LAB M UAL MANUPO OWER R SYSTEM PR ROTEC CTION SUBM MITTED TO ENGR R.M JUNA AID SUBM MITTED BY AS SAD NAE EEM 2006R RCETEE E22 DEPAR RTMENT O ELECTRICAL EN OF NGINEERIN NG A ITUENT CO OLLEGE: R RACHNA C COLLEGE OF ENGIN NEERING & (A CONSTI TECHNOLO T OGY GUJR RANWALA A) UN NIVERSITY OF ENGI Y INEERING & TECHN NOLOGY LA AHORE, PA AKISTAN POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL EXP# 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 TITLE Introduction to MATLAB and Electrical Transients Analyzer Program ETAP Introduction to Power System Protection IMPACT OF INDUCTION MOTOR STARTING ON POWER SYSTEM SELECTION OF CIRCUIT BREAKER FOR DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF A GIVEN POWER SYSTEM USING ETAP Transient stability analysis of a given power system using ETAP Introduction to Ground Grid Modeling in ETAP Ground Grid Modeling of a Given System using ETAP Modeling of Single‐Phase Instantaneous Over‐Current Relay using MATLAB Modeling of a Three Phase Instantaneous Over‐Current Relay using MATLAB Modeling of a Differential Relay Using MATLAB Comparison between the Step and Touch Potential of a T‐Model and Square Model of Ground Grids under Tolerable and Intolerable in ETAP Modeling of an Over‐Current Relay using ETAP Modeling of a Differential Relay Using ETAP Modeling of Single‐Phase Definite Time Over‐Current Relay using MATLAB ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL EXPERIMENT NO: 01 Introduction to MATLAB and Electrical Transients Analyzer Program ETAP MATLAB This is a very important tool used for making long complicated calculations and plotting graphs of different functions depending upon our requirement. Using MATLAB an m‐file is created in which the basic operations are performed which leads to simple short and simple computations of some very complicated problems in no or very short time. Some very important functions performed by MATLAB are given as follows: • • • • • • • • Matrix computations Vector Analysis Differential Equations computations Integration is possible Computer language programming Simulation Graph Plotation 2‐D & 3‐D Plotting Benefits: Some Benefits of MATLAB are given as follows: • • • • • • • Simple to use Fast computations are possible Wide working range Solution of matrix of any order Desired operations are performed in matrices Different Programming languages can be used Simulation is possible ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 .^B Range Specification: A:B Square‐Root: A sqrt B Where A & B are any arbitrary integers Basic Matrix Operations: This is a demonstration of some aspects of the MATLAB language.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Basic Commands: Some basic MATLAB commands are given as follows: Addition: A B Subtraction: A‐B Multiplication: A*B Division: A/B Power: A^B Power Of each Element individually: A. Adding an element to a Vector: b a 2 b 3 4 5 6 8 6 5 6 7 Plots and Graphs: Creating graphs in MATLAB is as easy as one command. Notice how MATLAB requires no special handling of vector or matrix math. and store the result in a new vector. a. Let's plot the result of our vector addition with grid lines. Plot b grid on MATLAB can make other graph types as well. bar b xlabel 'Sample #' ylabel 'Pounds' ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . a 1 2 3 4 6 4 3 4 5 a 1 2 3 4 6 4 3 4 5 Now let's add 2 to each element of our vector.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Creating a Vector: Let’s create a simple vector with 9 elements called a. with axis labels. Here is an example using stars to mark the points.: 7 8 9 ans 1 2 0 2 5 ‐1 4 10 ‐1 7 8 9 Adding a new Column: C :. Creating a matrix: Creating a matrix is as easy as making a vector. 4 10 ‐1 A 1 2 0 2 5 ‐1 4 10 ‐1 Adding a new Row: B 4. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . 2 5 ‐1.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL MATLAB can use symbols in plots as well. A 1 2 0. B A' B 1 2 4 2 5 10 0 ‐1 ‐1 Matrix Multiplication: Now let's multiply these two matrices together.4 7 8 9 ans 1 2 0 7 2 5 ‐1 8 4 10 ‐1 9 Transpose: We can easily find the transpose of the matrix A. using semicolons . MATLAB offers a variety of other symbols and line types. to separate the rows of a matrix. C A .POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Note again that MATLAB doesn't require you to deal with matrices as a collection of numbers.* B C 1 4 0 4 25 ‐10 0 ‐10 1 Inverse: Let's find the inverse of a matrix : X inv A X 5 2 ‐2 ‐2 ‐1 1 0 ‐2 1 And then illustrate the fact that a matrix times its inverse is the identity matrix. we can multiply the corresponding elements of two matrices or vectors using the’. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . I inv A * A I 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 MATLAB has functions for nearly every type of common matrix calculation. C A * B C 5 12 24 12 30 59 24 59 117 Matrix Multiplication by corresponding elements: Instead of doing a matrix multiply.* ‘operator. MATLAB knows when you are dealing with matrices and adjusts your calculations accordingly. 7321 0.0000 0.2679 MATLAB has many applications beyond just matrix computation.7321 1.0000 Polynomial coefficients: The "poly" function generates a vector containing the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial. Vector Convolution: To convolve two vectors : q conv p. These are actually the eigenvalues of the original matrix. roots p ans 3.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Eigen Values: There are functions to obtain Eigen values: eig A ans 3. The characteristic polynomial of a matrix A is p round poly A p 1 ‐5 5 ‐1 We can easily find the roots of a polynomial using the roots function.2679 1. p q 1 ‐10 35 ‐52 35 ‐10 1 ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . Many of these tools are graphical user interfaces.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Or convolve again and plot the result. r 1 ‐15 90 ‐278 480 ‐480 278 ‐90 15 ‐1 Matrix Manipulation: We start by creating a magic square and assigning it to the variable A. This is the set of tools and facilities that help you use MATLAB functions and files. q plot r . It includes the MATLAB ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . A magic 3 A 8 1 6 3 5 7 4 9 2 MATLAB IN POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION The MATLAB System: The MATLAB system consists of five main parts: Development Environment. r conv p. and fast Fourier transforms. and browsers for viewing help. input/output. matrix Eigen values. cosine. calling MATLAB as a computational engine. The MATLAB Application Program Interface API : This is a library that allows you to write C and FORTRAN programs that interact with MATLAB. It includes high‐level functions for two‐dimensional and three‐dimensional data visualization. The MATLAB Language: This is a high‐level matrix/array language with control flow statements. an editor and debugger. and complex arithmetic. Graphics: MATLAB has extensive facilities for displaying vectors and matrices as graphs.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL desktop and Command Window. and the search path. and object‐oriented programming features. files. the workspace. sine. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . like sum. as well as annotating and printing these graphs. Bessel functions. It also includes low‐ level functions that allow you to fully customize the appearance of graphics as well as to build complete graphical user interfaces on your MATLAB applications. It includes facilities for calling routines from MATLAB dynamic linking . functions. animation. image processing. and presentation graphics. data structures. and "programming in the large" to create large and complex application programs. The MATLAB Mathematical Function Library: This is a vast collection of computational algorithms ranging from elementary functions. a command history. and for reading and writing MAT‐files. to more sophisticated functions like matrix inverse. It allows both "programming in the small" to rapidly create quick and dirty throw‐away programs. MATLAB and the Bioinformatics Toolbox give scientists and engineer a set of computational tools to solve problems and build applications in drug discovery. You can use the basic bioinformatics functions provided with this toolbox to create more complex algorithms and applications. to help you learn about and use all of its features.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL MATLAB Documentation: MATLAB provides extensive documentation. Working with Matrices: Generate matrices. These robust and well tested functions are the functions that you would otherwise have to create yourself. and delete matrix rows and columns. and use the find function. multivariate data. More About Matrices and Arrays: Use matrices for linear algebra. genetic engineering. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . in both printed and online format. If you are a new user. Determining statistical characteristics of data. Bioinformatics Toolbox: The Bioinformatics Toolbox extends MATLAB to provide an integrated software environment for genome and proteome analysis. Reading and converting between multiple data formats. load matrices. work with arrays. and logical subscripting. Connecting to Web accessible databases. suppress output. Together. Controlling Command Window Input and Output: Change output format. It covers all the primary MATLAB features at a high level. start with this Getting Started book. scalar expansion. and biological research. including many examples. MATLAB documentation is also available in printed form and in PDF format. and edit at the command line. enter long lines. create matrices from M‐files and concatenation. The MATLAB online help provides task‐oriented and reference information about MATLAB features. Control System Toolbox: Building Models Describes how to build linear models. See Data Visualization. and protein structure analyses. The field of bioinformatics is rapidly growing and will become increasingly important as biology becomes a more analytical science. Modeling patterns in biological sequences using Hidden Markov Model HMM profiles. view the source code for existing functions. Reading. interconnect models. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . gene expression data. and how to perform model order reduction on large scale models. This chapter develops a DC motor model from basic laws of physics. Prototype and develop algorithms Prototype new ideas in an open and extendable environment. a GUI that allows you to rapidly iterate on compensator designs. determine model characteristics. Create stand‐ alone applications that run separate from MATLAB. phylogenetic trees. This chapter also discusses command‐line functions for viewing model responses. See Algorithm Sharing and Application Deployment. and visualizing microarray data creating and manipulating phylogenetic tree data interfacing with other bioinformatics software.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Manipulating and aligning sequences. Develop algorithms using efficient string processing and statistical functions. See Prototype and Development Environment. Analyzing Models Introduces the LTI Viewer. normalizing. Share and deploy applications Use an interactive GUI builder to develop a custom graphical front end for your data analysis programs. convert between continuous‐ and discrete‐ time models. graphical users interface GUI that simplifies the task of viewing model responses. Designing Compensators Introduces the SISO Design Tool. Visualize data Visualize sequence alignments. The Bioinformatics Toolbox provides an open environment that you can customize for development and deployment of the analytical tools you and scientists will need. and use the code as a template for improving or creating your own functions. You can perform a nonparametric fit using a smoothing spine or various interpellants. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . sums of Gaussians. Standard linear least squares. and so on. lead networks. weighted least squares. Getting started with the Data Acquisition Toolbox describes the toolbox components. constrained least squares. and workspace variables. This chapter also discusses command‐line functions for compensator design and includes examples of LQR and Kalman filter design. zeros. such as poles. nonlinear least squares. Library equations include polynomials. The toolbox provides you with these main features: Data preprocessing such as sectioning and smoothing Parametric and nonparametric data fitting: You can perform a parametric fit using a toolbox library equation or using a custom equation. and robust fitting procedures Fit statistics to assist you in determining the goodness of fit Analysis capabilities such as extrapolation. rationales. Data Acquisition Toolbox: Introduction to Data Acquisition provides you with general information about making measurements with data acquisition hardware. and notch filters. and get command line help. The topics covered should help you understand the specification sheet associated with your hardware. and shows you how to access your hardware. binary files. differentiation. examine your hardware resources. and integration A graphical environment that allows you to: Explore and analyze data sets and fits visually and numerically Save your work in various formats including M‐files.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL You can use this tool to adjust compensator gains and add dynamics. Curve Fitting Toolbox: The Curve Fitting Toolbox is a collection of graphical user interfaces GUIs and M‐file functions built on the MATLAB® technical computing environment. Custom equations are equations that you define to suit your specific curve fitting needs. exponentials. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Database Toolbox: Overview of how databases connect to MATLAB. Data feed Toolbox: This document describes the Data feed Toolbox for MATLAB®. Filter Design Toolbox: The Filter Design Toolbox is a collection of tools that provides advanced techniques for designing. including minimum‐order. such as the Financial Time Series Toolbox. set up the data source for ODBC drivers or for JDBC drivers. Starting the Database Toolbox Start using functions or the Visual Query Builder GUI. the Filter Design Toolbox lets you generate VHDL and Verilog code for fixed‐point filters. databases. you can pass this data to MATLAB or to another toolbox. the Visual Query Builder. minimum‐ phase. constrained‐ripple. MATLAB versions. data types. toolbox functions. the Filter Design Toolbox provides functions that simplify the design of fixed‐point filters and the analysis of quantization effects. and nonlinear ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . major features of the toolbox. When used with the Filter Design HDL Coder. and the expected background for users of this product. and learn how to get help for the product. drivers. including adaptive filtering and MultiMate filtering. SQL commands. It extends the capabilities of the Signal Processing Toolbox with filter architectures and design methods for complex real‐time DSP applications. Key Features: Advanced FIR filter design methods. and related products. simulating. and analyzing digital filters. Nyquist. half band. you can download a wide variety of security data from financial data servers into your MATLAB workspace. The Data feed Toolbox effectively turns your MATLAB workstation into a financial data acquisition terminal. Then. System Requirements Supported platforms. Used with the Fixed‐Point Toolbox. Setting Up a Data Source Before connecting to a database. as well as filters transformations. Using the Data feed Toolbox. for further analysis. interpolated FIR. The ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . and many other types of signals. analysis. Wavelet Toolbox: Everywhere around us are signals that can be analyzed. RF Toolbox: The RF Toolbox enables you to create and combine RF circuits for simulation in the frequency domain with support for both power and noise. write. and low pass to multiband. For example. human speech.hnp formats. including LMS‐based. and . music. Z. including design. frequency‐domain. Adaptive filter design. Wavelet analysis is a new and promising set of tools and techniques for analyzing these signals.snp. and section reordering Round‐off noise analysis for filters implemented in single‐precision floating point or fixed point FIR and IIR filter transformations. Functions enable you to: Read and write RF data in Touchstone® . RLS‐based. there are seismic tremors. You can read.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL phase Perfect reconstruction and two‐channel FIR filter bank design Advanced IIR design methods. fast transversal. Conversion among S. T.ynp. group‐delay equalizers. including arbitrary magnitude. and voltage standing‐wave ratio VSWR at the reflection coefficient. and ABCD network parameters Plot your data on X‐Y plane and polar plane plots. h. constrained‐pole radius. medical images. . notching. as well as the Math Works . Work Directly with Network Parameter Data You can work directly with your own network parameter data or with data from files.AMP format. scaling.znp. lattice‐based. Y. and implementation. and comb filters Analysis and implementation of digital filters in single‐precision floating‐point and fixed‐point arithmetic Support for IIR filters implemented in second‐ order sections. . including cascaded integrator‐comb CIC fixed‐point MultiMate filters VHDL and Verilog code generation for fixed‐point filters. and affine projection Multi‐rate filter design. low pass to high pass. engine vibrations. financial data. analysis. and visualize RF network parameters. analyze. combine. including low pass to low pass. as well as Smith® charts Calculate cascaded S‐parameters and de‐embed S‐parameters from a cascaded network Calculate input and output reflection coefficients. peaking. and implementation. using wavelets and wavelet packets within the framework of MATLAB. model it. so you can change parameters on the fly and immediately see what happens. You can easily build models from scratch. you can move beyond idealized linear models to explore more realistic nonlinear models. have different parts that are sampled or updated at different rates. A goal of Simulink is to give you a sense of the fun of modeling and simulation. and analyzing dynamic systems. or take an existing model and add to it. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . It supports linear and nonlinear systems. The Wavelets Toolbox provides two categories of tools: Command line functions Graphical interactive tools the first category of tools is made up of functions. and tools for statistical applications. It provides tools for the analysis and synthesis of signals and images. With Simulink. the flutter of an airplane wing. Simulations are interactive.. The MathWorks provides several products that are relevant to the kinds of tasks you can perform with the Wavelet Toolbox.e. modeled in continuous time. Simulink encourages you to try things out. i. air resistance. or the effect of the monetary supply on the economy. and the other things that describe real‐ world phenomena. Systems can also be MultiMate. factoring in friction. Simulink turns your computer into a lab for modeling and analyzing systems that simply wouldn't be possible or practical otherwise.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Wavelet Toolbox is a collection of functions built on the MATLAB® Technical Computing Environment. sampled time. or a hybrid of the two. whether the behavior of an automotive clutch system. through an environment that encourages you to pose a question. Simulink: Simulink® is a software package for modeling. the dynamics of a predator‐prey model. simulating. gear slippage. and see what happens. hard stops. The toolbox provides two categories of tools: Command line functions in the following categories: Analog and digital filter analysis Digital filter implementation FIR and IIR digital filter design Analog filter design Filter discretization Spectral Windows Transforms Cepstral analysis Statistical signal processing and spectral analysis Parametric modeling Linear Prediction Waveform generation. Signal Processing Toolbox: The Signal Processing Toolbox is a collection of tools built on the MATLAB® numeric computing environment. A suite of interactive graphical user interfaces for Filter design and analysis Window design and analysis Signal plotting and analysis Spectral analysis Filtering signals Signal Processing Toolbox Central Features The Signal Processing Toolbox functions are algorithms. expressed mostly in M‐files. and automation of generation. transmission. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . parametric modeling. optimization. knowledge of this tool will serve you well throughout your professional career. distribution. With thousands of engineers around the world using it to model and solve real problems. and spectral analysis. These toolbox functions are a specialized extension of the MATLAB computational. simulation. operation. ETAP is the most comprehensive analysis platform for the design. and industrial power systems. from waveform generation to filter design and implementation. control. The toolbox supports a wide range of signal processing operations. that implement a variety of signal processing tasks.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Simulink is also practical. MVAR. kV. MVA. Amp.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Project Toolbar The Project Toolbar contains icons that allow you to perform shortcuts of many commonly used functions in PowerStation. Create Open Save Print Cut Copy Paste Zoom In Create a new project file Open an existing project file Save the project file Print the one‐line diagram or U/G raceway system Cut the selected elements from the one‐line diagram or U/G raceway system to the Dumpster Copy the selected elements from the one‐line diagram or U/G raceway system to the Dumpster Paste elements from a Dumpster Cell to the one‐line diagram or U/G raceway system Magnify the one‐line diagram or U/G raceway system Zoom Out Reduce the one‐line diagram or U/G raceway system Zoom to Fit Page Check Continuity Power Calculator Re‐size the one‐line diagram to fit the window Check the system continuity for non‐energized elements Activate PowerStation Calculator that relates MW. and PF together with either kVA or MVA units Help Point to a specific area to learn more about PowerStation ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . optimal power flow. edit engineering properties. transient stability. and more. & Paste Elements Move from Dumpster Insert OLE Objects Cut.