/impossible. fortiore/a minore/a pari. Here it is spoken of as the basic component of enthymeme and identified with T6. The one exception is at 97b U-'7 where the topic ofmorefless is given as one of the common topics of enthymeme. To amplify. the greater injustice Uudicial)..t they form a general category applicable to all argwnentation. 6T'oUv At a 20 1wonld agree with the seclusion of . S8a 27-28. indicate its importance or insignificance. In this respect they are. and atA 14..8"l'fJl'aTa (Studies. Cicero. amplification/depreciation. ipnUns('). pp. 36-38. however.. 122-29. just/mUust... particularly 58a 29-35. and in Ano!. past." should be a topic of enthymeme. We can see the point be is making at A 7 in the discussion of the greater good (ddiberative rhetoric). 20. or a smaller.. or. present. mentions here only amplification/depreciation. For some reason A. in 97b 12 : 2.. From the Rhetoric. Studies. and it denotes a basic component of • thing. s8a 3S. p. basic components for reasoned discourse. Further. IIS-19. 92a 8 . or what is known as the argument from comparison with a greater. diminish it is to sdect dements directly or indirectly rdated to the subject which will enhance or depreciate it. cpo olb S.MTTOV) is not the same as amplification/depreciation (aiJ~. yde . We find <lTO'XB''''' at 62.peak intelligently. The point at issue in a 17-'5 is that aiJ~. it can be seen th. foture fact. pp.JI'.... 29...v .is. 01. or an equal. conld also be cited since what he says at a 20-23 could also apply to them. to think that aiJ~. 68a 26-33). S9b 25-]2. enlarge. c£ S8a 17. 49) which appears in all the codd. on the common topics. The topic more/less is in fact the argument. on the particular topics. with one exception. tbe more honorable (epideictic).. show the greatness of something. etc. lu the ". but the other "0"'". means the "oIVol TOnOl. a 18 TO yap . . 129-3S. See the references to the Topics II4b 37lE.ov. a 19-22 TO Ii' . it is only the common topics of which one could say that they are > category to which different kinds of enthymeme bdong (a 18-19). "Nor arc refutative enthymemes some one specific kind..aTa) that he is speaking about the subject m2tter enthymcmes utilize.nAo'nilv x ...a. e£ chap... however. such attributes of the subject can be proven in ways other than byenthymeme... e. by example. arc given at 02' 32-33 (dijl. . two types of enthymcmes as there are two types of syllogism. "0 ••••).. not about the &mns of inference (T.. and Spengd.... a 23 ..." C£ his brief comments on this point in the Poetics 56b I and 4. Any diJference between them is accidental.. Thus there is no rcason to limit such demonstration to "enthymemes. <11I>a"s ..... that he means by the words simply two types of the same thing: namdy. of rhetOric..pi a .."O... W8v.aw. However.'0. is defined dsewhere as In definition both types of enthymemes (as also syllogism) arc the same. etc. ". understood as species).rd'1 . None of the edd... i. is apparendy saying is that greatness and smallness (achieved by means of ailEe••/. for it is clear . a 25 : 1 . the dl.") is one of the things like justice{ injustice.. Freese read it.g... On the refutative enthymeme. goodness/badness... He emphasizes this point when he says here (a 30) that both types use the same topics as forma of inference..03a 26 COMMENTAllY but is secluded by all the edd. says that there arc .. It is not a specific difference (sldo. . Cope. simple narration. 3 [." Further. The reason for his taking up the point is no more clear than that for the discussion of amplification. of syllogism (96b 26-28). makes it clear (a 23: "eel Ii ..... AUTUC" se. 5910 14- ""Alo". Cope reads the .. Cope. lMyxo" which is the other eldo.. . The two arc different. e£ 96b 23-28 (laT<• . as he says at a 23-24: Olen' ." On ""TaaxBtlaen•. and from the conteXt "prove" means to make an inference.. "another kind from constructive syllogisms. I would interpret: "Amplification/depreciation has as its object to show that the subject is significant or insignificant. e. the honorable/the dishonorable (i... A.."xou.'ICCiIvI This is secluded by the edd.. TO"O. Ii&ucav C£ references at the end of 03a 17 : 2."eoo.g.)..59a 10 as well as 59a II-29. one to demonstrate. 58b 6 .!vo of enthymemes.. In this earlier passage A. IOD-roI. bBv..• d". just or unjust.aTa. 2 d&6~ . except Ross.. 58b 8-29) which the speaker (writer) attempts to demonstrate about the subject of discourse.. and it appears in the English versions... a 26 i\ &o(~l1~ "either by proving".. 25 where the refutative syllogism (enthymeme in rhetoric) was merely mentioned (oza 31-35).e. It also appears in Freese and in most English versions.. It is clear. e£ Studies. on refutation and its kinds. What A. pp. just as one shows [se.. a 21-22 tlyu86v .z . particularly 03a 29-30. in that mention the grounds for the comments here at 03a 25-31. Spengd....>i. or anything else of that character. dBI"""a.. the subject matter of rhetOrical discourse as it is presented in genere atA 3.] that a subject is good or bad. one to refute.) enthymemes take.... For example...e.>i. Olan . " a 31 lv.t SE I6S' 2-3: "refutation is • syllogism which entails the contradiction of a given conclusion. or indeed from the Rlrttoric itself at ozb 2-3 (I) rde "a8o). it is not so certain from Top. a. and I notice so does the scholiast Anonymus. pp.... Ross. 2 &cI~"v opinion... Kassel.