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Mode Toolbar ETAP offers a suite of fully integrated software solutions including arc flash. cable ampacity. This mode provides a wide variety of tasks including: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Drag & Drop Elements Connect Elements Change IDs Cut. change system connections. short circuit. Its modular functionality can be customized to fit the needs of any company. from small to large power systems. and generate schedule reports in Crystal Reports formats. save your project. Copy & OLE Objects Merge PowerStation Project Hide/Show Groups of Protective Devices Rotate Elements Size Elements Change Symbols Edit Properties Run Schedule Report Manager ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . Edit Mode Edit mode enables you to build your one‐line diagram. Copy. load flow. relay coordination. The Edit Toolbars for both AC and DC elements will be displayed to the right of the screen when this mode is active. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Instrumentation Elements: AC Elements: ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL DC Elements: Load Flow Analysis: ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Short Circuit Analysis: Motor Starting Analysis: ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Harmonic Analysis: ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Transient Stability Analysis: Optimal Power Flow Analysis: ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Reliability Assesment Analysis: DC Load Flow Analysis: ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL DC Short Circuit Analysis: Battery Sizing And Discharge Analysis: ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . This software is used to analyze ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . simulation. and industrial power systems. operation.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL COMMENTS: MATLAB is very useful and very easy to use software which is basically used for the matrices problems but it is also used for many applications like: • • • • • • • • Matrix computations Vector Analysis Differential Equations computations Integration is possible Computer language programming Simulation Graph Plotation 2‐D & 3‐D Plotting ETAP is the most comprehensive analysis platform for the design. distribution. control. optimization. and automation of generation. transmission. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL very large power systems. ETAP is used for the following types of analysis of any power system: • • • • • • • • • • ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 Battery Sizing And Discharge Analysis DC Short Circuit Analysis DC Load Flow Analysis Reliability Assesment Analysis Optimal Power Flow Analysis Transient Stability Analysis Harmonic Analysis Motor Starting Analysis Short Circuit Analysis Load Flow Analysis . only one reclosure is allowed. EHV SYSTEM: In these systems where the damage due to short circuit may be very large and the system stability at stake. Isolation of faulty element The ill effects of faults are minimized by quickly isolating the faulty element from the rest of the healthy system.” These faults due to insulation flashover are many times temporary.e. thus limiting the disturbance footprint to as small an area in time and space as possible. The repeated attempts at reclosure. This process of interruption followed by intentional re‐energization is known as “RECLOSURE”. FAULTS AND ABNORMAL OPERATING CONDITIONS Shunt Fault: “When the path of the load current is cut short because of breakdown of insulation.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL EXPERIMENT NO: 02 Introduction to Power System Protection Protection System A protection scheme in power system is designed to continuously monitor the power system to ensure maximum continuity of electrical supply with minimum damage to life. which is causing the breakdown of insulation. In low voltage system up to 3 reclosure are attempted. at times. help in burning out the object. after which the breaker is locked out. i. by interrupting the electric supply for a sufficient period. then there arc does not restrike after the supply is restored. The reclosure may also be done automatically. At times the short circuit may be total sometimes called a dead short circuit or it may be partial short circuit. if the arc path is allowed to de‐ionize. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . we say that a ‘short circuit’ has occurred. equipment and property. A metallic fault presents a very low. the fault resistance is nothing but the resistance of the arc that is formed as a result of flash over. The resistance is highly non‐ linear in nature. Hail. fault resistance. One such widely used model is due to Warrington. practically zero. The insulation may fail because of it’s own weakening. which gives the Arc Resistance as. A partial short circuit can be modeled as a non‐zero resistance or impedance parallel with the intended path of current. Snow Chemical pollution Foreign objects Other causes ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . or it may fail due to over‐voltage the weakening of insulation may be due to one or more of following factors.4 Where • • • • “S” is the spacing in feet “t” is the time in seconds “U” is the velocity of air in mph “I” is the fault current in ampere CAUSES OF SHUNT FAULT: Shunt fault is basically due to failure of insulation. Early researches have developed models of arc resistance.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL METALLIC FAULT: “A fault which bypasses the entire load current through itself is called a metallic fault”. • • • • • • Ageing Temperature Rain. ARC RESISTANCE: Most of the times. Rarc 8750 S 3ut /I1. u ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . EFFECTS OF SHUNT FAULTS If the power system just consisted of isolated alternators feeding their own load.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL The over voltage may be either internal due to switching or external due to lightening .u Synchronous impedance Xd 2 p. Internal voltage I p. then steady state fault currents would not be of much concern. ISOLATED GENERATOR EXPERINCES A THREE PHASE FAULT Consider an isolated turbo alternator with a three‐phase short circuit on it’s terminals as shown in fig: Assuming that. thus building up the value of the fault current to couple of tens of times to the normal full‐load current. thus the alternators start swinging with respect to each other. If the swing goes out of ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . • The electric power out put from an alternator near the fault drops sharply. • The mechanical power input remains constant at its pre fault value.5 p.u This current is to small to cause any worry. OVERHEATING: In faulted circuits the over‐current causes the over heating and attendant danger of fire.u Sub‐transient current will I ” 10 p.1 p. Sub‐transient impedance Xd ” 0.u FOR INTERCONNECTED POWER SYSTEM For these systems all the generators and motors will contribute towards the fault current. along with the rotor angle ф starts increasing. thus weakening it further. EFFECT OF FAULT: As mechanical power input remains constant this causes the alternator to accelerate.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Steady stat short circuit current 0. Some important points of inter‐connected power system are: • The generators in inter connected system must operate in synchronism at all instants. However considering. Faults thus cause heavy current to flow. Transformers are known to have suffered mechanical damage to the windings due to fault. If these current persists for short duration they can cause serious damage to the equipment. this over heating also causes the deterioration of the insulation. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL control alternator will be tripped out. PHASE FAULT: The fault which involves two or more phase conductors with or without ground is called as phase fault. Therefore fault need to be isolated and removed as quickly as possible. The fault statistics is shown in table: POWER SYSTEM ELEMENT Overhead lines Underground Cables Transformer Generator Switch Gears PROBABILITY OF FAULT % 50 09 10 07 12 ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . Thus system stability is at sake. FAULT STATICS WITH REFERENCE TO TYPE OF FAULT FAULT L‐G L‐L L‐L‐G L‐L‐L PROBABILITY OF OCCURANCE 85% 8% 5% 2% SEVERITY Least Most FAULT STATICTICS WITH REFERENCE TO POWER SYSTEM ELEMENTS Further the probability of fault on different elements of power system is different. The transmission lines which are exposed to the vagaries of the atmosphere are most likely to be subjected to these faults. CLASSIFICATION OF SHUNT FAULT PHASE FAULT AND GROUND FAULT GROUND FAULT: The fault which involves only one of the phase conductor and ground is called as ground fault. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL CT. If the fault is a metallic fault. though not drastically. which is obvious. PT. a fault is characterized by a build‐up of current. If the source is ideal. At the same time there is a fall in voltage throughout the power system. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . as seen from the relay location. and to a certain extent. Thus. collapse of voltage. Normally the relay is away from the fault location.Relays 12 Phasor Diagram of Voltages and Currents during Various Faults A fault is accompanied by a build‐up of current. the voltage at the fault location is zero. The voltage at the terminals of the generator will also drop. there will be no drop in voltage at the generator terminals. This. The steady‐state fault current in a single machine power system may even be less than the full‐load current. relaying is like an insurance against damage due to faults. A typical relay. and therefore should be quickly attended to. a single synchronous alternator does not suffer from the stability problem as faced by a multi‐ machine system. faults are not an everyday occurrence. Interconnected Power System An interconnected power system has evolved because it is more reliable than an isolated power system. therefore. What are Protective Relays Supposed to Do? Relays are supposed to detect the fault with the help of current and voltage and selectively remove only the faulty part from the rest of the system by operating breakers. spends all of its life monitoring the power system. Further. The requirements imposed on the protective system are linked to the nature of the power system. Practically most of the time series fault is converted into shunt fault. there are no longer any isolated power systems supplying residential or industrial loads. the system may suffer from a blackout unless there is a standby source of power. when there is a fault and the protective relays remove the generator from the system. In case of disruption in one part of the system. Some examples are the magnetizing inrush current of a transformer. Thus. Abnormal Operating Conditions The boundary between the normal and faulty conditions is not crisp. but these are not electrical faults either. Such a fault will. Although. There are certain operating conditions inherent to the operation of the power system which is definitely not normal. cause other effects like speeding up of the generator because of the disturbed balance between the input mechanical power and the output electrical power. Evolution of Power Systems Systems have evolved from isolated generators feeding their own loads to huge power systems spanning an entire country. the relay has to do with utmost selectivity and speed. there is no concentration of generating capacity and secondly. The evolution has progressed systems to high‐voltage systems and low‐power handling capacities to high power capacities.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Series Fault These faults occur simply when the path of current is opened. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . starting current of an induction motor. In a power system. Isolated Power System The protection of an isolated power system is simpler because firstly. we do encounter such situations in case of emergency diesel generators powering the uninterrupted power supplies as well as critical auxiliaries in a thermal or nuclear power station. and the conditions during power swing. however. generators in hydroelectric power plants. It can be seen that the EHV lines are the tie lines which interconnect two or more generators whereas the low voltage lines are radial in nature which terminate in loads at the remote ends. At the receiving end. gas fired or nuclear power plants . For bulk transmission of power. An interconnected power system also makes it possible to implement an economic load dispatch. which is further stepped down before it reaches the consumers. There is interconnection at various EHV voltage levels. wind‐powered generators. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . voltage levels of the order of 400 kV or higher are used. thus. maintaining continuity of service. Most of the generators operate at the voltage level of around 20 kV. fuel cells or even solar‐powered photovoltaic cells. the voltage is stepped down to the distribution level. The generators in an interconnected system could be of varied types such as turbo‐alternators in coal fired. Figure shows a simple interconnected power system.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL power can be fed from alternate paths. In this state. a relay and its associated circuit breaker. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . consisting of a CT and a PT. Its state is likely to drift from one state to the other as shown in the figure. it is said to be operating in normal state. the frequency is stable around the nominal 50Hz or 60 Hz. Every protection system will have these basic components. It is Very difficult to maintain stability Disturbances quickly propagate throughout the system Possibility of cascade tripping due to loss of stability is always looming large • Voltage stability problem • Harmonic distortion propagate throughout the system • Possibility of cyber‐attacks • • • • Various States of Operation of a Power System A power system is a dynamic entity.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Disadvantages of an Interconnected System There are other undesirable effects of interconnection. When the power system is operating in steady state. therefore. there is enough generation capacity available to meet the load. This state is also characterized by reactive power balance between generation and load. A Protection System and Its Attributes Following figure shows a protection system for the distance protection of a transmission line. The conceptual diagram of a generalized relay is shown in Figure: Basic Requirements of a Protection System Sensitivity The protective system must be alive to the presence of the smallest fault current. Selectivity In detecting the fault and isolating the faulty element. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . The smaller the fault current it can detect. we can consider the relay as a black‐box having current and voltage at its input. in the form of the closure of a normally‐ open contact. the protective system must be very selective. and an output. thus causing minimum disruption to the system. the more sensitive it is. the protective system should zero‐in on the faulty element and isolate it. This output of the relay is wired in the trip circuit of the associated circuit breaker s so as to complete this circuit.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL At this stage. Ideally. • Secondly. Therefore. There are many ways in which reliability can be built into the system. In general. • Firstly. The standard secondary current ratings used in practice are 5 A and 1 A. both in magnitude and in phase angle. Thus. Reliability and Dependability A protective system is of no use if it is not reliable. we add features like back‐up protection to enhance the reliability and dependability of the protective system. the speed of the protection is very important. there is always some error. it helps a lot if the entire process of fault detection and removal of the faulty part is accomplished in as short a time as feasible. Therefore. it isolates the relay circuitry from the high voltage of the EHV system. the current transformer should faithfully transform the current without any errors. it is found that simple systems are more reliable. A conventional electromagnetic current transformer is shown in Figure. These errors are known as ratio error and phase angle error. In practice. the larger is the damage to the system and higher is the possibility that the system will lose stability. These transducers basically extract the information regarding current and voltage from the power system under protection and pass it on to the protective relays. This frees the relay designer from the actual value of primary current.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Speed The longer the fault persists on the system. it steps down the current to such levels that it can be easily handled by the relay current coil. System Transducers Current transformers and voltage transformers form a very important link between the power system and the protective system. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . Current Transformer The current transformer has two jobs to do. The error creeps in. Ideally. This helps in standardizing the protective relaying equipment irrespective of the value of the primary EHV adopted.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Voltage Transformer The voltage transformer steps down the high voltage of the line to a level safe enough for the relaying system pressure coil of relay and personnel to handle. unlike a CT whose primary is in series with the line. A PT primary is connected in parallel at the point where a measurement is desired. The standard secondary voltage on line‐to‐line basis is 110 V. A conventional electromagnetic VT is shown in Figure: ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . otherwise there could be some portion which is left out and remains unprotected. Without going into the detailed of the differential relaying scheme. When the trip coil is energized. Zones of Protection Various zones for a typical power system are shown in Figure. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . The farthest point from the relay location. It can be seen that the adjacent zones overlap. which is capable of safely making. This is depicted in Figure with the help of a simple relay for the protection of a transformer. The circuit breaker is operated by the output of its associated relay. we can make the following statements: Faults within the zone are termed internal faults whereas the faults outside the zone are called external faults. which is still inside the zone. External faults are also known as through faults. its contacts are held closed by the tension of the closing spring. is called the reach point. it releases a latch. Organization of Protection The protection is organized in a very logical fashion. as well as breaking short‐circuit currents. If there is any fault within this ring. When the circuit breaker is in the closed condition. the relays associated with it must trip all the allied circuit breakers so as to remove the faulty element from the rest of the power system.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Circuit Breaker The circuit breaker is an electrically operated switch. The idea is to provide a ring of security around each and every element of the power system. This 'ring of security' is called zone of protection. causing the stored energy in the closing spring to bring about a quick opening operation. it is a normal practice to provide another zone of protection which should operate and isolate the faulty element in case of primary protection failure. the operating time of the back‐up protection must be delayed by an appropriate amount over that of the primary protection. VT or relay. or failure of circuit breaker. the back‐up protection must wait for the primary protection to operate. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . Thus. This could be due to failure of CT. Further. the operating time of the back‐up protection should be equal to the operating time of primary protection plus the operating time of the primary circuit breaker. before issuing the trip command to its associated circuit breakers. One of the possible causes of the circuit breaker failure is the failure of the trip‐ battery due to inadequate maintenance. We must have a second line of defense in such a situation. Therefore. In other words.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Primary and back‐up Protection As already mentioned there are times when the primary protection may fail. Each apparatus has a unique set of operating conditions. there is an increase in the probability of Maloperation. It is said that with every additional relay used. Various elements of power system that needs protection The power system consists of • • • • • • • • • Alternators Bus bars Transformers for transmission and distribution Transmission lines at various voltage levels from EHV to 11kV cables Induction and synchronous motors Reactors Capacitors Instrument and protective CTs and PTs Various control and metering equipment etc Each of these entities needs protection. resulting in a longer and unnecessary disruption to the system. This results in operation of both the primary and the back‐up. It can be seen that the back‐up protection in this case issues trip command to its breaker without waiting for the primary protection to do its job. We can not use all protection schemes for every element. Following table shows the protection schemes used for mentioned elements: ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 .POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Maloperation There should be proper coordination between the operating time of primary and back‐up protection. Various Principles of Power System Protection The most basic principles that are used in any protection system are following • • • • Over current protection Over voltage protection Distance protection Differential protection Normally used protection schemes for different elements Protection schemes used for different elements of any power system are completely dependant upon the nature of that element. we understand • • • • • • • • What is a protection system? Different kinds of faults and their effects Classification of faults Abnormal operating conditions Function of a relay Types of a power system Properties of a good protection system Zones of protection Indeed these necessary to select protection scheme for any power system element to understand the basics of fault effects and regarding protection system. In this experiment.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL ELEMENT Principle Primary protection Bus bar Primary protection Transformer Primary protection Transmission Primary line protection Large Primary induction protection motor COMMENTS Alternator Non‐ Directional Differential Distance directional over current over current yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes The knowledge about protection system is of great importance. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . through the interaction of magnetic fields and current‐carrying conductors. while in an induction motor this power is induced in the rotating device. Many types of electric motors can be run as generators. henceforth serving the purpose of producing mechanical energy. The primary side's current evokes a magnetic field which interacts with the secondary side's emf to produce a resultant torque. Traction motors used on vehicles often perform both tasks. ROTATING TRANSFORMER: An induction motor is sometimes called a rotating transformer because the stator stationary part is essentially the primary side of the transformer and the rotor rotating part is the secondary side. and vice versa. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . There are several ways to supply power to the rotor. where power is supplied to the rotor by means of electromagnetic induction.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL EXPERIMENT NO: 03 IMPACT OF INDUCTION MOTOR STARTING ON POWER SYSTEM ELECTRIC MOTOR An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy. is accomplished by a generator or dynamo. POWER CONVERSION: An electric motor converts electrical power to mechanical power in its rotor rotating part . producing electrical energy from mechanical energy. In a DC motor this power is supplied to the armature directly from a DC source. The reverse process. INDUCTION MOTOR DEFINITION: An induction motor or asynchronous motor or squirrel‐cage motor is a type of alternating current motor. wh m hich are fr requently u used in industrial drives. especially poly yphase ind duction motors. In nduction m motors are e now the preferred d choice fo or industri ial motors s due to their rugged c d construction. Absence of A f brushes which are e required d in most D DC motors and thanks s to o modern power ele ectronics t the ability y to contro ol the spee ed of the motor. m ASAD NA AEEM 2006‐RCET‐E 2 EE‐22 .POW WER SYS STEM PR ROTECTIO ON LAB M MANUAL L CATIONS: APPLIC In nduction m motors are e widely u used. In 1888. Technological development in the field has improved to where a 100 hp 74. This method is often called "direct on line" and abbreviated DOL. the most common induction motor is the cage rotor motor. Patent 381.968 where he exposed the theoretical foundations for understanding the way the motor operates. AC INDUCTION MOTOR Where n Revolutions per minute rpm f AC power frequency hertz p Number of poles per phase an even number Slip is calculated using: Where “s” is the slip The rotor speed is: STARTING OF INDUCTION MOTOR THREE‐PHASE Direct‐on‐line starting : The simplest way to start a three‐phase induction motor is to connect its terminals to the line.6 kW motor from 1976 takes the same volume as a 7. Ferraris published his research in a paper to the Royal Academy of Sciences in Turin later.S. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . Currently. in the same year.5 kW motor did in 1897.5 hp 5. The induction motor with a cage was invented by Mikhail Dolivo‐ Dobrovolsky about a year later.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL HISTORY: The induction motor was first realized by Galileo Ferraris in 1885 in Italy. Tesla gained U. and the rotor current depends on this emf.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL In an induction motor. A 3‐phase power supply provides a rotating magnetic field in an induction motor When the motor is started. a very high current flows through the rotor. This high current can. in the order of 5 to 9 times the full load current. which causes the primary coil to draw a high current from the mains. the rotor speed is zero. damage the windings. the magnitude of the induced emf in the rotor circuit is proportional to the stator field and the slip speed the difference between synchronous and rotor speeds of the motor. in addition. The synchronous speed is constant. As a result. in some motors. When an induction motor starts DOL. To avoid such effects. based on the frequency of the supplied AC voltage. several other strategies are employed for starting motors. and the induced emf in the rotor is large. other appliances connected to the same line may be affected by the voltage fluctuation. This is similar to a transformer with the secondary coil short circuited. because it causes heavy line voltage drop. the slip ratio is 1. So the slip speed is equal to the synchronous speed. STAR‐DELTA STARTERS An induction motor's windings can be connected to a 3‐phase AC line in two different ways: 1 Star Wye ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . a very high current is drawn by the stator. then switches to delta when the motor has reached a set speed.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL 2 Delta Wye star in Europe . where the windings are connected between phases of the supply. Thus variable frequency drives are used for multiple purposes. A VFD can easily start a motor at a lower frequency than the AC line. which may be a serious issue with pumps or any devices with significant breakaway torque Increased complexity. A delta connection of the machine winding results in a higher voltage at each winding compared to a wye connection the factor is . ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . where the windings are connected from phases of the supply to the neutral. so that the motor starts with full rated torque and with no inrush of current. So running at a lower frequency actually increases torque. which produces a lower starting current than delta. Delta sometimes mesh in Europe . which is equal to supply frequency for a stationary rotor. The rotor circuit's impedance increases with slip frequency. A star‐delta starter initially connects the motor in wye. DISADVANTAGES: Disadvantages of this method over DOL starting are: Lower starting torque. as well as a lower voltage. as more contactors and some sort of speed switch or timers are needed Two shocks to the motor one for the initial start and another when the motor switches from wye to delta VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVES Key information’s are: Variable‐frequency drives VFD can be of considerable use in starting as well as running motors. SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR A synchronous motor always runs at synchronous speed with 0% slip.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL RESISTANCE STARTERS This method is used with slip ring motors where the rotor poles can be accessed by way of the slip rings. a function of the current passing through it. During start‐up the resistance is large and then reduced to zero at full speed. the resistors generate a phase shift in the field resulting in the magnetic force acting on the rotor having a favorable angle AUTO‐TRANSFORMER STARTERS Such starters are called as auto starters or compensators. gradually reduces as the motor accelerates. SERIES REACTOR STARTERS In series reactor starter technology. Another important advantage is the start‐up torque can be controlled. the impedance of the reactor. Using brushes. and at 95 % speed the reactors are bypassed by a suitable bypass method which enables the motor to run at full voltage and full speed. variable power resistors are connected in series with the poles. Air core series reactor starters or a series reactor soft starter is the most common and recommended method for fixed speed motor starting. At start‐up the resistance directly reduces the rotor current and so rotor heating is reduced. consists of an auto‐ transformer. The speed of a synchronous motor is determined by the following formula: For example a 6 pole motor operating on 60Hz power would have speed: ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . an impedance in the form of a reactor is introduced in series with the motor terminals. which as a result reduces the motor terminal voltage resulting in a reduction of the starting current. As well. When the power supply is switched on. would have 3 pole pairs. This winding is spatially distributed for poly‐phase AC current. which is supplied by a DC source. The rotor is the rotating portion of the motor. STARTING OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR Synchronous motors are not self‐starting motors. This armature creates a rotating magnetic field inside the motor. Note on the use of p: Some texts refer to number of pole pairs per phase instead of number of poles per phase. to supply the DC to the field winding. operating on 60Hz power. On excitation. the armature ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . The slip rings in the rotor. For example a 6 pole motor. “f” is the frequency of the AC supply in Hz And “n” is the number of magnetic poles. it carries field winding. this field winding behaves as a permanent magnet.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Where “V” is the speed of the rotor in rpm . which carries the armature winding. The equation of synchronous speed then becomes: n 3 PARTS OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR A synchronous motor is composed of the following parts: The stator is the outer shell of the motor. This property is due to the inertia of the rotor. due to inertia. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . Accurate control in speed and position using open loop controls. the field winding is excited. can be obtained by increasing this current slightly. Also. Once the rotor nears the synchronous speed. The field winding is shunted or induction motor like arrangements are made so that the synchronous motor starts as an induction motor and locks in to synchronization once it reaches speeds near its synchronous speed. Their power factor can be adjusted to unity by using a proper field current relative to the load. which can help achieve a better power factor correction for the whole installation. will not follow the revolving magnetic field. The following techniques are employed to start a synchronous motor: A separate motor called pony motor is used to drive the rotor before it locks in into synchronization. the armature winding creates a rotating magnetic field.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL winding and field windings are excited. Their construction allows for increased electrical efficiency when a low speed is required as in ball mills and similar apparatus . which revolves at the designated motor speed. The rotor. They will hold their position when a DC current is applied to both the stator and the rotor windings. the rotor should be rotated by some other means near to the motor's synchronous speed to overcome the inertia. provided an adequate field current is applied. a "capacitive" power factor. current phase leads voltage phase . ADVANTAGES OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR Synchronous motors have the following advantages over non‐synchronous motors: Speed is independent of the load. and the motor pulls into synchronization. stepper motors. In practice. eg. Instantaneously. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL ONE LINE DIAGRAM POINT UNDER CONSIDERATION Mtr‐1 Bus‐7 ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS DIAGRAM ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL STATIC MOTOR STARTING ANALYSIS DIAGRAM ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL RESPONSE OF DIFFERENT PARAMETERS IN CASE OF STATIC MOTOR STARTING ANALYSIS MOTOR REACTIVE POWER DEMAND MOTOR REAL POWER DEMAND ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL MOTOR TERMINAL VOLTAGE MOTOR CURRENT ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL DYNAMIC MOTOR STARTING ANALYSIS DIAGRAM ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL RESPONSE OF DIFFERENT PARAMETERS IN CASE OF DYNAMIC MOTOR STARTING ANALYSIS MOTOR REACTIVE POWER DEMAND MOTOR REAL POWER DEMAND ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL ACCELERATION TORQUE MOTOR TERMINAL VOLTAGE ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL MOTOR CURRENT MOTOR SLIP ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL COMMENTS: In this experiment. it decreases exponentially Motor terminal voltage is almost at a constant level Motor current becomes very high at starting instant to a value of 360KA and then decrease slowly ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . For this purpose. we investigate the effect of motor starting current on the power system as motor starting current is many times larger than the normal current. In case of static motor starting analysis: Motor reactive power demand instantaneously increases from 40KVAR to 80KVAR then attains the previous value which is much lower Motor real power demand instantaneously increases from 108KW to 160KW then attains the previous value which is much lower Bus voltage becomes lower at starting instant to a value of 66KV and then achieves the previous high voltage that is 73KV Motor terminal voltage suddenly becomes lower at starting instant to a value of 48KV and then achieves the previous high voltage that is 64KV Motor current becomes very high at starting instant to a value of 280KA and then achieves the previous lower current value that is 160KA In case of dynamic motor starting analysis: Motor reactive power demand instantaneously increases to 165KVAR then slowly decreases Motor real power demand slowly exponentially increases Acceleration torque increases exponentially and after some time. we first take the normal load flow analysis report and then perform motor starting analysis to compare the current value for both cases. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . • Relays to sense the fault and initiate a trip. protection schemes must apply a very pragmatic and pessimistic approach to clearing system faults.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL EXPERIMENT NO: 04 SELECTION OF CIRCUIT BREAKER FOR DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF A GIVEN POWER SYSTEM USING ETAP INTRODUCTION POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION Power system protection is a branch of electrical power engineering that deals with the protection of electrical power systems from faults through the isolation of faulted parts from the rest of the electrical network. The objective of a protection scheme is to keep the power system stable by isolating only the components that are under fault. COMPONENTS OF PROTECTION SYSTEM Protection systems usually comprise five components: • Current and voltage transformers to step down the high voltages and currents of the electrical power system to convenient levels for the relays to deal with. Thus. fuses are capable of both sensing and disconnecting faults. or disconnection. whilst leaving as much of the network as possible still in operation. For this reason. • Circuit breakers to open/close the system based on relay and auto‐ reclosure commands • Batteries to provide power in case of power disconnection in the system. For parts of a distribution system. the technology and philosophies utilized in protection schemes can often be old and well‐established because they must be very reliable. order. • Communication channels to allow analysis of current and voltage at remote terminals of a line and to allow remote tripping of equipment. from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city. a circuit breaker can be reset either manually or automatically to resume normal operation. Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and. OPERATION OF BREAKER All circuit breakers have common features in their operation. The trip solenoid that releases the latch is usually energized by a separate battery. CIRCUIT BREAKER A circuit breaker is an automatically‐operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . by interrupting continuity. current rating and type of the circuit breaker. and ensure continued supply of energy. such as insulation failure. and an internal control power source. The circuit breaker must detect a fault condition. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes. although details vary substantially depending on the voltage class. incorrect operation of circuit breakers. although some high‐voltage circuit breakers are self‐contained with current transformers. Unlike a fuse. short circuits and open circuits. protection relays. which operates once and then has to be replaced. fallen or broken transmission lines. Circuit breakers for large currents or high voltages are usually arranged with pilot devices to sense a fault current and to operate the trip opening mechanism. to immediately discontinue electrical flow.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Failures may occur in each part. Protection devices are installed with the aims of protection of assets. in low‐voltage circuit breakers this is usually done within the breaker enclosure. air. insulating gas. and electric motors to restore energy to the springs. Different circuit breakers use vacuum. Service life of the contacts is limited by the erosion due to interrupting the arc. so that the gap between the contacts can again withstand the voltage in the circuit. the contacts must again be closed to restore power to the interrupted circuit. Contacts are made of copper or copper alloys. although some of the energy required may be obtained from the fault current itself. silver alloys. and other materials. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . ARC INTERUPTION Miniature low‐voltage circuit breakers use air alone to extinguish the arc. contacts within the circuit breaker must open to interrupt the circuit. an arc is generated. once the fault condition has been cleared. Larger ratings will have metal plates or non‐metallic arc chutes to divide and cool the arc.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Once a fault is detected. and must also withstand the heat of the arc produced when interrupting the circuit. but power circuit breakers and high‐voltage circuit breakers have replaceable contacts. Different techniques are used to extinguish the arc including: • • • • • Lengthening of the arc Intensive cooling in jet chambers Division into partial arcs Zero point quenching Connecting capacitors in parallel with contacts in DC circuits Finally. Miniature and molded case circuit breakers are usually discarded when the contacts are worn. cooled. Small circuit breakers may be manually operated. some mechanically‐stored energy using something such as springs or compressed air contained within the breaker is used to separate the contacts. or oil as the medium in which the arc forms. and extinguished in a controlled way. Magnetic blowout coils deflect the arc into the arc chute. The circuit breaker contacts must carry the load current without excessive heating. This arc must be contained. larger units have solenoids to trip the mechanism. When a current is interrupted. which would allow the current to continue. oil circuit breakers rely upon vaporization of some of the oil to blast a jet of oil through the arc. circuit breakers must incorporate various features to divide and extinguish the arc. Gas usually sulfur hexafluoride circuit breakers sometimes stretch the arc using a magnetic field. Therefore. or alternatively.000 volts. the escaping of the displaced air thus blowing out the arc. SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT Circuit breakers are rated both by the normal current that are expected to carry. Under short‐circuit conditions. so the arc quenches when it is stretched a very small amount 2–3 mm . the contacts are rapidly swung into a small sealed chamber. a current many times greater than normal can exist see maximum prospective short circuit current . there is a tendency for an arc to form between the opened contacts. In air‐insulated and miniature breakers an arc chutes structure consisting often of metal plates or ceramic ridges cools the arc. Circuit breakers are usually able to terminate all current very quickly: typically the arc is extinguished between 30 ms and 150 ms after the mechanism has been tripped. Larger circuit breakers such as those ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . Vacuum circuit breakers are frequently used in modern medium‐voltage switchgear to 35. depending upon age and construction of the device. Vacuum circuit breakers have minimal arcing as there is nothing to ionize other than the contact material . and the maximum short‐circuit current that they can safely interrupt. and magnetic blowout coils deflect the arc into the arc chute. and then rely upon the dielectric strength of the sulfur‐ hexafluoride SF6 to quench the stretched arc. Air circuit breakers may use compressed air to blow out the arc.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL In larger ratings. When electrical contacts open to interrupt a large current. Miniature circuit breakers used to protect control circuits or small appliances may not have sufficient interrupting capacity to use at a panel board. construction type. LOW‐VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKER Low voltage less than 1000 VAC types are common in domestic. TYPES OF CIRCUIT BREAKER Many different classifications of circuit breakers can be made. and structural features. these circuit breakers are called "supplemental circuit protectors" to distinguish them from distribution‐type circuit breakers. an inert gas such as sulphur hexafluoride or have contacts immersed in oil to suppress the arc. Application of a breaker in a circuit with a prospective short‐circuit current higher than the breaker's interrupting capacity rating may result in failure of the breaker to safely interrupt a fault. commercial and industrial application. Breakers illustrated above are in this category. Trip current may be adjustable in larger ratings. Thermal or thermal‐magnetic operation. The characteristics of LV circuit breakers are given by international standards such as IEC 947. interrupting type. These circuit breakers are often installed in draw‐out ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . based on their features such as voltage class. only to explode when reset. Thermal or thermal‐magnetic operation.