~ C£ 02a 3S. which is what A.&11'£11011 C£ 92& !rIl.1J'P£1I This is a good explanation of l.02b 3. Cope reads it. 06 av... .e. save Ross. 'RHETORIC' II found according to Kassel (who secludes it) in many of the codd." "seeing that". Pr."''0' a 2!r3I Ei1J [iI] &"ltI'OP«' . 69a 37 .xWou"..... intends here.aTaa.. p. On the other han~ as is pointed out in the rest of the note.uorl~.. or that one of the premisses asserts something not true (m. "they prove in answer the opposite (of what was proven). 3 .e.Ur... 31-33. Kassel oniit the colon and enclose in parentheses.oi~ . However."." it is the definition of found .]) they demonstrate in reply the opposite (of the opponent's conclusion)...). "Since they present cnthymemes to show ." 2 . .7D" I. a 25-31). Spengel favors the singular (which is Ross's reading)..I6Ia IS or An.. 'P~pCNCrLV Ros.oi~ Since enthymemes are spoken of (e.IE"...i~ ~.g... 2 Ih:. £D.. "O"'7eo.terial error: "PriM. Spenge! <pie ova. [oj a. was described at 02a 31-32 as d. I would understand these words to refer to the topics (particular or general.v "(by the first [i.. which is the subject of these lines (a 27-31). T • • rAws. to content or form of the argument).g. 02a 3S . . view. as explained at 023 35 ..... For it includes an objection to formal or material error·in the reasoning.). which speaks of enstasis as"in objection. One presents an objection to the inference itself by showing either that a premiss is wrongly used and so the inference does not give the conclusion stated (an error in form.ov ." The plural is read by all the edd.. who understand it to refer only· to a 32 : 1 02a the Topics.u... a 30: 1 . I60b 23 ..a8aL As the refutativc enthymeme is described here.. e.tEa. The explanation of refutation by the rhetorical syllogism. Some such opinions were set forth at 02b 1-13. righdy seclude oj.. a 27 : 1 lv.. 22.. 'r011:'''O~ C£ c£ Studies. see Vahlen. See also oz...'v C£ 02a 3S.. "Kritik arise.rISTOTLB.aTa.02b 13. 36 : 1."". TO'. a 33 ~ fi~ .. and Brandis. i. as 3 propositional statement directed against the opponent's reasoning. ~11:o&£.) that enstasis is simply an objection to a premiss.p rde = "since.." '40.)... schriftcn.. ya... IOD-I03. particularly the first part of the note. o3b 1-2 >'Ol. ethics. C£ 77b 16 : 1.ezpczli. Books 1-2. .a come "all those things which must be produced by speech". the subject matter. Whether more than that can be said I am not sure . greatness! smallncss (the H .a•• oa in the Poetia at I450b 4-13. the ability to state what belongs to and is pertinent to a subject.ci..CIT. refutation (i.d.. Obviously. Thus the phrase 8A.. Further.d· would be a shorthand expression for the study of rhetoric offered in the first two books."" . . knowledge of the first two books. of rhetoric (T.e..". li. C£ S4a 16: 1. it is true that the programmatic statement of the first three chapters of the first book presents in some dctaiJ the structure of the first two books.... ... In the first passage he says that it i. 22-23.a.. Ii'lj Ross alone reads: J". cpo A 2. the ".e. diction (TO"'.dB'I).g.ci.. Further. and he goes on to specify them as demonstration. .'s original plan? Cope discusses it at pp.'~ and particular and common). a. In the second passage he repeats the remark that is more proper to the methodology ofrhetoric and says further that his comments on the concept made in the Rhetoric are to be assumed. thought.).&).. S6a 25-27). 2. ~ This raises the problem mentioned in O]a 17 : 1: Is the third book part of A.. .cili. "invention" describes more accurately what A.. nor would I consider it an intelligible entity without. TdE" if they were part of his program at the time. ." i.. The reference to the statements made in Rhetoric are understood to be those made in Books 1-2. There is no formal direct statement in Books 1-2 about the subject matter of Book 3. SO-52) the appearance of Book 3 prior to the first two books.'~ and T~" which follows. . a..oulY "in general those matters which have to do with the process of invention.I4S6b 8. . This is a reasonable interpretation since he continues that under a.yp..3-4 could be called the substantive ideas. the emotions (".e.apart from the fact that I do not sec as likely (e. .~). Myov C£ s6a I : 2 .. a 36 3Aw~ . I prefer "invention" to interpretations like "the intellcctual part. a 35 :. and probability (. 01 Ii.. 21..'1~ e. T. lv8up.".' A'l<T"'O~).. pp..' •• ....I aBo "pezYf'G"1:Eu8ijvez. intelligence play a significant role there also. an ability he calls a function of rhetoric and politics (i."O' "earpa.l"." ••. say' of a.. . in a formal way this was done for the three in B 20.. I456a 33 . 333-35.g. Studies." "the thought element" because such phrases appear to establish a dichotomy between the role of the intellect in the first two books and the discussion of u.a.COMMBNTARY a 34 : 1 2 . On Literary Composition 1. as distinguished from expression... By "process of invention" I mean those matters which in the words of Dionysius of Halicamassus. In the light of this detail one might expect that A. would also make some mention of UE'~.. . M. Oxford 1964"Die Gliederung der rhetorischen TBX""'I WId die horazische EpislUla all Pisonu.. J. Suidu Lexicon I-V. Oxford 1963. Bonner. in Jer. O.z. W. Barnes. G.. The POLIIICS ofArislolle. Bonaventure.. Index Aristol. Bailey. Grue. Leipzig 1897· Pp. A. J.'. E. Bcmardakis.. V. 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