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL used in electrical power distribution may use vacuum. Trip characteristics normally not adjustable. include: • MCB Miniature Circuit Breaker —rated current not be more than 100 A. The maximum short‐circuit current that a breaker can interrupt is determined by testing. • MCCB Molded Case Circuit Breaker —rated current up to 1000 A. In a worst‐case scenario the breaker may successfully interrupt the fault. • Low voltage power circuit breakers can be mounted in multi‐tiers in LV switchboards or switchgear cabinets. Most breakers are designed so they can still trip even if the lever is held or locked in the "on" position. Actuator mechanism ‐ forces the contacts together or apart. Actuator lever ‐ used to manually trip and reset the circuit breaker. Special breakers are required for direct current because the arc does not have a natural tendency to go out on each half cycle as for alternating current. Contacts ‐ Allow current when touching and break the current ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . allowing them to be tripped opened and closed under remote control. Small circuit breakers are either installed directly in equipment. Large low‐voltage molded case and power circuit breakers may have electrical motor operators. The design includes the following components: 1. These may form part of an automatic transfer switch system for standby power. for example DC supplied for subway lines. A direct current circuit breaker will have blow‐out coils which generate a magnetic field that rapidly stretches the arc when interrupting direct current. 3. Also indicates the status of the circuit breaker On or Off/tripped .POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL enclosures that allow removal and interchange without dismantling the switchgear. 2. Low‐voltage circuit breakers are also made for direct‐current DC applications. The 10 ampere DIN rail‐mounted thermal‐magnetic miniature circuit breaker is the most common style in modern domestic consumer units and commercial electrical distribution boards throughout Europe. This is sometimes referred to as "free trip" or "positive trip" operation. or are arranged in a breaker panel. Certain designs utilize electromagnetic forces in addition to those of the solenoid. The circuit breaker contacts are held closed by a latch. The delay permits brief current surges beyond normal running current for motor starting. THERMAL MAGNETIC CIRCUIT BREAKER Thermal magnetic circuit breakers.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL 4. energizing equipment. the speed of the solenoid motion is restricted by the fluid. The core is restrained by a spring until the current exceeds the breaker rating. During an overload. As the current in the solenoid increases beyond the rating of the circuit breaker. the solenoid's pull releases the latch which then allows the contacts to open by spring action. Solenoid Arc divider/extinguisher MAGNETIC CIRCUIT BREAKER Magnetic circuit breakers use a solenoid electromagnet that’s pulling force increases with the current. Some types of magnetic breakers incorporate a hydraulic time delay feature using a viscous fluid. 5. 8. which are the type found in most distribution boards. 6. 7. when moved apart. Short circuit currents provide sufficient solenoid force to release the latch regardless of core position thus bypassing the delay feature. Terminals Bimetallic strip Calibration screw ‐ allows the manufacturer to precisely adjust the trip current of the device after assembly. Ambient temperature affects the time delay but does not affect the current rating of a magnetic breaker. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . etc. incorporate both techniques with the electromagnet responding instantaneously to large surges in current short circuits and the bimetallic strip responding to less extreme but longer‐term over‐current conditions. To ensure that all live conductors are interrupted when any pole trips. to be sure that no current can flow back through the neutral wire from other loads connected to the same network when people need to touch the wires for maintenance. This breaker has a 2A rating When supplying a branch circuit with more than one live conductor. each live conductor must be protected by a breaker pole. Three‐pole common trip breakers are typically used to supply three‐phase electric power to large motors or further distribution boards. Two and four pole breakers are used when there is a need to disconnect the neutral wire. because if the neutral gets disconnected while the live conductor stays connected. Separate circuit breakers must never be used for disconnecting live and neutral. but wires will stay live and RCDs will not trip if someone touches the live wire because RCDs need power to trip . Two pole common trip breakers are common on 120/240 volt systems where 240 volt loads including major appliances or further distribution boards span the two live wires. This is why only common trip breakers must be used when switching of the neutral wire is needed.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL COMMON TRIP CIRCUIT BREAKER Three pole common trip breaker for supplying a three‐phase device. may externally tie the poles together via their operating handles. or for small breakers. These may either contain two or three tripping mechanisms within one case. a dangerous condition arises: the circuit will appear de‐energized appliances will not work . ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . a "common trip" breaker must be used. • Air circuit breaker—rated current up to 10. especially in outdoor switchyards. • SF6 circuit breakers extinguish the arc in a chamber filled with sulfur hexafluoride gas. or may be individual components installed outdoors in a substation. these are also operated by current sensing protective relays operated through current transformers.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL MEDIUM VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKERS Medium‐voltage circuit breakers rated between 1 and 72 kV may be assembled into metal‐enclosed switchgear line ups for indoor use. Medium‐ voltage circuit breakers in switchgear line‐ups are often built with draw‐out construction. These are generally applied for voltages up to about 35.000 A. allowing the breaker to be removed without disturbing the ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . which corresponds roughly to the medium‐voltage range of power systems. Medium‐voltage circuit breakers may be connected into the circuit by bolted connections to bus bars or wires. but are now themselves being replaced by vacuum circuit breakers up to about 35 kV . Usually electronically controlled. Vacuum circuit breakers tend to have longer life expectancies between overhaul than do air circuit breakers. Trip characteristics are often fully adjustable including configurable trip thresholds and delays. Medium‐voltage circuit breakers can be classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc: • Vacuum circuit breaker With rated current up to 3000 A. Often used for main power distribution in large industrial plant. Like the high voltage circuit breakers described below. where the breakers are arranged in draw‐out enclosures for ease of maintenance. these breakers interrupt the current by creating and extinguishing the arc in a vacuum container. Medium‐voltage circuit breakers nearly always use separate current sensors and protection relays. instead of relying on built‐in thermal or magnetic over‐current sensors. The characteristics of MV breakers are given by international standards such as IEC 62271. Air‐break circuit breakers replaced oil‐filled units for indoor applications.000 V. though some models are microprocessor controlled via an integral electronic trip unit. protecting equipment and busses from various types of overload or ground/earth fault.5 kV or higher.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL power circuit connections. In substations the protection relay scheme can be complex. Toshiba. Končar HVS. Due to environmental and cost concerns over insulating oil spills. GE General Electric . using a motor‐operated or hand‐cranked mechanism to separate the breaker from its enclosure. or dead tank with the enclosure at earth potential. Siemens . most new breakers use SF6 gas to quench the arc. AREVA. with current sensing protective relays operated through current transformers. Circuit breakers can be classified as live tank. High‐voltage circuit breakers used on transmission systems may be arranged to allow a single pole of a three‐phase line to trip. where the enclosure that contains the breaking mechanism is at line potential. Mitsubishi‐Electric. for some classes of faults this improves the system stability and availability. instead of tripping all three poles. according to a recent definition by the International Electro‐technical Commission IEC . • • • • • Bulk oil Minimum oil Air blast Vacuum SF6 Some of the manufacturers are ABB. The definition of high voltage varies but in power transmission work is usually thought to be 72. High‐voltage breakers are broadly classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc. High‐voltage breakers are nearly always solenoid‐operated. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . HIGH VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKERS Electrical power transmission networks are protected and controlled by high‐ voltage breakers. BHEL and others. High‐voltage AC circuit breakers are routinely available with ratings up to 765 kV. Pennsylvania Breaker. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL ONE LINE DIAGRAM FAULTED POINTS • BUS‐7 • BUS‐13 ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS DIAGRAM ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . 2KA 15KA Breaker Interrupting Current 0.5KA 0.1KA 0.1KA Breaker State OPEN CLOSED OPEN CLOSED CLOSED ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 .POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL SHORT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS DIAGRAM BREAKERS OPERATED • CB‐1 • CB‐3 BREAKERS DATA Breaker ID Before BUS CB‐1 CB‐2 CB‐3 CB‐5 CB‐6 BUS‐7 BUS‐6 BUS‐13 BUS‐17 BUS‐6 Normal Current Amp 249 19 9 243 19 Short Circuit Current 1.1KA 0.5KA 0. In this experiment. After connecting the circuit breaker.5KAmpere for CB‐1 and 0. we have selected interrupting breaker current as 0. we again perform the short circuit analysis and observe that the breaker connected to faulty bus is operated and faulty system is isolated. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . we connect a circuit breaker of suitable operating value of current at which circuit breaker will operate. Normal current flowing through BUS‐7 is 246Ampere while through BUS‐13 is 9Amperes. Keeping in mind this fact. Fault current obtained from short circuit analysis is 1.3KAmpere that is many times larger than the normal operating current As fault current is greater in magnitude at the fault occurrence event and reduces up to some extent. After that we perform the short circuit analysis to check that how much current can flow in case of fault.1KAmpere for CB‐3 that can be varied to any required value of current.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL ALERT DIAGRAM COMMENTS: We find the normal current flowing through BUS‐7 for which we have to design a circuit breaker. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . but a fact of life. These causes may include direct contact with power/lightning circuits.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL EXPERIMENT NO: 05 Transient stability analysis of a given power system using ETAP Transients in Electrical power system Lightning has long fascinated the technical community. Here I will elaborate on why. that computers. In fact. the effects of surges due to these other sources are no different than those due to lightning. Such power surges and spikes are most often caused by lightning strikes. It is unfortunate. The essential point to remember is. electrostatic discharges from a person can produce peak Voltages up to 15 kV with currents of tens of Amperes in less than 10 microseconds. A manufacturing environment is particularly susceptible to such surges because of the presence of motors and other high voltage equipment. Ben Franklin studied lightning's electrical nature over two centuries ago and Charles R Steinmetz generated artificial lightning in his General Electric laboratory in the 1920's. When a lightning‐induced power surge is coupled into your computer equipment any one of a number of harmful events may occur. miss‐wired systems and even human equipment users who have accumulated large static electricity charge build‐ups on their clothing. As someone concerned with premises data communications you need to worry about lightning. protection from one will also protect from the other. I'll then discuss how to get protection from it. computer related products and process control equipment found in premises data communications environments can be damaged by high‐voltage surges and spikes. high energy transients coupled into equipment from cables in close proximity. potential differences between grounds to which different equipment’s are connected. Hence. However. there are occasions when the surges and spikes result from any one of a variety of other causes. static buildup on cables and components. where and when you should worry about lightning. " Computer equipment having a hard failure will no longer function at all. the user. These are called "hard failures. It must be repaired with the resulting expense of "downtime" or the expense of a standby unit to take its place. Specifically. To you.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Semiconductors are prevalent in such equipment. Furthermore. In a few cases. such behavior will be viewed as the "disk crashing. A lightning induced surge will almost always surpass the voltage rating of these devices causing them to fail. a lightning‐derived surge may destroy the printed traces in the printed circuit boards of the computer equipment also resulting in hard failures." ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . lightning can cause a current surge and a resultant induced magnetic field. LIGHTENING SURGES: In several instances. Along with the voltage source. lightning induced surges usually alter the electrical characteristics of semiconductor devices so that they no longer function effectively. the aberrant magnetic field may energize the disk head when it should be quiescent. If the computer contains a magnetic disk then this interfering magnetic field might overwrite and destroy data stored in the disk. a surge may destroy the semiconductor device. it is not uncommon to find computer equipment being fed by buried cable. they are "silent killers. True. The same aberrant magnetic fields which cause disk crashes may activate relays when they shouldn't be activated. such induced surges are analogous to chronic high blood pressure in a person. causing unpredictable. In a way. direct lightning strikes on exposed. long cable runs are often found connecting sensors. a lightning strike. These cables are particularly vulnerable to induced surges. In this environment. can induce voltage/current surges which travel through the ground and induce surges along the cable. there is the effect of lightning on program logic controllers PLCS which are found in the manufacturing environment. Many of these PLCs use programs stored in ROMS. even several miles away.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Some computer equipment may have magnetic relays. operational life is a drawback. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . MOVs protection characteristic decays and fails completely when subjected to prolong over voltages. However. PLCs and computers. unacceptable performance. LIGHTENING ARRESTORS: Metal oxide varistors MOVS provide an improvement over the response time problem of gas tubes. people may never. So these are some of the unhappy things which happen when a computer experiences lightning. But." In the manufacturing environment. The equipment user is undoubtedly aware of these failures but usually does not relate them to the occurrence of lightning during thunderstorm activity since the user does not experience a direct strike. Finally. This is a typical reaction and unfortunately it is based on ignorance. experience. A lightning‐induced surge can alter the contents of the ROM causing aberrant operation by the PLC. in‐building cable feeding into their equipment. or rarely. ultimately causing equipment failure. depending upon the principal threat being protected against. silicon avalanche diodes do provide the fastest response time. This 18 Volt level is then resistively coupled to the MOV which clamps to 27 Volts. This may be awkward. As a consequence. The MOV is additional protection if the avalanche diode capability is exceeded. now of reduced amplitude. the protection device selected should be robust. This indicates triple stage protection and incorporates gas tubes. The gas tube dumps extremely high amounts of surge energy directly to earth ground.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Silicon avalanche diodes have proven to be the most effective means of protecting computer equipment against over voltage transients. MOVs and silicon avalanche diodes as well as various coupling components and a good ground. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . the surge rises very rapidly and the gas tube needs several microseconds to fire. While they can not deal with the surge peaks that gas tubes can. high current and transient surges without failure. The best earth ground is undoubtedly a cold water pipe. Silicon avalanche diodes are able to withstand thousands of high voltage. along the line until it reaches a gas tube. Thus. Ideally. since the threat is never really known in advance. As previously mentioned. using all three basic circuit breaker elements. With the architecture shown in Figure 20 a lightning strike surge will travel. the connection to earth ground can not be over emphasized.500 Watts while limiting the voltage to 18 Volts for EIA‐232 circuits. For a 90 Volt gas tube. devices can be found employing gas tubes. MOVS. is impressed on the avalanche diode which responds in about one nanosecond or less and can dissipate 1. thereby maximizing the effect of the gas tube. However. a delay element is used to slow the propagation of the leading edge wave front. or silicon avalanche diodes. the rapid rise of the surge will result in its firing at about 650 Volts. The architecture of such as device is illustrated in Figure 20. The delayed surge pulse. users can determine the system transient behavior. find protective device settings. TRANSIENT STABILITY ANALYSIS IN ETAP The PowerStation Transient Stability Analysis program is designed to investigate the stability limits of a power system before. other pipes and building power grounds can also be used. implements the user‐defined events and actions. The Required Data section is a very good reference for you to check if you have prepared all necessary data for transient stability calculations. From these responses. to define parameters for a study case. etc. which are very helpful for users who do not have extensive experience on running transient stability studies. The program models dynamic characteristics of a power system. The Output Reports section explains and demonstrates the format and organization of the transient stability text reports. to select plot/tabulation devices. While cold water pipes are good candidates you should even be careful here. during and after system changes or disturbances. to create a sequence of switching events and disturbances.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL However. A plumber may replace sections of corroded metal pipe with plastic. to globally define machine dynamical modeling method. This would render the pipe useless as a ground. and view plots. solves the system network equation and machine differential equations interactively to find out system and machine responses in time domain. The Display Options section explains what options are available for displaying some key system parameters and the output results on the one‐line diagram. The Transient Stability Toolbar section explains how you can launch a transient stability calculation. open and view an output report. The One‐Line Diagram ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . and apply the necessary remedy or enhancement to improve the system stability. The Calculation Methods section provides some theoretical backgrounds and quick reference for the fundamentals on transient stability study. The Study Case Editor section explains how to create a new study case. select display options. and how to set them. make stability assessment. as well as in the plot file. Run Transient Stability Select a study case from the Study Case Toolbar. The Plots section explains what plots for transient stability are available and how to select and view them. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . TRANSIENT STABILITY TOOLBAR The Transient Stability Toolbar will appear on the screen when you are in the Transient Stability Study mode. Then click on the Run Transient Stability button to perform a transient stability study.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Displayed Results section explains the available one‐line displaying results and provides one example. A dialog box will appear to ask you to specify the output report name if the output file name is set to Prompt. The transient stability study results will appear on the one‐line diagram and stored in the output report. Also to edit the one‐line diagram display for transient stability calculation results. Transient stability analysis reports are current provided in ASCII formats only. which can be accessed from the Report Manager.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Display Options Click the Display Options button to customize the one‐line diagram annotation options under the transient stability study mode. Report Manager Click on Report Manager Button to select a format and view transient stability output report. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . For more information see plotting section. The transient stability plot files have the following extension: . The plot file name is displayed on the Study Case Toolbar. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 .POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Transient Stability Plots Click on the Transient Stability Plots button to select and plot the curves of the last plot file.tsp. This model is adapted from the latest IEEE Standard 1110 “IEEE Guide for Synchronous Generator Modeling Practices in Stability Analyses. Turbine ‐ Governor Models Practically any type of turbine‐governor model in PowerStation can be used in the generator start‐up study. the following synchronous generator model needs to be selected. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . provided there are no other special control functions required.” It has one damping winding on each of the direct and quadratic axis.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Starting Generator Data To perform a generator start‐up analysis. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL ONE LINE DIAGRAM: ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . this dip in voltage then gets higher value after dipping and as long as transients exists it shows some fluctuations and get stable value when transients get eliminated. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 .POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL WAVEFORMS FOR GENERATOR Generator Exciter Current Generator Exciter Voltage Explanation As it is clear from graph that as transients occur in system there is a sudden dip in generator excitation voltage at start. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . there is slight dip and then alternation in the power values due to alternation in voltage values due to transients. and as transients are being controlled we get stable value of electrical power as obvious from graph.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Generator Electrical power Explanation The effect of transients on generator electrical power is shown in figure. Generator Mechanical Power Explanation The same is the case with mechanical power as was with electrical power. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Generator Frequency Generator Rotor Angle: Explanation As graph shows that there is vibration occurance in rotor of a generator at start due to transient. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 .but as soon as value or effect of transient becomes small the rotor angle degree slows down or it advances towards stable value in synchronous with other generators of the system. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . Bus Voltages BUS WAVEFORMS Explanation The machine current graph shows that the value of current increases sharply at start unlike machine voltage and then it gradually have decline in sinusoidal magnitude variation of current and finally levels off to the original value as clear from graph.where it is quite clear that there is sudden almost steep increment in the current magnitude of generator.and then it becomes less than original value and then again comes to the same original current level. As concerned to bus voltage. it is obvious from graph that the bus voltage dips to zero and remain at zero as shown in circuit graph.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Generator Terminal Current: Explaination : The effect of transients on generator terminal current is clear from the graph. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 .POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Bus Voltage Angle Electrical Power SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR WAVEFORMS Explanation The electric power of synchronous motor after a slight increment decreases and then there is a dip in value which then again increases and after that it changed sinusoidaly but gradually decreasing value and at last becomes stable. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Mechanical power Machine Frequency Rotor Angle ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . Machine Current ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 .POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Machine Connected Voltage Explanation It is clear from graph that machine connected voltage decreases rapidly as shown by graph and then it got much value to become equal to the original value. but that value slightly increases in magnitude as time proceed as shown in graph. However both these cause the system voltage to rise to a dangerous value limits. the bus bar voltage instantly drop to zero as shown in graph. The rotor of the generator starts vibrating and is not more synchronized with the system this could lead to more severe vibrations and may lead to more rotors to vibrate. But remain constant for most of the time. As concerned to the frequency it just fluctuates in its original value by just a smaller magnitude which almost negligible. that power failure may occur due to component failure. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . The internal occur due to switching out inductive load or switching in capacitive load in the system. However after the transients the rotor is brought to the same rotor angle in order to synchronize with the system. Thus transient either internal or external are very harmful for our system and they must be diminished as soon as possible by proper grounding and other safety measurements. The synchronous motor current increases while voltage decreases rapidly for small time and then levels off. that must be avoided. to avoid any unwanted situation in the power system. Because capacitor provide var’s to our system. This is very dangerous situation for the health of our system. Transients are of two types.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL COMMENTS: Transients are very fast increase in voltage value that exists for a very short interval of time but can damage the system to such an extent. external due to cloud discharging and internal due to switching. Due to transient’s some values relating to voltage and current parameters of different components have different effects. The excitation voltage of the generator decreases while excitation current decreases. As bus bar is a protecting device so whenever a transient occurs in the system. and line‐to‐ground fault currents from the bus or connected transmission lines all cause potential differences between grounded points in the substation and remote earth. Provide means to carry and dissipate electric currents into earth under normal and fault conditions without exceeding any operating and equipment limits or adversely affecting continuity of service. large potential differences can exist between different points within the substation itself. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . Without a properly designed grounding system. connecting cables from the buried grounding grid to metallic parts of structures and equipment. Currents flowing into the grounding grid from lightning arrester operations.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL EXPERIMENT NO: 06 Introduction to Ground Grid Modeling in ETAP GROUND GRID An effective substation grounding system typically consists of driven ground rods. The touch and step voltages produced in a fault condition have to be at safe values. OBJECTIVES OF GROUNDING An effective grounding system has the following objectives: Ensure such a degree of human safety that a person working or walking in the vicinity of grounded facilities is not exposed to the danger of a critical electric shock. connections to grounded system neutrals. impulse or switching surge flashover of insulators. and the ground surface insulating covering material. A safe value is one that will not produce enough current within a body to cause ventricular fibrillation. buried interconnecting grounding cables or grid. which reduces damage to equipment and cable. equipment ground mats. it is current flowing through the grounding grid from line‐to‐ground faults that constitutes the main threat to personnel. Provide grounding for lightning impulses and the surges occurring from the switching of substation equipment. Under normal circumstances. particularly at minimum fault. the actual fault current can be broken into two parts: Symmetrical alternating component and Unidirectional dc component The unidirectional component can be of either polarity. Ground Fault Current It is the current flowing into or out of the earth or an equivalent conductive path during a fault condition involving ground. Mathematically. Mesh Voltage It is the maximum touch voltage within a mesh of a ground grid. but will not change polarity and will decrease at some predetermined rate. The GPR is equal to the product of the earth current and the equivalent impedance of the grounding system.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Provide a low resistance for the protective relays to see and clear ground faults. IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS DC Offset Difference between the symmetrical current wave and the actual current wave during a power system transient condition is called DC‐offset. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . which improves protective equipment performance. Ground Potential Rise GPR The maximum voltage that a ground grid may attain relative to a distant grounding point assumed to be at the potential of remote earth. Earth Current It is the current that circulates between the grounding system and the ground fault current source that uses the earth as the return path. This results in the lowest possible grid resistance and protects persons outside the fence from possibly hazardous touch voltages. In general. All of the available area should be used since this variable has the greatest effect in lowering the grid resistance. Measures such as adding additional grid conductor are expensive and do not reduce the grid resistance to the extent that increasing the area does. Touch Voltage It is the potential difference between the ground potential rise and the surface potential at the point where a person is standing while at the same time having his hands in contact with a grounded structure. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . AREA OF THE GROUND GRID The area of the ground grid should be as large as possible.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Soil Resistivity It is the electrical characteristic of the soil with respect to conductivity. The value is typically given in ohm‐meters. preferably covering the entire substation site. Transferred Voltage It is a special case of the touch voltage where a voltage is transferred into or out of the substation from or to a remote point external to the substation site. Step Voltage The difference in surface potential experienced by a person bridging a distance of 1 meter with his feet without contacting any other grounded object. the outer grid conductors should be placed on the boundary of the substation site with the substation fence placed a minimum of 3 feet inside the outer conductors. It is therefore imperative that the fence and the ground grid layout be coordinated early in the design process. The designer of the substation grounding system is interested primarily in the maximum amount of fault current expected to flow through the substation grid.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL The simplified design equations require square. A square. For irregular sites. the flow of ground current in both magnitude and direction depends on the impedances of the various possible paths. This will take advantage of the entire site area available and will result in a more conservative design. T‐shaped. or L‐shaped grids. GROUND FAULT CURRENTS When a substation bus or transmission line is faulted to ground. T‐shaped. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . rectangular. rectangular. once the design has been completed. along connected overhead ground wires. For preliminary design purposes. The worst case for fault current flow between the substation grounding grid and surrounding earth in terms of effect on substation safety has to be determined. especially that portion from or to remote earth. triangular. or along a combination of all these paths. on a layout drawing of the substation site. triangular. T‐ shaped. draw in the largest square. or L‐shaped grids that will fit within the site. rectangular. Figure illustrates a case governing ground fault current flow. The flow may be between portions of a substation ground grid. additional conductors will be run along the perimeter of the site that were not included in the original grid design and connected to the grid. triangular. between the ground grid and surrounding earth. The relay engineer is interested in the current magnitudes for all system conditions and fault locations so that protective relays can be applied and coordinating settings made. or L‐ shaped grid site generally requires no additional conductors once the design is complete. These represent the outer grid conductors and will define the area of the grid to be used in the calculations. during the service lifetime of the installed design. calculate the maximum Io for a single‐phase‐to‐ ground fault for both the present station configuration and the ultimate station configuration. Sf Where: Io Symmetrical rms value of Zero Sequence fault current in amperes For transmission substations. the symmetrical grid current can be expressed by: Ig 3Io . Sf Where: Ig rms symmetrical grid current in amperes If rms symmetrical ground fault current in amperes Sf Fault current division factor For the assumption of a sustained flow of the initial ground fault current.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL The maximum symmetrical rms fault current at the instant of fault initiation is usually obtained from a network analyzer study or by direct computation. Use the largest of these fault current values. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . Symmetrical Grid Current That portion of the symmetrical ground fault current that flows between the grounding grid and surrounding earth may be expressed by: Ig If . Obtain values for all voltage levels in the station. 1 x For distribution stations. For an extremely conservative design.1 x Io . Determine the Split Factor. since the fault current at distribution stations will not increase significantly over the life of the station as a result of the high impedance of the 34 and 69 kV feeders. neutrals.1 x For distribution stations. since the fault current at distribution stations will not increase significantly over the life of the station as a result of the high impedance of the 34 and 69 kV feeders. the interrupting rating of the equipment can be used for Io. This value may be as high as ten times the ultimate single‐phase‐to‐ground fault current.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL For distribution stations. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . the future fault current can be modeled using a suitable growth factor suggest value of 1. the future fault current can be modeled using a suitable growth factor suggest value of 1. Some of the parameters that affect the fault current paths are: Location of the fault Magnitude of substation ground grid impedance Buried pipes and cables in the vicinity of or directly connected to the substation ground system Overhead ground wires. since the fault current at distribution stations will not increase significantly over the life of the station as a result of the high impedance of the 34 and 69 kV feeders. Sf The split factor is used to take into account the fact that not all the fault current uses the earth as a return path. Use of such a large safety factor in the initial design may make it difficult to design the grid to meet the tolerable touch and step voltage criteria by any means. Substation Maximum Earth Current Computation. the future fault current can be modeled using a suitable growth factor suggest value of 1. or other ground return paths The most accurate method for determining the percentage of the total fault current that flows into the earth is to use a computer program such as EPRI’s SMECC. The current that is injected into the earth during a fault results in a ground potential rise. Df The decrement factor accounts for the asymmetrical fault current wave shape during the early cycles of a fault as a result of the dc current offset. 50. 50. the fault current will use the earth as a partial return path to the system neutral. 0 percent local fault current contribution 25. it is assumed that the ac component does not decay with time but remains at its initial value. Two types of graphs will be presented: 100 percent remote. transient. and steady‐state ac components. The decrement factor can be calculated using: Where: tf Time duration of fault in seconds Ta X/ wR the dc offset time constant in seconds Maximum Grid Current During a system fault. which corresponds to 75. the asymmetrical fault current includes the sub‐transient. However. the graphical method will be used. each having a different attenuation rate. In general. in typical applications of this guide. Typically. Both the sub‐transient and transient ac components and the dc offset decay exponentially. only a fraction of the total fault current flows from ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 .POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL For the purposes of this Bulletin. and the dc offset current component. and 25 percent remote fault current contribution The Decrement Factor. and 75 percent local. Faults occurring within the substation generally do not produce the worst earth currents since there are direct conductive paths that the fault current can follow to reach the system neutral assuming the substation has a grounded‐wye transformer . This is due to the transfer of current onto metallic paths such as overhead static shields. found for t. and the dc offset current component and can be defined as shown: Where: IF Effective asymmetrical fault current in amperes If rms symmetrical ground fault current in amperes Df Decrement factor ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . and steady‐state ac components.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL the grounding system into the earth. The faults that produce the largest ground currents are usually line‐to‐ground faults occurring at some distance away from the substation. water pipelines. etc. The maximum grid current is the current that flows through the grid to remote earth and is calculated by: Where: IG Maximum grid current in amperes Df Decrement factor for the entire duration of fault t . given in seconds Ig rms symmetrical grid current in amperes Asymmetrical Fault Current The asymmetrical fault current includes the sub‐transient. transient. and lower layers of soil. GROUND GRID MODELING IN ETAP The Ground Grid Systems program calculates the following: The Maximum Allowable Current for specified conductors. calculated Step and Mesh potentials IEEE Std 80 and IEEE Std 665 Graphic profiles for the absolute Step and Touch voltages.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL The dc offset in the fault current will cause the conductor to reach a higher temperature for the same fault conditions fault current duration and magnitude . as well as the tables of the voltages at various locations Finite Element Method The optimum number of parallel ground conductors and rods for a rectangular/triangular/L‐shaped/T‐shaped ground grid. In addition. The 3D View is used for the three‐dimensional display of the ground grid. Soil View. dc offset could result in mechanical forces and absorbed energy being almost four times the value of an equivalent symmetric current case. Warnings are issued if the specified conductor is rated lower than the fault current level The Step and Touch potentials for any rectangular/triangular/L‐ shaped/T‐shaped configuration of a ground grid. with or without ground rods IEEE Std 80 and IEEE Std 665 The tolerable Step and Mesh potentials and compares them with actual. Design optimizations are performed using a relative cost effectiveness method based on the IEEE Std 80 and IEEE Std 665 The Ground Resistance and Ground Potential rise GPR Ground Grid Systems Presentation The GGS presentation is composed of the Top View. if present. The Top View is used to edit the ground conductors/rods of a ground grid. The Soil View is used to edit the soil properties of the surface. The cost of conductors/rods and the safety of personnel in the vicinity of the substation/generating station during a ground fault are both considered. The 3D View also allows the display of the ground grid to rotate. and 3D View. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . top. and drop the GGS symbol anywhere on the One‐Line Diagram. a ground grid must first be added to the One‐ Line Diagram. Right‐click on any location inside the ground grid box. Click on the Ground Grid component located on the AC toolbar. This concept is different from the multi‐presentation approach of the One‐ Line Diagram. grid styles. The GGS presentation allows for graphical arrangement of the conductors and rods that represent the ground grid. The Grid Editor Dialog box is used to specify grid information. where all presentations have the same elements. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . equipment information. There is no limit to the number of GGS presentations that can be created. and to view calculation results. and select Properties to bring up the Grid Editor. Each GGS presentation is a different and independent ground grid system. Create a New Ground Grid Presentation To create a GGS presentation. Click on the Grid Presentation button to bring up a GGS presentation.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL offering views from various angles. and to provide a physical environment to conduct ground grid design studies. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Double‐clicking on the ground grid box located on the One‐Line Diagram will bring up the Ground‐Grid Project Information dialog box. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . After selecting the IEEE or FEM Study Model. the Ground Grid Systems graphical user interface window will be displayed. Below is a GGS presentation of a ground grid for the FEM Study Model case. used to select an IEEE or FEM ‐ Finite Element Method Study Model. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . or to move an element placed in the Top View of the GGS presentation. For more information on conductors see the Conductor/Rod Editor section for FEM . Conductor Click on the Conductor icon to create a new conductor and to place it in the Top View of the GGS. Rod Click on the Rod icon to create a new rod and to place it in the Top View of the GGS. Click on the Pointer icon to return the cursor to its original arrow shape. This toolbar has the following function keys: Pointer The cursor takes the shape of the element selected from the Edit Toolbar. For more information on rods see the Conductor/Rod Editor section for FEM . and when in the Ground Grid Systems Edit mode.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL FEM Editor Toolbar The FEM Editor Toolbar appears when the FEM Study Model is selected. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL FEM Rectangular Shape Click on the FEM Rectangular Shape icon to create a new FEM grid of rectangular shape and to place it in the Top View of the GGS. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . For more information on grids see the FEM Group Editor section. For more information on grids see the FEM Group Editor section. FEM T‐Shape Click on the FEM T‐Shape icon to create a new FEM T‐shaped grid and to place it in the Top View of the GGS. and when in the Ground Grid Systems Edit mode. IEEE Edit Toolbar The IEEE Editor Toolbar appears when the IEEE Study Model is selected. For more information on grids see the FEM Group Editor section. Click on the Pointer icon to return the cursor to its original arrow shape. or to move an element placed in the Top View of the GGS presentation. This toolbar has the following function keys: Pointer The cursor takes the shape of the element selected from the Edit Toolbar. For more information on grids see the FEM Group Editor section. FEM Triangular Shape Click on the FEM Triangular Shape icon to create a new FEM grid of triangular shape and to place it in the Top View. FEM L‐Shape Click on the FEM L‐Shape icon to create a new FEM L‐shaped grid and to place it in the Top View of the GGS. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL IEEE Rectangular Shape Click on the IEEE Rectangular Shape icon to create a new IEEE grid of rectangular shape and to place it in the Top View of the GGS. For more information on grids see the IEEE Group Editor section. IEEE L‐Shape The IEEE L‐Shape grid is valid only for the IEEE Std 80‐2000 method. For more information on grids see the IEEE Group Editor section. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . Click on the IEEE T‐Shape icon to create a new IEEE T‐shaped grid and to place it in the Top View of the GGS. For more information on grids see the IEEE Group Editor section. Click on the IEEE L‐Shape icon to create a new IEEE L‐shaped grid and to place it in the Top View of the GGS. 80‐2000 method. For more information on grids see the IEEE Group Editor section. Click on the IEEE Triangular Shape icon to create a new IEEE grid of triangular shape and to place it in the Top View. IEEE Triangular Shape The IEEE Triangular Shape grid is valid only for the IEEE Std 80‐2000 method. IEEE T‐Shape The IEEE T‐Shape grid is valid only for the IEEE Std. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Ground Grid Study Method Toolbar The Ground Grid Study Method Toolbar appears when the GGS Study mode is selected. This toolbar has the following function keys: Ground‐Grid Calculation Click on the Ground‐Grid Calculation button to calculate: Step and Touch mesh Potentials Ground Resistance Ground Potential Rise Tolerable Step and Touch Potential Limits Potential Profiles only for the FEM method ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . This optimization function is for IEEE Std methods only. Summary and Warning Click on this button to open the GRD Analysis Alert View dialog box of Summary and Warning for the Ground Grid Systems Calculation. This optimization function is for IEEE Std methods only.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Optimized Conductors Click on the Optimized Conductors button to calculate the minimum number of conductors that satisfy the tolerable limits for the Step and Touch potentials for a fixed number of ground rods. Optimized Conductors and Rods Click on the Optimized Conductors button to calculate the optimum numbers of conductors and ground rods needed to limit the Step and Touch potentials. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Plot Selection This function is valid only for the FEM method. Click on this button to open the Plot Selection dialog box to select a variety of potential profile plots to review, and click OK to generate the output plots. Report Manager Click on this button to open the Ground Grid Design Report Manager dialog box to select a variety of pre‐formatted output plots to review. Select a plot type and click OK to bring up the output plot. Output Report files can be selected from the Output Report List Box on the Study Case Toolbar shown below: ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Stop The Stop Sign button is normally disabled, and becomes enabled when a Ground Grid Systems Calculation is initiated. Clicking on this button will terminate calculations in progress, and the output reports will be incomplete. Edit A GGS Conductors, rods, and grids of various shapes are the elements available for adding to the Top View of the Ground Grid Systems presentation. These elements are located on the Edit Toolbar of the GGS module. Select Elements Place the cursor on an element located on the Edit toolbar and click the left mouse button. Note that when a grid shape is selected, regardless of the number of conductors or rods it contains, the shape is considered to be one element. If a selected shape is deleted or copied, the shape and its contents will also be deleted or copied. Press the Ctrl key and click on multiple elements to either select or de‐select them. Add Elements To add a new element to the GGS presentation, select a new element from the Edit Toolbar by clicking on the appropriate element button. Notice that the shape of the cursor changes to correspond to that of the selected element. Place the selected element by clicking the mouse anywhere in the Top View section of the GGS presentation, and note that the cursor returns to its original shape. Double‐click on any element in the Edit Toolbar to place multiple copies of the same element in the Top View section of the GGS presentation. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Rules Elements can be added ONLY in Edit mode Two conductors/rods cannot be added on top of each other Elements cannot be added in the Study mode Only one IEEE shape can be added in the Top View FEM group shapes can overlap each other Add Conductors Click on the Conductor button on the FEM Edit Toolbar, move the cursor to the GGS presentation, and click to place the element in the Top View. PowerStation creates the new conductor using default values. Add Rods Click on the Rod button on the FEM Edit Toolbar, move the cursor to the GGS presentation, and click to place the element in the Top View. PowerStation creates the new rod using default values. Add Grid Shapes Click on the desired Shape button on the FEM Edit Toolbar, move the cursor to the GGS presentation, and click to place the element in the Top View. PowerStation creates the new grid shape using default values. Add Conductors by Ungrouping FEM Shapes An FEM shape added in the Top View of a GGS presentation can be ungrouped into individual conductors. To ungroup, move the cursor inside the selected shape, right‐click and select “Ungroup”. Move / Relocate Elements When an element is added to a GGS presentation its position coordinates x, y and z are updated automatically in the editor/spreadsheet and in the Help line at the bottom of your screen. The element may be relocated to new coordinates by changing the coordinate values at the editor/spreadsheet x’s, yes and z’s for conductors/rods, and Lx, Ly, Depth, # of Rods and # of ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 and select Copy. Move Shapes Shapes can be graphically moved within the Top View. Select the element and move the cursor to a corner or edge of the element. click and hold the left mouse button. click and hold the left mouse button. drag the shape to the new location and release the left button. Move Conductors/Rods Select the element. click the right mouse button. Copy Elements Select an element or group of elements. its size is set by default. To drag an element. and release the left button. drag the element to the desired position. Place the cursor on top of the selected element. Click and hold the left mouse button. first select the element to be moved. click and hold the left ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . The width and height of grid shapes and the length of conductors can be graphically changed. Paste Use the Paste command to copy the selected cells from the Dumpster into the GGS presentation. Size of Elements When an element is added to a GGS presentation. Cut Delete Elements Select the element or group of elements and press the Delete key on the keyboard. drag the element to the new position and release the left button. Select the shape. Once the cursor changes its form.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Conductors in X/Y Directions for various typical grid shapes or by dragging the element and watching the Help line change to the desired position. Y2 and Z2 will change accordingly. Current Projection Factor. The cross‐sectional area of a conductor. To create a new GGS study case..e. When the Length is altered. This feature is designed to organize the study efforts and to save time. Ambient Temperature. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . and Plot Parameters for the Finite Element Method only . and X2. Release the left mouse button once the desired size has been obtained. Conductor/rod sizes can be change from the spreadsheet or shape editors. allowing the user to easily switch between different GGS study cases. and X/R ratio . zero‐sequence fault current. Y1 and Z1 will remain unchanged. Fault Current Durations. PowerStation allows for the creation and saving of an unlimited number of study cases for each type of study. X1. the outside diameter and/or length of a rod can only be changed from the conductor or rod Editor. option to input or compute Fault Current Parameters i. current division factor. go to the Study Case Menu on the toolbar and select Create New to bring up the GGS Study Case Editor.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL mouse button to drag the element to its new size. Rules Sizing elements can be done in Edit mode ONLY Elements cannot overlap each other Study Case Editor The GGS Study Case Editor contains Average Weight. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . and the ambient temperature. select the average body weight for the person working above the ground grid.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Study Case ID A study case can be renamed by simply deleting the old Study Case ID and entering a new one. Use of the Navigator button at the bottom of the Study Case Editor allows the user to go from one study case to another. The Study case ID can be up to 25 alphanumeric characters. Options In this section. The weight is used to calculate the tolerable Step and Touch potentials. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Reports & Plots Specify the report/plot parameters. Report Details Check this box to report intermediate results for an IEEE Std. Method or voltage profiles for the Finite Element Method. Auto Display of Summary & Alert Check this box to automatically show the result window for Summary & Warning. Plot Step Plot Step is valid only for the FEM Study Model. This value is entered in m/ft, and it is used to find the points or locations where Absolute/Step/Touch potentials need to be computed and plotted. Note that the smaller this number, the more calculations are required, increasing calculation time, but yielding smoother plots. The recommended value is 1 meter. If higher resolution is needed, decrease this number. Boundary Extension Enter the boundary extension in m/ft. This value is used to extend the grid boundaries inside which the Absolute/Step/Touch potentials need to be computed. Fault Durations Allows the user to specify Fault Current durations tf Enter the duration of fault current in seconds to determine decrement factor. The Fault duration tf , tc , and Shock duration ts are normally assumed to be equal, unless the Fault duration is the sum of successive shocks. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL tc Enter in seconds the duration of Fault Current for sizing ground conductors. ts Enter in seconds the duration of Shock Current to determine permissible levels for the human body. Grid Current Factors In this section, the Corrective Projection Factor and the Current Division Factor can be specified. Cp Enter the Corrective Projection Factor in percent, accounting for the relative increase of fault currents during the station lifespan. For a zero future system growth, Cp 100. Sf Enter the Current Division Factor in percent, relating the magnitude of Fault current to that of its portion flowing between the grounding grid and the surrounding earth. Update Check this box to update/replace the number of conductors/rods in the Conductor/Rod Editor, with the number of conductors/rods calculated by using optimization methods. This box is only valid with the IEEE methods. Required Data To run a Ground Grid Systems study, the following related data is necessary: Soil Parameters, Grid Data, and System Data. A summary of these data for different types of calculation methods is given in this section. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL System Data System Frequency Average Weight of Worker Ambient Temperature Short Circuit Current Short Circuit Current Division Factor Short Circuit Current Projector Factor Durations of Fault System X/R Ratio Plot Step for FEM model only Boundary Extension for FEM model only Soil Parameters Surface Material Resistivity Surface Material Depth Upper Layer Soil Resistivity Upper Layer Soil Depth Lower Layer Soil Resistivity Ground Conductor Library Material Conductivity Thermal Coefficient of Resistivity Ko Factor Fusing Temperature Ground Conductor Resistivity Thermal Capacity Factor Grid Data IEEE Std.’s Only Shape Material Type Conductor Cross Section Grid Depth Maximum Length of the Grid in the X Direction ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 Y and Z Coordinates of Other End of Rod Cost ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . Y and Z Coordinates of One End of Conductor X. Y and Z Coordinates of Other End of Conductor Cost Rod Data FEM model only Material Type Insulation Diameter X.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Maximum Length of the Grid in the Y Direction Minimum Length of the Grid in the X Direction for IEEE Std 80‐2000 L‐ Shaped or T‐Shaped Grids Only Minimum Length of the Grid in the Y Direction for IEEE Std 80‐2000 L‐ Shaped or T‐Shaped Grid Only Number of Conductors in the X Direction Number of Conductors in the Y Direction Cost Rod Data IEEE Std.’s Only Material Type Number of Rods Average Length Diameter Arrangement Cost Conductor Data FEM model only Material Type Insulation Cross Section X. Y and Z Coordinates of One End of Rod X. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 .POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Optional FEM Model Grid Group Data Shape Material Type Conductor Cross Section Grid Depth Maximum Length of the Grid in the X Direction Maximum Length of the Grid in the Y Direction Minimum Length of the Grid in the X Direction for L‐Shaped or T‐ Shaped Grids Minimum Length of the Grid in the Y Direction for L‐Shaped or T‐ Shaped Grids Number of Conductors in the X Direction Number of Conductors in the Y Direction Cost Ground Grid Systems Report Manager Click on the Report Manager Button on the Ground Grid Study Method Toolbar to open the Ground Grid Systems Report Manager dialog box. The Ground Grid Systems Report Manager consists of four pages and provides different formats for the Crystal Reports. Touch Voltage Select to plot a Touch Potential profile. Plot Selection The following 3‐D Potential profiles are available for analysis of GGS study case results: Absolute Voltage Select to plot an Absolute Potential profile. To select a plot. and are available for Absolute/Step/Touch Voltages. Plot Type The following plot types are available for analysis of GGS study case results: ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . Step Voltage Select to plot a Step Potential profile. open up the Plot Selection dialog box by clicking on the Plot Selection button located on the Ground Grid Systems Toolbar.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Plot Selection Plots are used only with the FEM method. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . A set of sample plots is shown below. Display over Limit Voltage Show areas with potentials exceeding the tolerable limits for 3‐D Touch/Step Potential profiles. This function is disabled when the Contour plot type is selected. Contour Plot a Contour Potential profile for the Absolute/Touch/Step voltage.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL 3‐D Plot a 3‐D Potential profile for the Absolute/Touch/Step voltage. Step & Touch potentials at any point in the configuration Conductor/Rod can be oriented in any possible 3‐Dimensional direction Handle irregular configurations of any shape ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . calculated Step and Touch potentials Optimize number of conductors with fixed rods based on cost and safety Optimize number of conductors & rods based on cost and safety Calculate the maximum allowable current for specified conductors Compare allowable currents against fault currents Calculate Ground System Resistance Calculate Ground Potential Rise User‐expandable conductor library Allow a two‐layer soil configuration in addition to the surface material Ground grid configurations showing conductor & rod plots Display 3‐D/contour Touch Voltage plots Display 3‐D/contour Step Voltage plots Display 3‐D/contour Absolute Voltage plots Calculate Absolute.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL COMMENTS: Some of the main features of the Ground Grid Systems Analysis Study are summarized below: Calculate the tolerable Step and Touch potentials Compare potentials against the actual. Warnings are issued if the specified conductor is rated lower than the fault current level The Step and Touch potentials for any rectangular/triangular/L‐ shaped/T‐shaped configuration of a ground grid. large potential differences can exist between different points within the substation itself. Under normal circumstances. calculated Step and Mesh potentials IEEE Std 80 and IEEE Std 665 Graphic profiles for the absolute Step and Touch voltages. as well as the tables of the voltages at various locations Finite Element Method The optimum number of parallel ground conductors and rods for a rectangular/triangular/L‐shaped/T‐shaped ground grid. equipment ground mats. and the ground surface insulating covering material. buried interconnecting grounding cables or grid.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL EXPERIMENT NO: 07 Ground Grid Modeling of a Given System using ETAP GROUND GRID An effective substation grounding system typically consists of driven ground rods. Currents flowing into the grounding grid from lightning arrester operations. connections to grounded system neutrals. with or without ground rods IEEE Std 80 and IEEE Std 665 The tolerable Step and Mesh potentials and compares them with actual. it is current flowing through the grounding grid from line‐to‐ground faults that constitutes the main threat to personnel. The cost of ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . GROUND GRID MODELING IN ETAP The Ground Grid Systems program calculates the following: The Maximum Allowable Current for specified conductors. impulse or switching surge flashover of insulators. Without a properly designed grounding system. and line‐to‐ground fault currents from the bus or connected transmission lines all cause potential differences between grounded points in the substation and remote earth. connecting cables from the buried grounding grid to metallic parts of structures and equipment. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL conductors/rods and the safety of personnel in the vicinity of the substation/generating station during a ground fault are both considered. Design optimizations are performed using a relative cost effectiveness method based on the IEEE Std 80 and IEEE Std 665 The Ground Resistance and Ground Potential rise GPR ONE LINE DIAGRAM Create a New Ground Grid Presentation To create a GGS presentation. and drop the GGS symbol anywhere on the One‐Line Diagram. a ground grid must first be added to the One‐ Line Diagram. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . Click on the Ground Grid component located on the AC toolbar. and select Properties to bring up the Grid Editor.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL DIAGRAM WITH GROUND GRID Right‐click on any location inside the ground grid box. grid styles. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . The Grid Editor Dialog box is used to specify grid information. Click on the Grid Presentation button to bring up a GGS presentation. equipment information. and to view calculation results. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Double‐clicking on the ground grid box located on the One‐Line Diagram will bring up the Ground‐Grid Project Information dialog box, used to select an IEEE or FEM ‐ Finite Element Method Study Model. After selecting the IEEE Study Model, the Ground Grid Systems graphical user‐ interface window will be displayed as shown below. Select the T‐shape grid. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Right click on the T‐shape and adjust the dimensions and number of conductors in the following window: ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL After completing this process, we get the following shape of ground grid: Ground Grid Study The Ground Grid Study Method Toolbar appears when the GGS Study mode is selected. Clicking on the Ground‐Grid Calculation tab and the following shown Alert View window is displayed. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 3 1216.4 GPR 5677.9 Volts Rg 2.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Summary and Warning Observations: Calculated Volts Tolerable Volts Touch 1260.1 Step 2209.6 427.83 Ohm ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . then we get following plots of touch potential and step potential as shown below: ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . and when in the Ground Grid Systems Edit mode.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Summary and Warnings after Complete designing Using FEM method The FEM Editor Toolbar appears when the FEM Study Model is selected. If we use this method. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL COMMENTS: Ground‐Grid Calculations are used to calculate: Step and Touch mesh Potentials Ground Resistance Ground Potential Rise Tolerable Step and Touch Potential Limits Potential Profiles only for the FEM method In this experiment: We perform ground grid modeling with low number of rods We observe that the step voltage and the touch voltage are out of tolerable limits as shown in alert view Then we perform the analysis after adding more number of rods Finally we achieve a position where we do not get any alert and the step voltage and the touch voltage are within tolerable limits That means that we have modeled the Ground‐Grid according to our requirements ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . Hence fast fault clearance is always desirable on short circuits. the time delay is provided in case of inverse relays. TYPES OF RELAYS Over current Relay Distance Relay Differential Relay And many more… Over‐Current Relay The protection in which the relay picks up when the magnitude of current exceeds the pickup level is known as the over‐current protection. Relays find applications where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low‐ power signal. permissible over current. Over current relay is a basic element of over current protection. but other operating principles are also used. Over current includes short‐circuit protection. Earth faults. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . The protection should be coordinated with neighboring over current protection. Primary requirements of over‐current protection are: The protection should not operate for starting currents. or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. Short‐circuit currents are generally several times 5 to 20 full load current. current surges. Winding faults. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits. To achieve this.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL EXPERIMENT NO: 08 Modeling of Single‐Phase Instantaneous Over‐Current Relay using MATLAB RELAY A relay is an electrically operated switch. repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re‐transmitting it to another. Short circuits can be Phase faults. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism. It has operating time is constant.1s or less Definite Time over Current Relay: It operates after a predetermined time. In it. Inverse Time over Current Relay: Over current relay function monitors the general balanced overloading and has current/time settings. Types of Over‐Current Relay Instantaneous Time over Current Relay: It operates in a definite time when current exceeds its pick‐up value. Its operating time is constant.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL In order for an over current protective device to operate properly. a serious hazard for equipment and personnel will exist. ampere and interrupting rating. perhaps the most important and most often overlooked is the interrupting rating. Its operation is independent of the magnitude of current above the pick‐up value. desired time delay can be set with the help of an intentional time delay mechanism. as current exceeds its pick‐up value. although not all over current protective devices are required to have this characteristic. If the interrupting rating is not properly selected. there is no intentional time delay. It has pick‐up and time dial settings. It operates in 0. This is determined by the overall protective discrimination scheme. Of the three of the ratings. These ratings include voltage. There advantage over definite time relays is that they ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . over‐ current protective device ratings must be properly selected. Current limiting can be considered as another over current protective device rating. for values between 10 and 20. It is for the protection of alternators. this indicates the speed of the operation. An inverse characteristic is obtained if the value of plug setting multiplier is below 10. as the distance from source increases. The typical settings for these relays are 0. It is suitable for the protection of machines against overheating. It is particularly effective with ground faults because of their steep characteristics Extremely Inverse Time over Current Relay: It has more inverse characteristics than that of IDMT and very inverse over‐ current relay. transformers.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL can have much shorter tripping times can be obtained without any risk to the protection selection process.7‐2In normal or rated generator current in 1‐10 second. characteristics tend towards definite time characteristics. etc ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . Very Inverse Time over Current Relay: It gives more inverse characteristics than that of IDMT. These are classified in accordance with there characteristic curves. very inverse or extremely inverse. It is widely used for the protection of distribution lines. Based on this they are defined as being inverse. expensive cables. It is used where there is a reduction in fault current. Inverse Definite Minimum Time over Current Relay: It gives inverse time current characteristics at lower values of fault current and definite time characteristics at higher values. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Simulink Diagram in MATLAB for Single Phase Instantaneous Time Over‐Current Relay ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Waveform Results in MATLAB for Single Phase Instantaneous Time Over‐Current Relay ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . We observed that the normal current flowing through the system is 100 Amperes. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . the current flowing is increased from 100 Amperes. we designed an instantaneous over‐current relay in MATLAB Simulink and then observed the behavior of this relay. but when the fault occurs in the system. we take the results on scope and observed that when current exceeds over 100 Amperes. the breaker is opened instantaneously and our required results are verified. In this experiment. We modeled the circuit such that the breaker must be open just after the current level is increased over 100 Amperes.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL COMMENTS: In this experiment. Relays find applications where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low‐ power signal. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism. repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re‐transmitting it to another. Type of Relays Over current Relay Distance Relay Differential Relay And many more… ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. but other operating principles are also used. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Experiment#09 Modeling of a Three Phase Instantaneous Over‐Current Relay using MATLAB Relay: A relay is an electrically operated switch. Hence fast fault clearance is always desirable on short circuits. Over current includes short‐circuit protection. Short circuits can be Phase faults.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Functions of Relays: To detect the presence of fault Identify the faulted components Initiate appropriate circuit breaker Remove the effective component from circuit Over‐Current Relay The protection in which the relay picks up when the magnitude of current exceeds the pickup level is known as the over‐current protection. The protection should be coordinated with neighboring over current protection. These ratings include voltage. Current limiting can be considered as another over current protective device rating. over current protective device ratings must be properly selected. selected. Earth faults. although not all over current protective devices are required to have this characteristic. Winding faults. Of the three of the ratings. perhaps the most important and most often overlooked is the interrupting rating. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . In order for an over current protective device to operate properly. current surges. Over current relay is a basic element of over current protection. the time delay is provided in case of inverse relays. permissible over current. a serious hazard for equipment and personnel will exist. Short‐circuit currents are generally several times 5 to 20 full load current. ampere and interrupting rating. Primary requirements of over‐current protection are: The protection should not operate for starting currents. If the interrupting rating is not properly. To achieve this. characteristics tend towards definite time characteristics. as current exceeds its pick‐up value. Its operating time is constant. It is for the protection of alternators. Very Inverse Time over Current Relay: It gives more inverse characteristics than that of IDMT. It is widely used for the protection of distribution lines. It is suitable for the protection of machines against overheating. It has pick‐up and time dial settings.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Types of Over Current Relay Instantaneous Time over Current Relay: It operates in a definite time when current exceeds its pick‐up value. for values between 10 and 20. Definite Time over Current Relay: It operates after a predetermined time. It is particularly effective with ground faults because of their steep characteristics Extremely Inverse Time over Current Relay: It has more inverse characteristics than that of IDMT and very inverse over‐ current relay.1s or less. expensive cables. It operates in 0. there is no intentional time delay. It is used where there is a reduction in fault current. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . In it. An inverse characteristic is obtained if the value of plug setting multiplier is below 10. transformers. Its operation is independent of the magnitude of current above the pick‐up value. Inverse Definite Minimum Time over Current Relay: It gives inverse time current characteristics at lower values of fault current and definite time characteristics at higher values. desired time delay can be set with the help of an intentional time delay mechanism. etc. It has operating time is constant. as the distance from source increases. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Simulink Diagram in MATLAB for Three‐Phase Instantaneous Time Over‐Current Relay Subsystem: ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Inst.Relay: Waveform Results in MATLAB for Three Phase‐Instantaneous Time Over‐Current Relay ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . When a three phase fault occurs in the system. This three phase relay can operate also for single phase or two phases fault.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL COMMENTS: In this experiment. Breaker is operated instantaneously at the time when fault occurs and system is protected against the very high current. We have implimented a three phase fault at a specified time to ensure the breaker operation at 0. In this experiment we have used terminators at the outputs that are not needed.02 on time axis. current exceeds from this value. we implimented a three phase instantaneous over current relay in MATLAB Simulink. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism. but other operating principles are also used. A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly drive an electric motor is called a contractor. Relays find applications where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low‐ power signal. in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called protection relays.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Experiment#10 Modeling of a Differential Relay Using MATLAB WHAT IS A RELAY? A relay is an electrically operated switch. or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. Solid‐state relays control power circuits with no moving parts. Relays found extensive use in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults. repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re‐transmitting it to another. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits. instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. A protective relay is a ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . Stability .Fault clearance time Functions of Relays To detect the presence of fault Identify the faulted components Initiate appropriate circuit breaker Remove the effective component from circuit Purpose of Relay Control Protection Regulation Type of Relays Over current Relay Distance Relay Differential Relay etc.Reliability .POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL automatic sensing device which senses an abnormal condition and causes circuit breaker to isolate faulty element from system. Protective relaying is necessary with almost every electrical power system and no part of it is left unprotected choice of protection depends upon several aspects like Type and rating of protected equipment and its importance Location Probable abnormal condition Cost Selectivity . ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 .Sensitivity . leading to ope eration. Differe ential prot tection det tects fault ts on all of f the plant a and equipment with the p hin protected zone. Principle of Operation The ope erating pr rinciple em mployed by transfor rmer differ rential pro otection is s the circulat ting current system m as shown n below. A intern fault p An nal produces an unba alance or 'spill' cu urrent tha is at detecte ed by the r relay. incl luding int ter‐turn short circuits s. The pr rinciple of f operation n is made possible b by virtue o of the fact that large t transforme are v ers very effici ient and hence un nder norm opera mal ation power‐ ‐in equals power‐ou ut. The ese include: ASAD NA AEEM 2006‐RCET‐E 2 EE‐22 . U Under nor rmal condi itions I1 an 2 nd I are equ and op ual pposite su that t resulta curren through the rela is uch the ant nt h ay zero.POW WER SYS STEM PR ROTECTIO ON LAB M MANUAL L Differential Re elay Differen ntial protection is a unit sch a heme that compar res the current on t the primary side of f a trans sformer with that on the s w secondary side. Design Considera ations A numb of factors have to be tak into account in designing a schem to ber ken g me meet th hese objec ctives. W Where a difference exists ot d ther than that du to the voltage ra ue atio it is assumed that th transfor he rmer has develope a fault ed t and the plant is automati e ically disc connected circuit by tripping t the relevant breaker rs. This could mean that the currents fed into the relay from the two sides of the power transformer may not balance perfectly.e. magnetizing inrush has the effect of producing a high magnitude current for a short period of time. However. This will be seen by the supply side CTs only and could be interpreted as an internal ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . 1000/5. This in turn changes the ratio of primary to secondary current and produces out‐of‐ balance or spill current in the relay. Magnetizing Inrush Current When a transformer is first energized. 200/1 etc. it must not operate. Current Imbalance Produced by Tap Changing A transformer equipped with an on‐load tap changer OLTC will by definition experience a change in voltage ratio as it moves over its tapping range.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL The matching of CT ratios Current imbalance produced by tap changing Dealing with zero sequence currents Phase shift through the transformer Magnetizing inrush current Each of these is considered further below: The Matching of CT Ratios The CTs used for the Protection Scheme will normally be selected from a range of current transformers with standard ratios such as 1600/1. Biased relays provide the solution. so the magnitude of the spill current increases. none of these conditions is 'in zone' and therefore the protection must remain stable i. as the load on the transformer increases the magnitude of the spill current increases yet again. And finally through faults could produce spill currents that exceed the setting of the relay. To make the situation worse. As the transformer taps further from the balance position. Any imbalance must be compensated for and methods used include the application of biased relays and/or the use of the interposing CTs. CT ratios and zero sequence current elimination to be programmed directly into the relay. Other Issues Biased Relays The use of a bias feature within a differential relay permits low settings and fast operating times even when a transformer is fitted with an on‐load tap‐ changer. an interposing CT is installed between the secondary winding of the main CT and the relay. typically. Precautions must therefore be taken to prevent a protection operation. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . by the high level of second harmonic associated with inrush current. As the name suggests. or both. Modern Relays It should be noted that some of the newer digital relays eliminate the need for interposing CTs by enabling essentials such as phase shift.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL fault. Biased relays are given a specific characteristic by the manufacturer. Solutions include building a time delay feature into the relay and the use of harmonic restraint driven. Interposing CTs also provide a convenient method of establishing a delta connection for the elimination of zero sequence currents where this is necessary. Interposing CTs are equipped with a wide range of taps that can be selected by the user to achieve the balance required. Interposing CTs The main function of an interposing CT is to balance the currents supplied to the relay where there would otherwise be an imbalance due to the ratios of the main CTs. They can be used on the primary side or secondary side of the power transformer being protected. The effect of the bias is to progressively increase the amount of spill current required for operation as the magnitude of through current increases. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Simulink Diagram in MATLAB for Differential Relay SUBSYSTEM ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL SUBSYSTEM‐1 Waveform Results in MATLAB for Differential Relay ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . However it can also be used for the protection of distribution transformer. It was observed that breaker takes a little more time when the fault is on the secondary side as compared to the fault occurrence on primary side of transformer due to larger distance.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Comments: It is important to note the direction of the currents as well as the magnitude as they are vectors.220 and 132KV. Then we applied a fault on the primary side and again verify the tripping of circuit breaker. In this experiment. First of all we have applied a fault on the secondary side of transformer and ensure the operation of circuit breaker at the instant of fault that was set by us through the timer block. It requires a set of current transformers smaller transformers that transform currents down to a level which can be measured at each end of the power line or each side of the transformer. It is verified that the differential relay modeled can detect three phase fault as well as fault on any single phase on each side of transformer. we modeled a differential relay in MATLAB which provides the essential protection against transformer internal faults and it is useful in power transformers like 500. impulse or switching surge flashover of insulators. connecting cables from the buried grounding grid to metallic parts of structures and equipment. connections to grounded system neutrals. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . Currents flowing into the grounding grid from lightning arrester operations. large potential differences can exist between different points within the substation itself.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Experiment#11 Comparison between the Step and Touch Potential of a T‐Model and Square Model of Ground Grids under Tolerable and Intolerable in ETAP THEORY GROUND GRID An effective substation grounding system typically consists of driven ground rods. and line‐to‐ground fault currents from the bus or connected transmission lines all cause potential differences between grounded points in the substation and remote earth. equipment ground mats. and line‐to‐ground fault currents from the bus or connected transmission lines all cause potential differences between grounded points in the substation and remote earth. Without a properly designed grounding system. and the ground surface insulating covering material. Under normal circumstances. Currents flowing into the grounding grid from lightning arrester operations. impulse or switching surge flashover of insulators. buried interconnecting grounding cables or grid. it is current flowing through the grounding grid from line‐to‐ground faults that constitutes the main threat to personnel. calculated Step and Mesh potentials IEEE Std 80 and IEEE Std 665 Graphic profiles for the absolute Step and Touch voltages. The cost of conductors/rods and the safety of personnel in the vicinity of the substation/generating station during a ground fault are both considered. with or without ground rods IEEE Std 80 and IEEE Std 665 The tolerable Step and Mesh potentials and compares them with actual. Design optimizations are performed using a relative cost effectiveness method based on the IEEE Std 80 and IEEE Std 665 The Ground Resistance and Ground Potential rise GPR OBJECTIVES OF GROUNDING An effective grounding system has the following objectives: ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . Warnings are issued if the specified conductor is rated lower than the fault current level The Step and Touch potentials for any rectangular/triangular/L‐ shaped/T‐shaped configuration of a ground grid. as well as the tables of the voltages at various locations Finite Element Method The optimum number of parallel ground conductors and rods for a rectangular/triangular/L‐shaped/T‐shaped ground grid.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL GROUND GRID MODELING IN ETAP The Ground Grid Systems program calculates the following: The Maximum Allowable Current for specified conductors. which reduces damage to equipment and cable. particularly at minimum fault.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Ensure such a degree of human safety that a person working or walking in the vicinity of grounded facilities is not exposed to the danger of a critical electric shock. The touch and step voltages produced in a fault condition have to be at safe values. which improves protective equipment performance. Step Voltage The difference in surface potential experienced by a person bridging a distance of 1 meter with his feet without contacting any other grounded object. Provide a low resistance for the protective relays to see and clear ground faults. Provide grounding for lightning impulses and the surges occurring from the switching of substation equipment. A safe value is one that will not produce enough current within a body to cause ventricular fibrillation. Touch Voltage It is the potential difference between the ground potential rise and the surface potential at the point where a person is standing while at the same time having his hands in contact with a grounded structure. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . Provide means to carry and dissipate electric currents into earth under normal and fault conditions without exceeding any operating and equipment limits or adversely affecting continuity of service. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL INTOLERABLE RECTANGULAR SHAPE GROUND GRID ALERTS ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL TOLERABLE RECTANGULAR SHAPE GROUND GRID ALERTS ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL INTOLERABLE T‐SHAPE GROUND GRID ALERTS ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL TOLERABLE T‐SHAPE GROUND GRID ALERTS ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . That is why we can say that the Rectangular shaped ground grid is better than T‐shaped.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Comments There are following major types of ground grids according to their shape: Rectangular Triangular L‐shaped T‐shaped In this experiment. First we perform the analysis for intolerable limits for both types of ground grids. we have used two types of ground grid for comparison that are Rectangular‐shaped and T‐shaped. We observed that the number of rods used in case of T‐shaped ground grid are required in greater quantity for tolerable limits as compared to Rectangular‐shaped ground grid. Then perform the analysis for tolerable limits. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . Due to greater number of rods requirement. T‐shaped ground grid is much expensive than the Rectangular shaped ground grid. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism. but other operating principles are also used. repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re‐transmitting it to another. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits. Relays find applications where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low‐ power signal.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Experiment#12 Modeling of an Over‐Current Relay using ETAP WHAT IS A RELAY? A relay is an electrically operated switch. or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. Type of Relays Over current Relay Distance Relay Differential Relay And many more… ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . permissible over current. It operates in 0. To achieve this. Current limiting can be considered as another over current protective device rating.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Functions of Relays: To detect the presence of fault Identify the faulted components Initiate appropriate circuit breaker Remove the effective component from circuit Over‐Current Relay The protection in which the relay picks up when the magnitude of current exceeds the pickup level is known as the over‐current protection. Over current relay is a basic element of over current protection. In it. Selected. the time delay is provided in case of inverse relays. Over current includes short‐circuit protection.1s or less. In order for an over current protective device to operate properly. ampere and interrupting rating. perhaps the most important and most often overlooked is the interrupting rating. Of the three of the ratings. If the interrupting rating is not properly. although not all over current protective devices are required to have this characteristic. Winding faults. over current protective device ratings must be properly selected. Hence fast fault clearance is always desirable on short circuits. The protection should be coordinated with neighboring over current protection. Types of Over Current Relay Instantaneous Time over Current Relay: It operates in a definite time when current exceeds its pick‐up value. Short circuits can be Phase faults. there is no intentional time delay. Primary requirements of over‐current protection are: The protection should not operate for starting currents. a serious hazard for equipment and personnel will exist. Earth faults. It has operating time is constant. Short‐circuit currents are generally several times 5 to 20 full load current. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . These ratings include voltage. current surges. An inverse characteristic is obtained if the value of plug setting multiplier is below 10. Its operation is independent of the magnitude of current above the pick‐up value. Inverse Definite Minimum Time over Current Relay: It gives inverse time current characteristics at lower values of fault current and definite time characteristics at higher values. as the distance from source increases. characteristics tend towards definite time characteristics. Its operating time is constant. Extremely Inverse Time over Current Relay: It has more inverse characteristics than that of IDMT and very inverse over‐ current relay. It is particularly effective with ground faults because of their steep characteristics. expensive cables. When current in a circuit is too high to directly apply to measuring instruments. as current exceeds its pick‐up value. together with voltage transformers VT potential transformers PT . for values between 10 and 20. are known as instrument transformers. It is for the protection of alternators. etc. desired time delay can be set with the help of an intentional time delay mechanism. CURRENT TRANSFORMER CT In electrical engineering. Current transformers. Very Inverse Time over Current Relay: It gives more inverse characteristics than that of IDMT. transformers. It is used where there is a reduction in fault current. It is widely used for the protection of distribution lines. a current transformer CT is used for measurement of electric currents. It is suitable for the protection of machines against overheating. It has pick‐up and time dial settings.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Definite Time over Current Relay: It operates after a predetermined time. a current transformer produces a reduced current accurately proportional to the current in ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL the circuit. which operates once and then has to be replaced. which can be conveniently connected to measuring and recording instruments. from small devices that ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . The selected tap. by interrupting continuity. for multi‐ratio CT's CIRCUIT BREAKER A circuit breaker is an automatically‐operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Unlike a fuse. a circuit breaker can be reset either manually or automatically to resume normal operation. Current transformers are commonly used in metering and protective relays in the electrical power industry. Accuracy of CT The accuracy of a CT is directly related to a number of factors including: Burden Burden class/saturation class Rating factor Load External electromagnetic fields Temperature and Physical configuration. Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes. to immediately discontinue electrical flow. A current transformer also isolates the measuring instruments from what may be very high voltage in the monitored circuit. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city. SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM WITH FAULT‐1 ALERTS DIAGRAM ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM WITH FAULT‐2 ALERTS DIAGRAM ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . In this experiment we have used one current transformer that is connected to the over current relay. 51 for a time over current TOC . ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . When the relay operates. The ANSI device number is 50 for an instantaneous over current IOC . the relay operates the circuit breaker and isoltes the faulty system from the normal system. In a typical application the overcurrent relay is connected to a current transformer and calibrated to operate at or above a specific current level. After sensing the fault. When a fault occur in the system. We have verified that the relay is operating for both faults added in the system by selecting two different faulty points. the amount of current flowing through that section increases and current transformer provides the relay a sense of fault by changing its current. one or more contacts will operate and energize to trip open a circuit breaker.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL COMMENTS: An "overcurrent relay" is a type of protective relay which operates when the load current exceeds a preset value. in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called protection relays. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism. instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. A protective relay is a ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 .POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Experiment#13 Modeling of a Differential Relay Using ETAP WHAT IS A RELAY? A relay is an electrically operated switch. Relays find applications where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low‐ power signal. A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly drive an electric motor is called a contractor. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits. Relays found extensive use in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations. or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. Solid‐state relays control power circuits with no moving parts. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults. repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re‐transmitting it to another. but other operating principles are also used. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 .POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL automatic sensing device which senses an abnormal condition and causes circuit breaker to isolate faulty element from system.Reliability . Stability .Fault clearance time Functions of Relays To detect the presence of fault Identify the faulted components Initiate appropriate circuit breaker Remove the effective component from circuit Purpose of Relay Control Protection Regulation Type of Relays Over current Relay Distance Relay Differential Relay etc.Sensitivity . Protective relaying is necessary with almost every electrical power system and no part of it is left unprotected choice of protection depends upon several aspects like Type and rating of protected equipment and its importance Location Probable abnormal condition Cost Selectivity . W Where a difference exists ot d ther than that du to the voltage ra ue atio it is assumed that th transfor he rmer has develope a fault ed t and the plant is automati e ically disc connected circuit by tripping t the relevant breaker rs. An inter h ay rnal fault produces an unbalance or 's spill' current t that is de etected by y the relay. Design Considera ations A numb of factors have to be tak into account in designing a schem to ber ken g me meet th hese objec ctives.POW WER SYS STEM PR ROTECTIO ON LAB M MANUAL L Differential Re elay Differen ntial protection is a unit sch a heme that compar res the current on t the primary side of f a trans sformer with that on the s w secondary side. Differe ential prot tection det tects fault ts on all of f the plant a and equipment with the p hin protected zone. incl luding int ter‐turn short circuits s. U Under nor rmal conditions I1 and I2 are equal and opposite such that the resu d t ultant current through the rela is zero. . The pr rinciple of f operation n is made possible b by virtue o of the fact that large t transforme are v ers very effici ient and hence un nder norm opera mal ation power‐ ‐in equals power‐ou ut. Principle of Operation The ope erating pr rinciple em mployed by transfor rmer differ rential pro otection is s the Merz‐P Price circu ulating cu urrent sy ystem as shown b below. The ese include: ASAD NA AEEM 2006‐RCET‐E 2 EE‐22 . leading to operatio on. 200/1 etc. To make the situation worse. This in turn changes the ratio of primary to secondary current and produces out‐of‐ balance or spill current in the relay. Magnetizing Inrush Current When a transformer is first energized. 1000/5. This could mean that the currents fed into the relay from the two sides of the power transformer may not balance perfectly. Current Imbalance Produced by Tap Changing A transformer equipped with an on‐load tap changer OLTC will by definition experience a change in voltage ratio as it moves over its tapping range.e. magnetizing inrush has the effect of producing a high magnitude current for a short period of time. Any imbalance must be compensated for and methods used include the application of biased relays and/or the use of the interposing CTs. none of these conditions is 'in zone' and therefore the protection must remain stable i. so the magnitude of the spill current increases. Biased relays provide the solution. And finally through faults could produce spill currents that exceed the setting of the relay.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL The matching of CT ratios Current imbalance produced by tap changing Dealing with zero sequence currents Phase shift through the transformer Magnetizing inrush current Each of these is considered further below: The Matching of CT Ratios The CTs used for the Protection Scheme will normally be selected from a range of current transformers with standard ratios such as 1600/1. as the load on the transformer increases the magnitude of the spill current increases yet again. it must not operate. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . However. As the transformer taps further from the balance position. an interposing CT is installed between the secondary winding of the main CT and the relay. As the name suggests. or both. Other Issues Biased Relays The use of a bias feature within a differential relay permits low settings and fast operating times even when a transformer is fitted with an on‐load tap‐ changer. typically. Modern Relays It should be noted that some of the newer digital relays eliminate the need for interposing CTs by enabling essentials such as phase shift. The effect of the bias is to progressively increase the amount of spill current required for operation as the magnitude of through current increases. CT ratios and zero sequence current elimination to be programmed directly into the relay. Solutions include building a time delay feature into the relay and the use of harmonic restraint driven. Interposing CTs The main function of an interposing CT is to balance the currents supplied to the relay where there would otherwise be an imbalance due to the ratios of the main CTs. by the high level of second harmonic associated with inrush current. Precautions must therefore be taken to prevent a protection operation.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL This will be seen by the supply side CTs only and could be interpreted as an internal fault. Interposing CTs are equipped with a wide range of taps that can be selected by the user to achieve the balance required. Interposing CTs also provide a convenient method of establishing a delta connection for the elimination of zero sequence currents where this is necessary. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . Biased relays are given a specific characteristic by the manufacturer. They can be used on the primary side or secondary side of the power transformer being protected. Current transformers are commonly used in metering and protective relays in the electrical power industry. are known as instrument transformers. a current transformer produces a reduced current accurately proportional to the current in the circuit. for multi‐ratio CT's CIRCUIT BREAKER A circuit breaker is an automatically‐operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and. by interrupting continuity. together with voltage transformers VT potential transformers PT . When current in a circuit is too high to directly apply to measuring instruments. a current transformer CT is used for measurement of electric currents.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL CURRENT TRANSFORMER CT In electrical engineering. Unlike a fuse. which can be conveniently connected to measuring and recording instruments. Accuracy of CT The accuracy of a CT is directly related to a number of factors including: Burden Burden class/saturation class Rating factor Load External electromagnetic fields Temperature and The selected tap. which operates once ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . to immediately discontinue electrical flow. Current transformers. A current transformer also isolates the measuring instruments from what may be very high voltage in the monitored circuit. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL and then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset either manually or automatically to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city. SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM WITH FAULT‐1 ALERTS DIAGRAM ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM WITH FAULT‐2 ALERTS DIAGRAM ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . Here we have used two CT’s. In this experiment. These CT’s are directly connected to the differential relay that is sensing the difference between the secondary side currents of both CT’s. First of all we have applied a fault on the secondary side of transformer and ensure the operation of circuit breaker at the instant of fault through the signal provided by the relay. It is verified that the differential relay modeled can detect three phase fault as well as fault on any single phase on each side of transformer. one on primary side of transformer and the other on secondary side. we modeled a differential relay in ETAP which provides the essential protection against transformer internal faults and it is useful in power transformers like 500. However it can also be used for the protection of distribution transformer.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Comments: It is important to note the direction of the currents as well as the magnitude as they are vectors. It requires a set of current transformers smaller transformers that transform currents down to a level which can be measured at each end of the power line or each side of the transformer. Moreover the differential relay can only sense the faults that are present in the internal zone of both CT’s.220 and 132KV. Then we applied a fault on the primary side and again verify the tripping of circuit breaker through the relay signal. or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re‐transmitting it to another. but other operating principles are also used. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Experiment#14 Modeling of a Definite Time Over‐Current Relay using MATLAB WHAT IS A RELAY? A relay is an electrically operated switch. Type of Relays Over current Relay Distance Relay Differential Relay And many more… ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . Relays find applications where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low‐ power signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits. the time delay is provided in case of inverse relays. Selected. Current limiting can be considered as another over current protective device rating. The protection should be coordinated with neighboring over current protection. Short‐circuit currents are generally several times 5 to 20 full load current. To achieve this. These ratings include voltage. although not all over current protective devices are required to have this characteristic. Of the three of the ratings.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Functions of Relays: To detect the presence of fault Identify the faulted components Initiate appropriate circuit breaker Remove the effective component from circuit Over‐Current Relay The protection in which the relay picks up when the magnitude of current exceeds the pickup level is known as the over‐current protection. Primary requirements of over‐current protection are: The protection should not operate for starting currents. a serious hazard for equipment and personnel will exist. ampere and interrupting rating. current surges. Hence fast fault clearance is always desirable on short circuits. Earth faults. In order for an over current protective device to operate properly. permissible over current. Short circuits can be Phase faults. Winding faults. Over current includes short‐circuit protection. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . Over current relay is a basic element of over current protection. over current protective device ratings must be properly selected. If the interrupting rating is not properly. perhaps the most important and most often overlooked is the interrupting rating. characteristics tend towards definite time characteristics. desired time delay can be set with the help of an intentional time delay mechanism.1s or less. It is used where there is a reduction in fault current. etc. Extremely Inverse Time over Current Relay: It has more inverse characteristics than that of IDMT and very inverse over‐ current relay. as current exceeds its pick‐up value. It has pick‐up and time dial settings. as the distance from source increases. Inverse Definite Minimum Time over Current Relay: It gives inverse time current characteristics at lower values of fault current and definite time characteristics at higher values. It is widely used for the protection of distribution lines. expensive cables. Definite Time over Current Relay: It operates after a predetermined time. It is particularly effective with ground faults because of their steep characteristics.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Types of Over Current Relay Instantaneous Time over Current Relay: It operates in a definite time when current exceeds its pick‐up value. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . It is suitable for the protection of machines against overheating. for values between 10 and 20. It has operating time is constant. Its operation is independent of the magnitude of current above the pick‐up value. An inverse characteristic is obtained if the value of plug setting multiplier is below 10. Its operating time is constant. In it. Very Inverse Time over Current Relay: It gives more inverse characteristics than that of IDMT. It is for the protection of alternators. there is no intentional time delay. It operates in 0. transformers. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Simulink Diagram in MATLAB for Definite Time Over‐Current Relay ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL Waveform Results in MATLAB for Definite Time Over‐Current Relay ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . It has pick‐up and time dial settings. It is observed that the relay is operated during this fault time which verifies the definite time relay operation.1 second is greater than the delay time 1 second . desired time delay can be set with the help of an intentional time delay mechanism. If the fault is removed in between that time. After that another fault occur from 1 to 2. Relay will operate the circuit breaker if fault occurrence time is greater than the time delay given in the setting.5 second but this fault time is smaller than the time delay 1 second that is why the relay does not operate during this fault. then relay will not operate the circuit breaker. the relay senses the occurrence of fault and check it upto the time delay provided in the setting. ASAD NAEEM 2006‐RCET‐EE‐22 . When any fault occurs in the power system. there is a fault in the system from 0 to 0. Its operation is independent of the magnitude of current above the pick‐up value. Its operating time is constant. The relay modeled in this experiment has a constant time delay of 1 second.POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION LAB MANUAL COMMENTS: As clear from the name. as current exceeds its pick‐up value. now the fault time 1.1 seconds. the definite time over‐current relay operates after a predetermined time. For example in this experiment.
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Report "59926214 Power System Protection Lab Manual"